Image Fundamentals

Digital Image Processing
Digital imaging fundamentals

Massimo Fierro
Department of Computer & Information Communications Engineering
Daegu Catholic University
Daegu, Korea
March 04, 2011
Image size
An image is a multi-dimensional object
2 spatial dimensions: width, height
1 color dimension: number of color channels

Width and height
Width and height are measured in pixel:
bigger size = more imaging space
Color channels
The number of color channels is adimensional.
Common representations:
Red, Green, Blue (display)
Cyan, Yellow, Magenta, K (for printing)
YC
b
C
r
= Luminance, Blue, Red (compression)
N-channels (multi-spectral imaging)
...
M. Fierro, Daegu Catholic University Digital Image Processing, Digital imaging fundamentals 2/49
Image size

Width and height
Color channels
YC
b
C
r
...
Image size

Width and height
Color channels
YC
b
C
r
...
Spatial resolution
Resolution is not size
Resolution is a measure of the smallest detail visible:
higher resolution = more detail
Unit of measure
Resolution only makes sense if you have a unit of measure (e.g. mm)
Common units of resolution
Dots per inch (DPI), common in printing
Lines per inch (LPI), common in device characterization

Spatial resolution
Unit of measure

Spatial resolution
Unit of measure

Spatial resolution examples
Resolution of a camera sensor
Canon APS-C sensor (22.3 x 14.9 mm)
Sensor A: 3456 x 2304 (8 Mpixel)
Sensor B: 3888 x 2592 (10.1 Mpixel)

Images in print
35mm size sensor (36x24 mm)
72 DPI 300 DPI
A 722 x 542 mm 173 x 130 mm
B 1372 x 914 mm 329 x 219 mm
Table: Maximum print size according to DPI
Spatial resolution examples
Resolution of a camera sensor
Canon APS-C sensor (22.3 x 14.9 mm)
Sensor A: 3456 x 2304 (8 Mpixel)
Sensor B: 3888 x 2592 (10.1 Mpixel)

Images in print
35mm size sensor (36x24 mm)
72 DPI 300 DPI
A 722 x 542 mm 173 x 130 mm
B 1372 x 914 mm 329 x 219 mm
Table: Maximum print size according to DPI
Changing spatial resolution
Figure: Same image at 1250, 300, 150, 72 dpi (not true on slides)
Intensity resolution (color depth)
Denition
Intensity resolution = number of distinguishable colors
Common color depths
1 bit = binary (e.g. black and white)
8-bits = 256 levels (e.g. gray-scale)
3 x 8-bits = 16M colors (256 levels for R, G and B)

Intensity resolution (color depth)
Denition
Intensity resolution = number of distinguishable colors
Common color depths
1 bit = binary (e.g. black and white)
8-bits = 256 levels (e.g. gray-scale)
3 x 8-bits = 16M colors (256 levels for R, G and B)

Changing intensity resolution
(a) (b)
Image interpolation
Problem
We have an image and we want to make it bigger (i.e. we want to
increase its width and height).
Missing data
Where do we get the missing data?
Image interpolation
Problem
We have an image and we want to make it bigger (i.e. we want to
increase its width and height).
Missing data
Where do we get the missing data?
Dierent interpolation methods
Nearest neighbor
Use the intensity value of the nearest pixel in the original image
Bilinear interpolation
Use information from the four nearest neighbors
F(x
, y
) = (1 b) [(1 a)F(x, y) + aF(x + 1, y)] +

b [(1 a)F(x, y + 1) + aF(x + 1, y + 1)]
Bicubic interpolation
Use information from the sixteen nearest neighbors
I (x, y) =
3
i =0
3
j =0
a
ij
x
i
y
j
Nearest neighbor
F(x
, y
) = (1 b) [(1 a)F(x, y) + aF(x + 1, y)] +

b [(1 a)F(x, y + 1) + aF(x + 1, y + 1)]
I (x, y) =
3
i =0
3
j =0
a
ij
x
i
y
j
Nearest neighbor
F(x
, y
) = (1 b) [(1 a)F(x, y) + aF(x + 1, y)] +

