Experiment 1: Introductory Experiments

Density of Matter
The density of a material is an intrinsic quantity given by = M/V , where M is the mass of the
material and V is the volume of the material. In this exercise you will use vernier calipers and the balances
to measure the density of various sets of materials. Each material set includes four pieces of various
sizes. Start with one of the aluminum cylinders and measure (using the vernier caliper and balance) the
dimensions and the mass of the cylinder. Note, that each of the measurements must be repeated at least
3 times and by each of the students in your group. Repeat this whole procedure for all of the aluminum
cylinders. Choose one other set of materials and repeat this experiment. The materials in the set include
the following: maple, polypropylene, nylon, acrylic, polyurethane, phenolic, pvc, teon, and aluminum.
Obtain an average density for aluminum from your data (remember to properly take into account
errors) and create a graph of mass vs. volume. Find the tabulated value for the density of aluminum and
compare to your results. Explain any dierence. Repeat this for the other materials you measured. Write
a brief description of the material you used. For example, describe its color, translucence, opacity, and
texture.
Hookes Law
This experiment is intentionally very basic in order to allow the student time to become acquainted
with using a computer to write a laboratory report and to familiarize them with the Data Studio software.
Pretend you are living in the 1600s. Robert Hooke has just proposed his empirical relation for springs
known as Hookes Law,
F = kx (1)
Very simply, this means the extension or compression of a spring, x, is linearly proportional to the
magnitude of the force (F) that is exerted upon it. The negative sign indicates that the direction of the
restoring force F is always opposite to the direction of the extension/compression x and the proportionality
constant is k (the spring constant). You are a scientist at another university and are excitedly trying to
reproduce his results. Quite frankly, you think the relation is too simple and you want to prove Hooke
wrong so your name can be indelibly inscribed in every general physics book of the 21
st
century.
In your laboratory, you have springs, dierent weights, rulers, and a force sensor. You know enough
about gravity to conclude that the force exerted downward by a mass is directly proportional to the mass.
To measure this force, we will use the force sensor. The force sensor can measure the pulling or pushing
force exerted on it. To set it up, connect the force sensor to the Science Workshop 750 interface and start
up the Data Studio software on the computer. Choose the correct sensor from the sensor menu (ask your
TA about using this software in your experiment). Under the display settings in data studio you can choose
digits to view to force value or graph to plot the force as a function of time. Click start to collect
data. Note: before collecting any data, press the zero/tare button to set the sensor to zero.
With these materials devise an experiment that will allow you to test Hookes Law and nd the spring
constant (k). Show your proposed procedure to the Lab Instructor and explain the data you plan to
acquire. Include in your procedure the exact details of how you will analyze your data to test Hookes
Law. In your lab report, include a graph of Force versus x. What does the slope of this graph represent?
1
There are several questions that you should answer in your lab write-up:
1. Does Hookes Law depend on the spring being used?
2. Does Hookes Law hold for very large forces?
Tips To Write Laboratory Reports
The last part of this laboratory exercise will actually be done on your own. Since everyone is required to
type their own laboratory reports, you will need to develop basic prociency with: a word processor with an
equation editor and a spreadsheet with graphing and at least linear regression capabilities. Openoce.org
has free programs which meet these criteria and they can be used on any operating system platform. If you
prefer to use other programs of these types, that is also acceptable. The Teaching Assistant will explain
the proper lab-report format. You can nd a sample lab report here: http://agni.phys.iit.edu/
~
bcps/
labs/resources/sample.pdf.
There are a few things that you must know to be able to eciently write a polished laboratory report:
1. You should learn how to properly include (typeset) mathematical equations and Greek symbols.
2. You will be repeatedly required to t your data with a best-t straight line. You must know how to
do this, including extracting the values of the slope, the y-intercept, and the goodness-of-t value
(R
2
). R
2
ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 is a bad t and 1 is a perfect t. The R
2
value gives you an
idea of how well the straight line represents your data points. R
2
is dened as:
R
2
=

(y
fit
i
y)
2

(y
fit
i
y
i
)
2
(2)
where y
i
are the experimental data, y
fit
i
are the t values and y =

y
i
/N is the mean of the
experimental data. Note that this is not the same as drawing a line graph, which simply connects
your data points with straight lines.
3. Find out how repeated calculations can be done faster using a spreadsheet. For example, if T =
1
2
mv
2
,
and you have 12 dierent measured values of v, learn how to make all of the calculations automatically.
4. Be careful with the number of signicant gures you present in your report. This includes the data
tables you present as part of your raw data and analysis. Figure out how to limit the number of
signicant gures or decimal places of the numbers you show.
5. Try including a graph whenever possible. Graphs are a great way of explaining your data and showing
relationships you have obtained in the experiment. For example, try making a graph of F vs x for
your Hookes Law experiment, and then interpret the slope.
6. Always check your sig-gs and units in data tables and graphs and label axes correctly on your
graphs.
2
Experiment 2: Projectile Motion
In this lab we will study two dimensional projectile motion of an object in free fall - that is, an object
that is launched into the air and then moves under the inuence of gravity alone. Examples of projectiles
include rockets, baseballs, reworks, and the steel balls that will be used in this lab. To describe projectile
motion, such as the trajectory (path), we will use a coordinate system where the y-axis is vertically
upward and the x-axis is horizontal and in the direction of the initial launch (or initial velocity). To
simplify projectile motion, we assume that the gravitational acceleration (g=9.8 m/s
2
) is constant, such
that a
x
= 0 and a
y
= g, and we will ignore any air resistance. The equations of motion in the x and y
directions for a projectile launched with a velocity v
0
at an are given as
v
x
= v
x0
(1)
x = x
0
+ v
x0
t (2)
v
y
= v
y0
gt (3)
y = y
0
+ v
y0
t
1
2
gt
2
(4)
where t is the time, and g is taken to be positive. The components of the initial velocity v
0
are
v
x0
= v
0
cos() and v
y0
= v
0
sin().
Experimental Objectives
In this lab you are given a mini-launcher, a time of ight sensor (TOF) pad, steel balls, carbon paper,
a plumb-bob and rulers. The mini-launcher is equipped with a photogate sensor that is connected to
the time of ight sensor: When a steel ball passes through the photogate sensor, it starts a timer in the
PASCO/Data Studio system that records the time it takes for the ball to hit the TOF sensor pad. The
total time of ight can be displayed using the Digits option under the display section in the Data Studio
software. The mini-launcher can be cocked to 3 dierent position settings and can therefore release the
ball with three dierent initial velocities. The protractor on the side of the mini-launcher can give you
any desired launch angle. The carbon paper will be used to mark where the projectile lands, giving you
an accurate measurement of the total horizontal distance traveled. With this equipment, complete the
following experiments (please read the warning at the bottom before doing the experiment):
Using the set-up shown in Figure 1, determine the initial velocities of the ball released for the rst two
ring settings, that is, the rst two clicks. Measure the distance between the base of the platform
to the TOF sensor accurately by using the plumb-bob to align the sensor with the trajectory. In
order to minimize random errors, it is very important that all of your measurements be performed
several times.
Devise an experiment to measure the relationship between the range (horizontal distance of the
projectile motion) and the launch angle. Experimentally show which angle gives you the longest
range. What is the range and total time for the dierent velocity settings when = 0

?
1
!
d
ymax
TOF
H
Figure 1: A projectile is launched at an angle o a platform with height H above the around. The
projectile lands the on time of ight sensor (TOF), a distance d away from the base of the platform.
Devise an experiment to measure the acceleration due to gravity using the TOF sensor, assuming you
do not know the initial velocities of the launcher (Hint: try a free-fall experiment). Do enough trials
to reasonably compare your results with the accepted value of g = 9.80 m/s
2
. What are possible
sources of error for this experiment?
WARNING: THE PROJECTILE LAUNCHER CAN SHOOT STEEL BALLS AT HIGH VELOCITIES.
IF A PROJECTILE WERE TO HIT YOU IN THE FACE IT COULD CAUSE PERMANENT DAM-
AGE! ALWAYS WEAR SAFETY GOGGLES WHEN OPERATING THE LAUNCHER! NEVER FIRE
THE LAUNCHER WHEN SOMEONE IS DIRECTLY IN FRONT OF THE LAUNCHER, NO MATTER
HOW FAR AWAY THEY SEEM TO BE! NEVER EVER POINT THE LAUNCHER AT YOUR FACE!
VIOLATING ANY OF THESE SAFETY RULES WILL RESULT IN LOST POINTS AND A POSSIBLE
EXPULSION FROM THE LABORATORY. HORSEPLAY IS NOT TOLERATED AT ALL! REMEM-
BER, IT IS ONLY FUNNY UNTIL SOMEONE LOSES AN EYE! AND PLEASE DO NOT STEP ON
THE TIME OF FLIGHT SENSOR PAD.
A full lab report is not necessary for this lab. Answer the questions on the following page and turn it
in with your signed datasheet.
2
PHYS 123, Lab 2 Questions
Name: CWID:
Write your answers on a separate sheet and attach your signed datasheet when turning it in. You must
show all of your work for full credit. Make it clear to me you understand what youre doing. Any graphs
or tables should be made via computer software and attached to this handout.
1. Answer the following questions using the data you acquired in this experiment:
(a) What are the two initial velocities for the rst two ring settings (the rst two clicks)? Make
a table consisting of the initial velocities, its components v
x
and v
y
, the launch angles, the time
of ight, and the horizontal range.
(b) Consider the angle that gave you the longest range. What is the maximum height (y
max
) reached
at this angle? What is the overall maximum height reached in your experimental data? Which
angle gave you the maximum height?
(c) Make a graph of launch angle vs. horizontal range for the second experiment. Label the axes
appropriately with correct units.
(d) For the third experiment, how do your measured values of the gravitational acceleration compare
to the accepted value of g = 9.8 m/s
2
? What are possible sources of error for this experiment?
(e) If the steel ball is shot vertically upward, how long would it take for it to hit the oor below?
Calculate for both initial velocities.
2. Ideally, what kind of mathematical curve is the projectile motion trajectory? Describe two examples
of projectile motion which you have observed or experienced outside of this physics lab that follow
this mathematical curve.
3. Are there two dierent launch angles that would give you the same range? How about the same
height? Explain.
4. If the steel ball is shot horizontally o the table, how much time would it take the ball to hit the
ground for each of the velocity settings of the launcher? Explain your answer using the equations of
motion and your experimental data. How does this relate to the ball being dropped vertically from
the table top to the oor below?
3
Experiment 3: Newtons 2nd Law
In 1608, Galileo Galilei wanted to investigate the motion of falling objects. However, the objects fell
too fast making it extremely dicult to measure their velocities and accelerations. His solution was to roll
the objects down an inclined plane, thereby controlling the eective velocities, accelerations, times and
forces. By the use of a frictionless air-track, we can make an even simpler system than Galileos and use it
to test Newtons second law of motion, F=ma. Our setup, similar to Galileos, will have an object sliding
down a frictionless inclined plane, as shown in Figure 1:
Fnet
W
!
Figure 1: An object with weight W slides down a frictionless incline plane at an angle with respect to
the horizontal direction.
The object we will use is a glider whose weight, W, can be varied by slotting on more mass. There
are two forces acting on the glider: the weight pointing vertically downward and a normal force N pointing
perpendicular to the inclined plane. The weight of the glider can be resolved into horizontal and vertical
components with respect to the surface of the incline, as shown by the red dashed lines of Figure 1. Since
only motion along the incline is permitted, the component of the weight along the incline, F
net
, is the
eective force applied to the glider. According Newtons second law
a =
F
net
m
(1)
where m is the mass of the glider. This is the relation you will be testing with your experiments. By
looking at the free body diagram of the sliding mass (see Figure 2), we can write the x and y components
of the acceleration as
a
x
=
F
x
m
=
mgsin
m
(2)
a
y
=
F
y
m
=
N mgcos
m
(3)
1
F
net
W=mg
!
N
x
y
Figure 2: Freebody diagram for the sliding glider.
Thus the acceleration of the glider along the incline can be calculated by knowing the angle . The
acceleration can also be determined by measuring the instantaneous velocity experimentally and making
use of the kinematic relation between acceleration and instantaneous velocity:
a =
v
2
v
2
o
2x
(4)
where x is the distance travelled, v
o
is the initial velocity and v is the nal velocity. The instantaneous
velocity of a glider is measured (via Data Studio) by timing how long it takes the glider, with a ag of
known length, to pass through a photogate: v=L/t ,where L is the length of the gliders ag and t
is the time to pass through the photogate. The computer system and Data Studio program will directly
calculate the velocity of the glider as it passes through the photogate, provided that you insert the correct
ag length, L, before you start the program.
Experimental Objectives
In this laboratory you have an air track, a glider, a photogate, wooden blocks to change the angle of
incline, rulers, and dierent weights that can be placed onto the glider. The photogate is connected to a
computer data acquisition system and velocity data can be collected using the Data Studio software (see
manual or ask your TA about using this software in your experiment).
Devise an experimental procedure to test Newtons second law (Eq. 1) assertion that the acceleration
is proportional to the eective force applied to the glider. Take a thorough set of measurements which
will permit you to calculate the acceleration as a function of the eective force applied. Make sure
that you have consistent data and report error bars in your data analysis. Include appropriate graphs
which summarize your results.
Devise an experimental procedure to prove to yourselves that it is impossible to use a simple inclined
plane to test the assertion that the acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass. Why is this
so?
2
In order to minimize random errors, it is very important that each of your measurements to be per-
formed several times. Show error bars on your graphs. Make sure that you discuss all possible sources of
systematic error in your experiments. In particular, think about and discuss whether the photogate system
is measuring the true instantaneous velocity. Make sure to record all of the dierent masses, lengths, and
angles you used and the velocities you obtained from the photogate.
Questions
Answer these questions in your lab report. Show all work.
1. Calculate the accelerations using Equations 2 and 4 for the two experiments. Compare your results.
2. Derive an expression for the normal force. Do a sample calculation of the normal force for one of your
data sets. What happens to the normal force if the incline angle is completely vertical ( = 90