b [(1 a)F(x, y + 1) + aF(x + 1, y + 1)]
I (x, y) =
3
i =0
3
j =0
a
ij
x
i
y
j
(c) 4x4 grid (d) 4x4 and 12x12 grid
(e) Nearest neighbor (f) Bilinear (g) Bicubic
Interpolation examples
(h) 64x64 (i) 128x128 N.Neigh.
(j) 128x128 Bilin. (k) 128x128 Bicub.
Interpolation examples
Pixel neighbors
4-neighborhood
Given a pixel p = I (x, y), the 4-neighbors are
N
4
(p) = {I (x + 1, y), I (x 1, y), I (x, y + 1), , I (x, y 1)}
Note
If the p is on the border of the image some of the neighbors will be
outside of the image
Pixel neighbors
Diagonal-neighborhood
Given a pixel p = I (x, y), the diagonal-neighbors are
N
D
(p) = {I (x + 1, y + 1), I (x + 1, y 1), I (x 1, y + 1), , I (x 1, y 1)}
Note
Pixel neighbors
8-neighborhood
The 8-neighborhood is given by
N
8
(p) = N
4
N
D
Note
Adjacency
4-adjacency
Given two pixels p = 0, q = 0 they are 4-adjacent if
q N
4
(p) or p N
4
(q)
8-adjacency
Given two pixels p = 0, q = 0 they are 8-adjacent if
q N
8
(p) = p N
8
(q)
m-adjacency
Given two pixels p = 0, q = 0 they are m-adjacent if
q N
4
(p), or
q N
D
(p) and all pixels in N
4
(p) N
4
(q) are zero
Paths (curves)
Denition
A path from a pixel p = (x, y) to a pixel q = (s, t) is
a sequence of adjacent pixels {(x
0
, y
0
), (x
1
, y
1
), ..., (x
n
, y
n
)} such that
(x
0
, y
0
) = (x, y) and (x
n
, y
n
) = (s, t)
Closed path
A path is closed if (x, y) = (x
0
, y
0
) = (x
n
, y
n
) = (s, t)
4- 8- and m-paths
A 4-path is computed using 4-adjacency
A m-path is computed using m-adjacency

Paths (curves)
Denition
0
, y
0
), (x
1
, y
1
), ..., (x
n
, y
n
)} such that
(x
0
, y
0
) = (x, y) and (x
n
, y
n
) = (s, t)
Closed path
0
, y
0
) = (x
n
, y
n
) = (s, t)
4- 8- and m-paths

Paths (curves)
Denition
0
, y
0
), (x
1
, y
1
), ..., (x
n
, y
n
)} such that
(x
0
, y
0
) = (x, y) and (x
n
, y
n
) = (s, t)
Closed path
0
, y
0
) = (x
n
, y
n
) = (s, t)
4- 8- and m-paths

Connected components
Connection
Let S be a subset of pixels in the image.
Two pixels p, q are connected in S if there is a path between them made
entirely of pixels in S
Connected component
For any pixel p S, the set of pixels connected to it are called a
connected component of S
Connected set
If in S there is just one connected component, then S is a connected set
or region.
Connection
Connected component
Connected set
or region.
Connection
Connected component
Connected set
or region.
Connection
Connected component
Connected set
or region.
Examples
(l) Set S
1
(m) Connected compo-
nents in S
1
(n) Set S
2
(o) Region in S
2
Relationships between regions
Adjacent regions
Two regions R
i
, R
j
, in the same image, are adjacent if R
i
R
j
is a region
itself.
Disjoint regions
Two regions R
i
, R
j
, in the same image, are disjoint if they are not
adjacent.
Choice of adjacency
The choice of the adjacency method is extremely important!
Adjacent regions
Two regions R
i
, R
j
i
R
j
is a region
itself.
Disjoint regions
Two regions R
i
, R
j
adjacent.
Choice of adjacency
Adjacent regions
Two regions R
i
, R
j
i
R
j
is a region
itself.
Disjoint regions
Two regions R
i
, R
j
adjacent.
Choice of adjacency
Adjacent regions
Two regions R
i
, R
j
i
R
j
is a region
itself.
Disjoint regions
Two regions R
i
, R
j
adjacent.
Choice of adjacency
Distance measures
Denition
A function D(p, q), where p and q are points in an image, is called a
distance function or distance metric if all the following conditions are
veried
D(p, q) 0
D(p, q) = D(q, p)
D(p, z) D(p, q) + D(q, z)

Euclidean distance
Given p = (p
x
, p
y
) and q = (q
x
, q
y
) the Euclidean distance is
D
e
(p, q) =
(p
x
q
x
)
2
+ (p
y
q
y
)
2
Distance measures
Denition
A function D(p, q), where p and q are points in an image, is called a
distance function or distance metric if all the following conditions are
veried
D(p, q) 0
D(p, q) = D(q, p)
D(p, z) D(p, q) + D(q, z)