)?
How about when horizontal?
3. Select one of the velocities you obtained from the second experiment. If the glider goes up the incline
with that initial velocity, how far up the plane will it go? How much time would it take for the glider
to return to the starting point?
3
Experiment 4: Newtons 2nd Law - Incline Plane and Pulley
In this lab we will further investigate Newtons 2nd law of motion by using an incline-pulley system.
The incline-pulley system, shown in Figure 1, can be classied as a simple machine, that is, one of the
classic elementary devices that more complicated and advanced machines are built around. As shown in
Figure 1, the acceleration of the mass along the inclined plane (M
1
) can be controlled by using a hanging
counterweight (M
2
) over the pully and/or varying the angle of the incline. The free body diagrams for the
two masses are shown in Figure 2. We will use the airtrack to create a frictionless plane and also assume
that the pulley is frictionless with uniform tension in the string. With these assumptions, the acceleration
of the two masses are the same (a
1,x
= a
2,y
). Applying Newtons second law,

F = ma, to the freebody

diagram, we can write a system of equations describing the motion of the two masses:
m
1
a = T m
1
gsin (1)
m
2
a = m
2
g T (2)
Solving these equations for the acceleration:
a =
(M
2
M
1
sin())g
M
1
+ M
2
(3)
!
M1
M2
Figure 1: A mass M
1
slides along a frictionless incline of angle with a counterweight M
2
passing over a
pulley.
1
W1 = m1g
!
N
x y
T
W2 = m2g
T
y
x
a2,y
a1,x
Figure 2: Freebody diagram for the two masses.
Experimental Objectives
The objective of the lab is to experimentally test the theoretical acceleration (Eq. 3) and to study the
relationship between mass and acceleration using a simple machine. In this lab, M
1
will be a glider cart
whose velocity can be measured using a photogate, similar to the previous lab. The acceleration of the cart
can be determined from the velocity by using kinematic equations of motion. Thus, you can obtain the
acceleration of the cart using the Data Studio software and then compare it with theoretical calculations
of Equation 3.
Devise an experimental procedure to test the theoretical acceleration (Equation 3) of the incline-
pulley system. Remember to record all of your variables thoroughly and each of your measurements
should be performed several times to minimize any errors. Compare your measurements with the
theoretical calculations.
Devise an experiment that could verify the inverse proportionality of the acceleration and the mass.
Think of how you could achieve a consistent (not necessarily constant) applied force, independent of
the mass of the glider. You do not necessarily have to know the details of the force, just make sure
it is the same for all experiments.
A full lab report is not necessary for this lab. Answer the questions on the following page and turn it
in with your signed datasheet.
2
PHYS 123, Lab 4 Questions
Name: CWID:
Write your answers on a separate sheet and attach your signed datasheet when turning it in. You must
show all of your work for full credit. Make it clear to me you understand what youre doing. Any graphs
or tables should be made via computer software and attached to this worksheet.
1. Answer the following questions using the data you acquired in this experiment:
(a) For the rst experiment, create a data table for the dierent masses (M
1
, M
2
), the incline
angles, the velocities and accelerations obtained from the computer software, and the theoretical
accelerations using Equation 3 of the lab manual.
(b) How do your measurements compare with the theoretical calculations? What are the sources of
error?
(c) Make a graph of experimental acceleration (a
exp
) versus (M
2
M
1
sin())/(M
1
+M
2
). Explain
the slope.
(d) Make a plot of your data that shows the inverse proportionality for the second experiment.
Briey comment on the slope.
(e) Can friction truly be ignored in this experiment? Explain using your data.
2. Why is it important that the string connecting the masses be parallel with the air track?
3. In 1589 Galileo dropped two dierent masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa and observed their
time of ights to be independent of mass. How does Galileos freefall experiment relate to the second
experiment if there was no applied force? How does the addition of an applied force change things?
3
Experiment 5: Atwoods Machine
In 1784, George Atwood created a device to calculate force and tension and to verify the laws of motion
of objects under constant acceleration. His device, now known as an Atwoods Machine, consisted of two
masses, m
1
and m
2
, connected by a tight string that passes over a pulley, as seen in Figure 1. When the
masses are equal, the pulley system is in equilibrium, i.e. balanced. When the masses are not equal, both
masses will experience an acceleration (indicated with red arrows in Figure 1). For simplication, we will
assume the ideal pulley scenario, where the mass of the string is negligible and we ignore any frictional
eects acting on the pulley. With these assumptions, the accelerations a
1
and a
2
are equal.
m
1
m
2
a
2
a
1
Figure 1: An Atwood Machine.
When m
1
> m
2
, the sign convention used is such that m
1
accelerates in the downwards y direction
and m
2
moves upwards. Here we let the acceleration be positive. On the other hand, if m
1
< m
2
, we will
set the acceleration as negative. With this convention, we can derive a system of equations describing the
acceleration of each mass by applying Newtons second law, F = ma, to each mass individually. Looking
at the free body diagrams for the masses of the Atwood machine (see Figure 2), we can write the forces as
m
1
a = m
1
g T (1)
m
2
a = T m
2
g (2)
where T is the tension in the string and g is the acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8 m/s
2
).
1
m
1
m
2
a
a T
T
W
1
W
2
Figure 2: Free body diagrams for the masses of the Atwood Machine. The tension T is shown in blue and
the weight of each mass W is in green. Note that the tensions are the same and the direction of motion is
indicated by red arrows.
Solving our system of equations for the acceleration:
a =
(m
1
m
2
)g
m
1
+ m
2
(3)
The numerator (m
1
m
2
)g is the net force causing the system to accelerate, and the denominator
(m
1
+ m
2
) is the total mass being accelerated. Thus,
a =
F
net
M
total
(4)
Experimental Objectives
The object of this lab is to study Newtons laws of motion and to measure the acceleration due to
gravity using the Atwood machine. In this lab you are given various masses, string and a smart pulley
that allows you to calculate and graph the position, velocity and the acceleration of the masses of the
Atwoods machine. To measure the acceleration using the pulley, you must select the smart pulley
sensor in Data Studio and then view the velocity vs. time graph of each run/trial. You will notice a
steady linear increase of the velocity as the mass falls, followed by sharp drop as the mass comes to a rest.
Highlight the appropriate region when the mass is free falling and then select linear t from the t tab.
This will give you the slope of the line which is a direct measurement of the acceleration.
2
Devise an experimental procedure to measure the acceleration of the masses on the Atwoods machine
for 5 dierent mass combinations of m
1
and m
2
, but keeping the sum of the masses m
1
+m
2
constant.
That is, if you decrease m
1
by a set amount, increase the other mass (m
2
) so that the total mass is
always the same. You should compare the measured accelerations with those calculated from Eq. 3.
Verify that a plot of F vs a will give you a straight line with a slope equal to the total mass (see Eq.
4). Dont forget to include error bars on your graph.
Devise an experiment to measure the gravitational acceleration constant g. Hint: use the equations
of motion ( i.e. y = 1/2at
2
+ v
0
t + y
0
), measuring the acceleration (a) and time (t) via Data Studio.
Do at least 6 dierent runs where one mass is held constant while the other mass increases by 10 g
increments.
Make a plot of a vs (m
1
m
2
)/(m
1
+ m
2
) in your lab report. Explain what the slope of this graph
represents.
Questions
Answer these questions in your lab report. Show all work.
1. Calculate the tensions in the string for the second experiment.
2. What is the relationship between the acceleration and the total mass when the force is held constant?
3. How do these measurements compare with calculations using equation 3? What sources of error
are most likely the cause of the discrepancies between your experimental data and your theoretical
calculations? How well does the ideal pulley scenario hold? Explain.
3
Experiment 6: Friction
In previous labs we studied Newtons laws in an ideal setting, that is, one where friction and air
resistance were ignored. However, from our everyday experience with motion, we know that friction must
be taken into account for a realistic description of practical situations - it is something we cannot ignore.
Frictional forces act between two surfaces and oppose their relative motion. They occur because of surface
irregularities, such as defects, and molecular forces (or bonds) between the materials. In this lab we will
study frictional forces between various objects on dierent types of surfaces.
There are two types of friction: kinetic and static. Kinetic friction is the friction between surfaces in
relative motion. When sliding an object across another surface, microscopic bumps and defects tend to
impede and resist the motion (even the smoothest surfaces are rough on the microscopic scale). This is the
type of force that brings a rolling ball to rest or a coasting car to a stop. Experimentally, it is observed
that the force of kinetic friction is proportional to the normal force acting between the surfaces: if you
increase the normal force, the surfaces are crushed more together, increasing the contact area, and thus
increasing the frictional force. Mathematically we can write the force of kinetic friction as
F
k
=
k
F
N
(1)
where F
N
is the normal force between the two surfaces in contact with one another and
k
is the coecient
of kinetic friction. The coecient of kinetic friction is a dimensionless quantity (no units) that depends
on the properties of the two surfaces.
k
ranges from 0.01 for very smooth surfaces to 1.5 for very rough
surfaces. So, for example, if we want to push an object with constant speed on a very smooth horizontal
surface (such as ice), we must apply around 1% of its weight, whereas if we wanted to push the object on
rough surface (dry concrete) we might need to push the object with greater force than its own weight.
Static friction describes the frictional forces between the surfaces of two objects that are at rest with
respect to each other. The static friction between the two surfaces is described by the coecient of static
friction
s
. Experimentally, is it found that the maximum value for the static frictional force is proportional
to the normal force between the two surfaces. Thus the static frictional force F
s
is
F
s