Euclidean distance
Given p = (p
x
, p
y
) and q = (q
x
, q
y
) the Euclidean distance is
D
e
(p, q) =
(p
x
q
x
)
2
+ (p
y
q
y
)
2
Distance measures
D
4
distance (alias Manhattan or city block)
Given p = (p
x
, p
y
) and q = (q
x
, q
y
) the Manhattan distance is
D
4
(p, q) = |p
x
q
x
| +|p
y
q
y
|
D
8
distance (alias chessboard)
Given p = I (p
x
, p
y
) and q = I (q
x
, q
y
) the chessboard distance is
D
8
(p, q) = max(|p
x
q
x
|, |p
y
q
y
|)
Distance measures
D
4
distance (alias Manhattan or city block)
Given p = (p
x
, p
y
) and q = (q
x
, q
y
) the Manhattan distance is
D
4
(p, q) = |p
x
q
x
| +|p
y
q
y
|
D
8
distance (alias chessboard)
Given p = I (p
x
, p
y
) and q = I (q
x
, q
y
) the chessboard distance is
D
8
(p, q) = max(|p
x
q
x
|, |p
y
q
y
|)
Matrix vs Array (point by point) operations
Given two matrices a =
a
1,1
a
1,2
a
2,1
a
2,2
and b =
b
1,1
b
1,2
b
2,1
b
2,2
Array product
The array product of a and b is
ab =
a
1,1
a
1,2
a
2,1
a
2,2

b
1,1
b
1,2
b
2,1
b
2,2
a
1,1
b
1,1
a
1,2
b
1,2
a
2,1
b
2,1
a
2,2
b
2,2
Matrix product
The matrix product of a and b is
ab =
a
1,1
a
1,2
a
2,1
a
2,2

b
1,1
b
1,2
b
2,1
b
2,2
a
1,1
b
1,1
+ a
1,2
b
2,1
a
1,1
b
1,2
+ a
1,2
b
2,2
a
2,1
b
1,1
+ a
2,2
b
2,1
a
2,1
b
1,2
+ a
2,2
b
2,2
Matrix vs Array (point by point) operations
Given two matrices a =
a
1,1
a
1,2
a
2,1
a
2,2
and b =
b
1,1
b
1,2
b
2,1
b
2,2
Array product
The array product of a and b is
ab =
a
1,1
a
1,2
a
2,1
a
2,2

b
1,1
b
1,2
b
2,1
b
2,2
a
1,1
b
1,1
a
1,2
b
1,2
a
2,1
b
2,1
a
2,2
b
2,2
Matrix product
The matrix product of a and b is
ab =
a
1,1
a
1,2
a
2,1
a
2,2

b
1,1
b
1,2
b
2,1
b
2,2
a
1,1
b
1,1
+ a
1,2
b
2,1
a
1,1
b
1,2
+ a
1,2
b
2,2
a
2,1
b
1,1
+ a
2,2
b
2,1
a
2,1
b
1,2
+ a
2,2
b
2,2
Linear vs Non-linear operations
Consider operator H such that, given the image f (x, y) as input, it
produces the image g(x, y) as output
H [f (x, y)] = g(x, y)
Linear operations
H is said to be a linear operator if it satises the additivity property, i.e.
H [a
i
f
i
(x, y) + a
j
f
j
(x, y)] = [a
i
f
i
(x, y)] + [a
j
f
j
(x, y)]
= a
i
g
i
(x, y) + a
j
g
j
(x, y)
Non-linear operations
H is said to be a non-linear operator if the additivity property is not
satised
H [f (x, y)] = g(x, y)
Linear operations
H [a
i
f
i
(x, y) + a
j
f
j
(x, y)] = [a
i
f
i
(x, y)] + [a
j
f
j
(x, y)]
= a
i
g
i
(x, y) + a
j
g
j
(x, y)
satised
H [f (x, y)] = g(x, y)
Linear operations
H [a
i
f
i
(x, y) + a
j
f
j
(x, y)] = [a
i
f
i
(x, y)] + [a
j
f
j
(x, y)]
= a
i
g
i
(x, y) + a
j
g
j
(x, y)
satised
Arithmetic Operations
Denition
Arithmetic operations between images are array operations and they can
be written as
s(x, y) = f (x, y) + g(x, y)
d(x, y) = f (x, y) g(x, y)
p(x, y) = f (x, y) g(x, y)
v(x, y) = f (x, y) g(x, y)
Arithmetic Operations
Denition
Arithmetic operations between images are array operations and they can
be written as
s(x, y) = f (x, y) + g(x, y)
d(x, y) = f (x, y) g(x, y)
p(x, y) = f (x, y) g(x, y)
v(x, y) = f (x, y) g(x, y)
Frequent use of image summation: image denoising
Assumptions
Suppose that we have a clean image f (x, y) and some non-correlated
noise (x, y), then g(x, y) = f (x, y) +(x, y) is a noise corrupted image.
Average
If we have multiple noisy images g
i
(x, y), we can obtain f (x, y) by using
the average operation
g(x, y) =
1
K
K
i =1
g
i
(x, y)
Then
E { g(x, y)} = f (x, y)
2
g(x,y)
=
1
K

2
(x,y)
Frequent use of image summation: image denoising
Assumptions
Suppose that we have a clean image f (x, y) and some non-correlated
noise (x, y), then g(x, y) = f (x, y) +(x, y) is a noise corrupted image.
Average
If we have multiple noisy images g
i
(x, y), we can obtain f (x, y) by using
the average operation
g(x, y) =
1
K
K
i =1
g
i
(x, y)
Then
E { g(x, y)} = f (x, y)
2
g(x,y)
=
1
K

2
(x,y)
Image averaging example
Frequent use of image subtraction: visibility enhancement
Frequent use of image multiplication (division): shading
correction
Description
Sometimes the lighting in a scene may be non-uniform, or the camera
lens may present the vignetting phenomenon. This can be easily
corrected if we can model the shading pattern.
Note on data range
Data range problem
The usual data range for 8-bit images is [0, 255]. If we perform
arithmetics on such images, we may end up with values outside that
range (i.e. 15 200 = 175)
Data range solution
After performing arithmetics you should do the following
f
m
= f min(f )
f
s
= K
f
m
max(f
m
)
Note on data precision
Data precision problem
Especially when performing division, you might want better precision
than available by using integer operations.
Data precision solution
1. Convert the data to oating-point
2. Perform arithmetics
3. Convert the data back to integer
Sets
Denition
A set is a collection of elements and it is indicated by a list of all
elements, or a specication of the element characteristics, e.g.
A = {1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 52}
A = {w|w = 2k + 1}
Set membership
If an element a is in set A, then we write
a A
Similarly, if a is not in set A, then we write
a / A
The empty set is denoted by the symbol
Sets
Denition
A set is a collection of elements and it is indicated by a list of all
elements, or a specication of the element characteristics, e.g.
A = {1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 52}
A = {w|w = 2k + 1}
Set membership
If an element a is in set A, then we write
a A
Similarly, if a is not in set A, then we write
a / A
The empty set is denoted by the symbol
Set operations
Union and intersection
The union of sets A and B is
W = A B = {w A or w B}
The intersection of sets A and B is
W = A B = {w A and w B}
Complement and dierence
The complement of a set A is
A
C
= {w|w / A}
The dierence between two sets A and B is
A B = {w A, w / B} = A B
C
Set operations
Union and intersection
The union of sets A and B is
W = A B = {w A or w B}
The intersection of sets A and B is
W = A B = {w A and w B}
Complement and dierence
The complement of a set A is
A
C
= {w|w / A}
The dierence between two sets A and B is
A B = {w A, w / B} = A B
C
Logical operations
Spatial operations
Spatial (image space) operations are divided in three kinds
Single pixel
Neighborhood
Geometric spatial transforms

Single pixel operations
Also known as pixel-by-pixel or pixel-wise operations, they are performed
on every pixel transforming it according to a function
O(x, y) = T(I (x, y))
where O(x, y) is the new intensity and I (x, y) the original intensity value.
Spatial operations
Spatial (image space) operations are divided in three kinds
Single pixel
Neighborhood
Geometric spatial transforms