s
F
N
(2)
Since the objects are at rest with one another, more molecular bonds are able to form making the
object harder to move and so greater force is needed to start motion when compared to the kinetic friction
case. Therefore
s
is generally greater than
k
. Graphically, this is shown in Figure 1: As you increase
the force, the static friction force increases linearly until the applied force F equals
s
F
N
. After this point
the object breaks away and the friction force falls to the kinetic friction value.
1
no
motion
sliding
fr
F
fr = !sFN
0
kinetic
static
Figure 1: Force of friction (fr) as a function of an external force F applied to an object that is initially at
rest.
Experimental Objectives
The purpose of this lab is to construct a relationship between frictional forces and the normal force on
an object, to calculate the kinetic and static coecients of friction for various objects and surfaces and to
ultimately gain a solid understanding of static vs kinetic friction.
In this lab you are given a pulley sensor that can measure acceleration, a force sensor, string, friction
carts with dierent surfaces (cork, felt, and plastic), and dierent surfaces (sheet of aluminum, construction
paper, and the table top) to drag the carts on.
1: Coecient of Kinetic Friction
To study and calculate various coecients of kinetic friction, we will use a pulley system as shown in
Figure 2(a). The pulley (a smart pulley) is equipped with a sensor that allows you to measure and graph
the velocity of the masses as a function of time via the Data Studio software. With the velocity graph you
can obtain the acceleration of the mass system by nding the slope of the appropriate linear t, similar
to the Atwood lab (lab 5). Looking at the free body diagrams of our system (Figure 2(b)), we can write
Newtons second law for each mass as
m
1
a = T fr (3)
m
2
a = m
2
g T (4)
Here we have assumed that the accelerations of the two masses are same by neglecting any frictional eects
on the pulley making the tension in the string uniform. The kinetic frictional force fr is given by
fr =
k
F
N
=
k
m
1
g (5)
2
m
2
a
m
1
(a)
m
2
a
T
W2
m
1
T
W1
fr
FN
a
(b)
Figure 2: (a) Pulley system used to calculate u
k
. (b) Free body diagrams for the pulley setup. W
i
is the
weight of the object and fr is the frictional force.
The system of equations (Eqs. 3-4) can be solved for the acceleration in terms of the masses (m
1
, m
2
),
g, and
k
a =
(m
2

k
m
1
)g
m
1
+m
2
(6)
Devise an experiment to calculate
k
for various surfaces, making use of the smart pulley system, the
friction carts, and the dierent surfaces. Take measurements with all 3 carts (felt, plastic, and cork)
on one of the surfaces. Use up to 3 dierent masses for each cart. Remember to do several trials for
each run to obtain consistent data.
2: Coecient of Static Friction
To measure the static coecient of friction
s
we will use the force sensor. The force sensor records
the pulling (or pushing) in Newtons via the Data Studio software. Connect the force sensor to one of the
friction carts using string. With no force on the sensor press, the zero (tare) button before taking any
measurements (this should only be performed once). Open the graph under the display section in Data
Studio.
With the force sensor setup and attached to the cart, start to slowly and carefully pull on the cart
on of the surfaces while monitoring the force value with the graph. You want to record the minimum
force needed for the friction cart to break away and start moving. Your graph should look similar
to Figure 1 (note: depending on the force sensor setup, your graph might be upside down!). Have
every member of the lab group try this. Repeat this procedure for all the friction carts (felt, plastic,
cork) using at least 5 dierent masses for each cart.
3
3: Coecient of Kinetic Friction by Force Sensor
We can check our
k
values obtained from the rst experiment by making use of the force sensor.
Devise and experiment to measure the coecient of kinetic friction using the force sensor. Record
the force, normal force and obtain
k
graphically. How do your values compare with those from
experiment 1? Repeat this experiment for the various carts with 3 dierent masses. Hint: This part
may be dicult at rst, but draw a free body diagram of the cart and force sensor and then convince
yourself why you want the cart to move with a constant velocity (look at the velocity graph as a
guide).
A full lab report is not necessary for this lab. Answer the questions on the following page and turn it
in with your signed datasheet.
4
PHYS 123, Lab 6 Questions
Name: CWID:
Write your answers on a separate sheet and attach your signed datasheet when turning it in. You must
show all of your work for full credit. Make it clear to me you understand what youre doing. Any graphs
or tables should be made via computer software and attached to this handout.
1. Answer the following questions using the data you acquired in this experiment:
(a) For the rst experiment, create a data table for the dierent masses (M
1
, M
2
), the acceleration,
and the calculated coecient of friction
k
. Remember to label the cart types (felt, cork, plastic)
in your table and describe the surface.
(b) Do your measured values of
k
make sense? Compare them with sample coecients of friction
(for various materials) found in your textbook.
(c) For the second experiment, what is the force that you are measuring? Create a plot of this
measured force vs the normal force of the friction cart. Find its slope and explain what it
represents.
(d) For the third experiment, make a data table consisting of the cart masses, any applied force,
and the normal force. Using your data, create a graph that represents the coecient of friction.
(e) How does your coecient of friction from the third experiment compare with the one you
obtained from the rst experiment? What are the sources of error?
5
Experiment 7: Conservation of Energy
One of the most important and useful concepts in mechanics is that of Conservation of Energy. In
this experiment, you will make measurements to demonstrate the conservation of mechanical energy and
its transformation between kinetic energy and potential energy.
The Total Mechanical Energy, E, of a system is dened as the sum of the Kinetic Energy, K, and the
Potential Energy, U:
E = K + U. (1)
If the system is isolated, with only conservative forces acting on its parts, the total mechanical energy of
the system is a constant. The mechanical energy can, however, be transformed between its kinetic and
potential forms. cannot be destroyed. Rather, the energy is transmitted from one form to another. Any
change in the kinetic energy will cause a corresponding change in the potential energy, and vice versa. The
conservation of energy then dictates that,
K + U = 0 (2)
where K is the change in the kinetic energy, and U is the change in potential energy.
Potential energy is a form of stored energy and is a consequence of the work done by a force. Examples
of forces which have an associated potential energy are the gravitational and the electromagnetic elds
and, in mechanics, a spring. In a sense potential energy is a storage system for energy. For a body moving
under the inuence of a force F, the change in potential energy is given by
U =