Single pixel operations
Also known as pixel-by-pixel or pixel-wise operations, they are performed
on every pixel transforming it according to a function
O(x, y) = T(I (x, y))
where O(x, y) is the new intensity and I (x, y) the original intensity value.
Spatial operations
Neighborhood operations
Also known as local operations, they are performed on a sliding
window (i.e. an area that is centered on one pixel at a time)
O(x, y) = T(W(x, y))
where W(x, y) is the set of pixels intensities in the window centered on
pixel (x, y), m is the window width and n is the window height
Neighborhood operation example
Spatial operations
Geometric spatial transformations
Geometric transformations consist of two steps
1. Spatial transformation of coordinates
2. Intensity interpolation
Transformation of coordinates
The transformation of coordinates can be expressed as
(x, y) = T{(v, w)}
where (v, w) are the original coordinates and (x, y) the transformed
ones.
Example: (x, y) = (
v
2
,
w
2
) down-scales the image by a factor 2.
Spatial operations
Geometric transformations consist of two steps
1. Spatial transformation of coordinates
2. Intensity interpolation
Transformation of coordinates
The transformation of coordinates can be expressed as
(x, y) = T{(v, w)}
where (v, w) are the original coordinates and (x, y) the transformed
ones.
Example: (x, y) = (
v
2
,
w
2
) down-scales the image by a factor 2.
Ane transform
The ane transform is a kind of generic transform that can perform
the following operations at the same time
Translation
Rotation
Scaling
Shearing
The ane transform has the following form
x y 1
v w 1
T =
v w 1
t
1,1
t
1,2
0
t
2,1
t
2,2
0
t
3,1
t
3,2
1
where x = vt
1,1
+ wt
2,1
+ t
3,1
and y = vt
1,2
+ wt
2,2
+ t
3,2
Ane transform
The ane transform is a kind of generic transform that can perform
the following operations at the same time
Translation
Rotation
Scaling
Shearing
The ane transform has the following form
x y 1
v w 1
T =
v w 1
t
1,1
t
1,2
0
t
2,1
t
2,2
0
t
3,1
t
3,2
1
where x = vt
1,1
+ wt
2,1
+ t
3,1
and y = vt
1,2
+ wt
2,2
+ t
3,2
Ane transform usage
Image registration
Denition
Image registration is that process that allows to compute the
transformation (usually ane) that separates two images. It is used in
panorama stitching, super-resolution, etc...
Vector and matrix operations
A pixel with multiple values is a vector
Imagine a pixel with red, green and blue values: we can write it as
z =
r
g
b
z
1
z
2
z
3
An image with vector valued pixels is a 3D matrix

If our image has width M and height N, then we can write it as an
M N 3 matrix.
Distance not only in image space
If we want we can compute distances also in color space, or a mix of
image and color space. E.g. the generic formula for the Euclidean
distance (vector norm) is
||b a|| = D(a, b) =
(a
1
b
1
)
2
+ (a
2
b
2
)
2
+ (a
n
b
n
)
2
z =
r
g
b
z
1
z
2
z
3

M N 3 matrix.
||b a|| = D(a, b) =
(a
1
b
1
)
2
+ (a
2
b
2
)
2
+ (a
n
b
n
)
2
z =
r
g
b
z
1
z
2
z
3