f
i

F

ds (3)
where i and f represent the initial and nal positions of the body, respectively. Hence, from Equation 2
we have what is commonly referred to as the work-kinetic energy theorem:
K =

f
i

F

ds (4)
Consider a body of mass m, being accelerated by a compressed spring. As you veried in the rst
experiment of the semester, the force exerted by a spring is given by Hookes Law, F = -kx. Thus, from
Equation 2, the change in potential energy as a spring is stretched or compressed is:
U =

x
f
x
i
(kx)dx =
1
2
k(x
2
f
x
2
i
) (5)
If we let the initial position x
i
= 0 (the springs equilibrium position and where its potential energy is
dened to be zero) and set x
f
= x, Equation 5 becomes
U =
1
2
kx
2
(6)
where we have now dened a potential energy function, U, for the spring. The change in kinetic energy of
a body (Equation 4) under the acceleration of a force F = ma is given by:
K =

x
f
x
i
(ma)dx =

x
f
x
i
(m
dv
dt
)dx =

v
f
v
i
mdv =
1
2
m(v
2
f
v
2
i
) (7)
1
If the initial velocity of the mass is zero, then the kinetic energy at any given time is
K =
1
2
mv
2
(8)
where v is the instantaneous velocity of the body. Note that this derivation is for any general force F, and
not just that specic to the spring. You can do the same derivation for the gravitational potential energy
of an object at a height y by noting the force is F=mg and thus obtaining
U = mgy (9)
where the potential energy is chosen to be zero at height y=0.
Experimental Objectives
In the laboratory you have an air track, glider, photogate, a spring launcher, a scale, wooden blocks,
ruler, and a set of weights that can be placed on the glider. The photogate is connected to a computer
data acquisition system and velocity data can be collected using the Datastudio software, similar to Lab
3 (see manual or ask your TA about using this software in this experiment). Using this equipment:
Devise an experimental procedure to observe how the potential energy of the spring launcher is
converted to kinetic energy in the motion of the glider for dierent masses of the glider and dierent
compressions of the spring. Determine if friction can truly be neglected in this system. Remember to
record all of your variables thoroughly and each of your measurements should be performed several
times to minimize any errors.
Devise an experimental procedure to observe the transfer of potential energy from the spring launcher
to gravitational potential energy of the glider. Verify energy conservation for this case. Dont forget
to measure the spring constant. Summarize your results in your lab report with detailed data tables
and create appropriate graphs. Make sure that you have consistent data and report error bars in
your data analysis.
2
Experiment 8: Mechanical Energy
In this lab we will study and investigate the concepts of potential energy, kinetic energy, conservative
forces and the conservation of energy in more detail. Potential energy is energy that is associated with and
attributed to the conguration, position and arrangement of particles within an object that experiences a
conservative force F(x). A conservative force is a force that does zero work on a closed path. That is, the
work done by conservative force in going from point A to point B is independent of the path from A to B.
Examples of conservative forces include gravity and the spring force. When a conservative force does work
W on an object, the change in the potential energy U is
U = W (1)
If an object moves from x
0
to x
f
, the change in potential energy is
U =