M N 3 matrix.
||b a|| = D(a, b) =
(a
1
b
1
)
2
+ (a
2
b
2
)
2
+ (a
n
b
n
)
2
Linear transformations
When using matrix notation it is very easy to express linear
transformations
w = A(b a)
where A has size m n and w, a, b are all column vectors of size n 1
Image as a vector
Another useful representation of an image is that of a MN 1 vector
(assuming one color channel) where each row is a group of N elements of
the vector. Many linear transformations can then be expressed as
g = Hh +n
where H has size MN MN and represents the linear process, f is a
MN 1 vector representing the input image, n is a MN 1 vector
representing noise and g is the output image in vector form. all column
vectors of size n 1
Linear transformations
When using matrix notation it is very easy to express linear
transformations
w = A(b a)
where A has size m n and w, a, b are all column vectors of size n 1
Image as a vector
Another useful representation of an image is that of a MN 1 vector
(assuming one color channel) where each row is a group of N elements of
the vector. Many linear transformations can then be expressed as
g = Hh +n
where H has size MN MN and represents the linear process, f is a
MN 1 vector representing the input image, n is a MN 1 vector
representing noise and g is the output image in vector form. all column
vectors of size n 1
Space transforms
Going into outer space...
There are many dierent space in which image analysis can be
performed. The most well known is the Fourier space, which lies in the
frequency domain instead of the spatial domain.
Foorward T(u, v) transforms
A particular class of 2D linear transforms, known as T(u, v) can be
expressed as
T(u, v) =
M1
x=0
N1
y=0
f (x, y)r (x, y, u, v)
where f (x, y) is the input image, r (x, y, u, v) is called the forward
transformation kernel and 0 u M 1, 0 v N 1. u, v are called
the tranform variables.
Space transforms
Inverse T(u, v) transforms
f (x, y) =
M1
x=0
N1
y=0
T(u, v)s(x, y, u, v)
where s(x, y, u, v) is called the inverse transformation kernel and
0 u M 1, 0 v N 1.
Separable and symmetric transforms
Separable kernel
A kernel is said to be separable if
r (x, y, u, v) = r
1
(x, u)r
2
(y, v)
Symmetric kernel
A separable kernel is said to be symmetric if
r (x, y, u, v) = r
1
(x, u)r
1
(y, v)
Fourier Transform
Forward transform
r (x, y, u, v) = e
i 2(
ux
M
+
vy
N
)
Reverse transform
s(x, y, u, v) =
1
MN
e
i 2(
ux
M
+
vy
N
)
i or j
The book (written by an engineer) uses the letter j to indicate
1, but
I will use the letter i , because it is traditional to mathematics.
Other transforms
There are many other transforms expressed in such form as the Walsh,
Hadamard, Haar, discrete cosine, etc...
Probabilistic methods
Probability of an intensity value in an image
p(z
k
) =
n
k
MN
where z
k
is the k-th intensity level in the image, n
k
is the number of
pixels with intensity k and MN is the total number of pixels.
Sum of probabilities
L
k=1
p(z
k
) = 1
where L is the number of possible levels
Image average (mean): rst moment
m =
L
k=1
z
k
p(z
k
)
Probabilistic methods
Image variance: second moment
2
=
L
k=1
(z
k
m)
2
p(z
k
)
n-th statistical moment
n
(z) =
L
k=1
(z
k
m)
n
p(z
k
)

Image Fundamentals

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Digital Image Processing

Digital imaging fundamentals

2 spatial dimensions: width, height

1 color dimension: number of color channels

Red, Green, Blue (display)

Cyan, Yellow, Magenta, K (for printing)

N-channels (multi-spectral imaging)

2 spatial dimensions: width, height

1 color dimension: number of color channels

Red, Green, Blue (display)

Cyan, Yellow, Magenta, K (for printing)

N-channels (multi-spectral imaging)

2 spatial dimensions: width, height

1 color dimension: number of color channels

Red, Green, Blue (display)

Cyan, Yellow, Magenta, K (for printing)

N-channels (multi-spectral imaging)

Dots per inch (DPI), common in printing

Lines per inch (LPI), common in device characterization

Dots per inch (DPI), common in printing

Lines per inch (LPI), common in device characterization

Dots per inch (DPI), common in printing

Lines per inch (LPI), common in device characterization

Sensor A: 3456 x 2304 (8 Mpixel)

Sensor B: 3888 x 2592 (10.1 Mpixel)

Sensor A: 3456 x 2304 (8 Mpixel)

Sensor B: 3888 x 2592 (10.1 Mpixel)

1 bit = binary (e.g. black and white)

8-bits = 256 levels (e.g. gray-scale)

3 x 8-bits = 16M colors (256 levels for R, G and B)

1 bit = binary (e.g. black and white)

8-bits = 256 levels (e.g. gray-scale)

3 x 8-bits = 16M colors (256 levels for R, G and B)

) = (1 b) [(1 a)F(x, y) + aF(x + 1, y)] +

) = (1 b) [(1 a)F(x, y) + aF(x + 1, y)] +

) = (1 b) [(1 a)F(x, y) + aF(x + 1, y)] +

A 4-path is computed using 4-adjacency

A 8-path is computed using 8-adjacency

A m-path is computed using m-adjacency

A 4-path is computed using 4-adjacency

A 8-path is computed using 8-adjacency

A m-path is computed using m-adjacency

A 4-path is computed using 4-adjacency

A 8-path is computed using 8-adjacency

A m-path is computed using m-adjacency

D(p, z) D(p, q) + D(q, z)

D(p, z) D(p, q) + D(q, z)

Geometric spatial transforms

Geometric spatial transforms

An image with vector valued pixels is a 3D matrix

An image with vector valued pixels is a 3D matrix

An image with vector valued pixels is a 3D matrix

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