x
f
x
0
F(x)dx (2)
For a spring we can use Hookes law, F = kx, to obtain its potential energy from Equation 1:
U =
1
2
kx
2
(3)
where k is the spring constant and x is the displacement of the spring from its rest state. Gravitational
potential energy of an object of mass m at a height y is treated in the same manner by noting the force is
F = mg and thus resulting in
U = mgy (4)
Here the potential energy is chosen to be zero at height y=0.
Experimental Methods and Objectives
Part 1: In this experiment you are given a frictionless horizontal airtrack, a glider, a hanging-mass
with additional masses to add on, a spring, string and a ruler. You can take measurements of the velocity
and force actin on the spring using the photogate and force sensor, respectively. We will start with a glider
cart connected by string to the hanging mass over a pulley, as shown in Figure 1a.
Considering vertical positions and speeds at two dierent times, we can write down the conservation
of the energy for the cart and hanging mass system as
1
2
m
1
v
2
i
+
1
2
m
2
v
2
i
+ m
2
gy
i
=
1
2
m
1
v
2
f
+
1
2
m
2
v
2
f
+ m
2
gy
f
(5)
where m
1
is the mass of the cart, m
2
is the mass of the hanging weight, and v
i
and v
f
are their respective
initial and nal velocities. After releasing the hanging mass, it will fall from the initial height of y
i
to y
f
.
We will assume that the string connecting the hanging mass to the gliding cart is inextensible and has
uniform tension, that is, if the cart moves a distance x then the hanging weight will fall the same amount
y (x = y). The velocity of the cart can be measured by the photogate sensor (does the hanging
mass have the same velocity?). This velocity can be veried by using Equation 5.
Devise an experimental procedure to test the Conservation of Energy theorem using the above setup
(Figure 1). Show that the work done by the falling mass is independent of the path taken.
1
m
2
cart
h
(a)
m
2
FS
cart
(b)
Figure 1: (a) Arrangement for Part 1. The hanging mass is initially a height h o the oor. (b) Set up for
Part 2. Here a spring is attached to the glider. The force on the spring can be measured with the force
sensor (FS).
Part 2: A spring will now be added to the setup as shown in Figure 1b. Assuming the string to be
inextensible, as before, the spring stretches the same length as the falling mass.
Devise an experimental procedure to calculate the total mechanical energy of this spring-cart system
and show whether or not the energy is conserved. What does the addition of a spring do to the
overall system? Dont forget to measure the spring constant.
A full lab report is not necessary for this lab. Answer the questions on the following page and turn it
in with your signed datasheet.
2
PHYS 123, Lab 8 Questions
Name: CWID:
Write your answers on a separate sheet and attach your signed datasheet when turning it in. You must
show all of your work for full credit. Make it clear to me you understand what youre doing. Any graphs
or tables should be made via computer software and attached to this worksheet.
1. Answer the following questions using the data you acquired in this experiment:
(a) For the rst experiment, explain why work done by the falling mass is independent of the path
taken.
(b) What did the addition of a spring do to the overall system? Is this spring force a conservative
force?
(c) Write down the energy equation relations for the second experiment.
(d) Where does the maximum kinetic energy in parts 1 and 2 occur?
(e) Can we truly ignore friction in this lab? Explain using your data.
(f) Calculate the ratio of the kinetic and potential energies for parts 1 and 2. What do these ratios
tell you about the conservation of energy?
(g) What eect would the release point have on the nal velocity?
3
Experiment 9: Momentum
Physics is often concerned with what are called conserved quantities. Mass and energy are two
examples of quantities that must remain conserved for a closed system. Conservation of a quantity is a
clue to a physicist that there is some underlying principle to be discovered. Perhaps the oldest and most
famous conservation principle is the conservation of momentum. This is embodied in Newtons First Law,
written in 1687. It states that an object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by a net force.
Conservation of momentum will be studied through one dimensional collisions.
One Dimensional Collisions
The concept of momentum is fundamental to an understanding of the motion and dynamics of an
object. The momentum of an object is dened to be

p = m

v (1)
For multiple objects in a system, the total momentum is a vector sum of the individual momenta. As a
consequence of Newtons second law

F
ext
=
d

p
dt
(2)
For a closed system, the total momentum cannot change unless acted upon by an outside force. This
conservation of momentum is a powerful tool for physicists to analyze the behaviors of systems of particles.
The simplest application of this concept is in the one-dimensional collision between two particles. There
are two special kinds of collisions which are particularly easy to analyze: the perfectly elastic and perfectly
inelastic collisions. While both of these processes conserve momentum, in the perfectly elastic collision the
total kinetic energy, KE, is also conserved. Examples of perfectly inelastic collisions include objects which
collide and stick together and objects which break apart due to internal forces.
In the analysis of a perfectly elastic one-dimensional collision, consider two objects with masses m
1
and m
2
and initial velocities v
1
and v
2
. After the collision, the objects will have new velocities v

1
and v

2
,
where all velocities are assumed to be in the positive direction. Conservation of momentum demands that
the total momentum must be the same before and after the collision. This can be stated as:
m
1
v
1
+ m
2
v
2
= m
1
v

1
+ m
2
v

2
(3)
Since the kinetic energy is also conserved in this kind of collision, we have:
1
2
m
1
v
2
1
+
1
2
m
2
v
2
2
=
1
2
m
1
v
2
1
+
1
2
m
2
v
2
2
(4)
If we know the masses and the initial velocities, it is possible to solve for the nal velocities of the two
objects. After a number of algebraic manipulations, the solutions are:
v

1
=
m
1
m
2
m
1
+ m
2
v
1
+
2m
2
m
1
+ m
2
v
2
(5)
v

2
=
2m
1
m
1
+ m
2
v
1
+
m
2
m
1
m
1
+ m
2
v
2
. (6)
Again, all velocities are presumed to be along the positive direction. If a velocity is negative, it is then
directed along the negative direction.
1
The perfectly inelastic (sticky) collision is somewhat easier to analyze as only Equation 3 can be
used. The energy equation used in the analysis depends on which case is being studied. If the collision
starts with a single object which breaks into two, then we have v
1
= v
2
. If there are initially two objects
which end up stuck together, then we have v

1
= v

2
. The analysis is then straightforward.
Most collisions are neither perfectly elastic nor perfectly inelastic but partially elastic. This means that
a certain fraction of the kinetic energy is lost to the system but the objects do not stick together. In this
case, it is valuable to dene a quantity called the coecient of restitution
e =
v

1
v

2
v
2
v
1
(7)
For a perfectly elastic collision, e = 1 and for a perfectly inelastic collision (starting with two bodies
and ending with one), e = 0. For most real collisions 0 < e < 1.
Experimental Objectives
In the laboratory you have air track, two gliders, two photogates, a scale, and additional masses that
can be placed on the gliders. The glider carts have velcro on the ends to create a sticky collision or
rubber bands for an elastic collision. The photogates are connected to a computer data acquisition system
and velocity data can be collected using the Data Studio software (ask your TA about using this software
in your experiment and setting up the two photogates). Remember, velocity is a vector, so you must assign
it a direction - the Data Studio software cannot do this. Using this equipment:
Devise an experimental procedure to observe and verify linear momentum and energy conservation
laws. Repeat your experiment for dierent masses and dierent velocities of the glider (including
zero initial velocity for one of the gliders). Do ve dierent collisions and repeat each one to get
consistent data.
Devise an experiment to study perfectly inelastic collisions. Verify whether or not momentum and
energy are conserved in this type of collision.
A full lab report is not necessary for this lab. Answer the questions on the following page and turn it
in with your signed datasheet.
2
PHYS 123, Lab 9 Questions
Name: CWID:
Write your answers on a separate sheet and attach your signed datasheet when turning it in. You must
show all of your work for full credit. Make it clear to me you understand what youre doing. Any graphs
or tables should be made via computer software and attached to this handout.
1. Answer the following questions using the data you acquired in this experiment:
(a) For the two experiments, create data tables for the dierent cart masses (M
1
, M
2
), the initial
cart velocities, the nal velocities, the initial and nal momentums and kinetic energies. Give a
brief description of the collisions.
(b) Explain if momentum and kinetic energy are conserved in the collisions. What are the sources
of error?
(c) Determine if the collisions are perfectly elastic or inelastic by using the concept of the coecient
of restitution.
3
Experiment 10: Circular Motion
Previously we discussed two dimensional projectile motion, but another example of motion in two
dimensions is that of circular motion. The simplest case is when the radius and velocity of the moving body
are held constant. However, even though the speed is constant, the direction of the velocity is continually
changing and the body is, therefore, always undergoing acceleration. Imagine a body, originally at some
point on a circle designated by radius r
o
and angle , with a velocity,

v , tangential to the circle (see Figure
1). Its position may be written as:

r = r
o
cos

i + r
o
sin

j (1)

r
v
y
x
Figure 1: A particle moving at constant speed v in a circular path of radius r.
Since the particle is under uniform circular motion, the angle changes with time as:
= t (2)
where is the (constant) angular velocity. Thus, combining Equations 1 and 2, we obtain the time
dependence of the bodys position

r = r
o
cos(t)

i + r
o
sin(t)

j (3)
The velocity and the acceleration of the body are then obtained by applying Equation 3 with v = dr/dt
and a = dv/dt:

v = r
o
sin(t)

i + r
o
cos(t)

j (4)

a =
2
r
o
cos(t)

i
2
r
o
sin(t)

j (5)
By looking at Equations 4 and 5, it is clear that the position, velocity and acceleration vectors all have
constant magnitudes as a function of time (r
o
, r
o
,
2
r
o
, respectively). The direction of the acceleration is
always perpendicular to the direction of the velocity, which is always perpendicular to the direction of the
position vector. The acceleration always points towards the center of the circle.
1
Since the moving body is experiencing an acceleration towards the center of the circle, then there must
be a net force in that direction to keep it under acceleration. By applying Newtons second law (Note:
The equations deal only with the magnitudes, so no vector notation is needed):
F = ma = m
2
r
o
= m
v
2
r
o
(6)
This is the equation we will study in this lab.
Experimental Objectives
The rotating platform used in this experiment is shown in Figure 2. There is a spring on the central
rotation axis of the system which provides the force required to keep the brass bob in uniform circular
motion. You can adjust the spring length and the position of the bob. The position of the bob during
rotation can be monitored with the orange marker/indicator as it aligns with the reference slot. The
platform is connected to the computer interface through a rotational motion sensor. You will be able to
record the angular velocity of the rotation using the computer interface. Your TA will explain how to
operate the platform and collect data with the Data Studio software. Besides the platform, you will need
a set of dierent hanging weights.
spring
bob
rotating platform
removable balancing mass
Figure 2: The rotating platform.
Devise an experimental procedure to verify that the accelerating force is proportional to the square
of the angular velocity of rotation. Hint: Do not spin the rotating platform with the hanging mass
attached. Make a plot of F vs.
2
and explain the slope in your lab report.
Devise an experimental procedure to verify that the force that keeps the bob in uniform circular
motion is proportional to the radius of the rotation.
2
Experiment 11: Torque
Up until now we have dealt with mostly translational motion in one dimension. Now we will focus on
the dynamics of rotational motion about a xed axis. When a force

F is applied to body about its axis a
rotation or pivot, a twisting or rotating force arises called torque. The magnitude of the torque, is given
as the cross product between the applied force and the lever arm, which is the length from the axis of
rotation to the point where force is applied. Thus if

F is exerted on a point described by the position
vector r, the magnitude of the torque is
= r

F = rFsin() (1)
where is the angle between r and

F. For simplication, it is convenient to have and express r and

F
perpendicular to one another. In terms of Newtons second law, the net torque is given by
= I (2)
is the angular acceleration about the axis due to the force, and I is moment of inertia. In the same way
as the mass for translational dynamics, the moment of inertia is intimately related to how hard it is to
make a system move with the application of a particular force (torque). The larger the moment of inertia,
the harder it is to rotationally accelerate a system, the more energy is stored in a rotational motion and
the larger the angular momentum.
For a single point particle of mass m at a distance r from the axis of rotation, the moment of inertia
is found to be I = mr
2
from a simple analysis of kinetic energy. For a system of N particles, the moment
of inertia is given by:
I =
N

i
m
i
r
2
i
(3)
where r
i
, once again, is the shortest distance (perpendicular distance) to the axis of rotation. For a
continuous distribution of mass, this denition my be generalized to an integral over the entire mass
distribution
I =

r
2
i
dm (4)
The moment of inertia of common objects such as cylinders, spheres, etc. is usually given in tables (see
your Textbook) with the axis of rotation passing through the center of mass. To calculate the moment of
inertia of the body along another parallel axis, the parallel axis theorem may be applied: I = I
CM
+md
2
,
where d is the shortest distance (perpendicular distance) from the center of mass to the actual axis of
rotation.
1
Experimental Objectives
In this laboratory you have a rotating platform with an attachment in the shape of a rail, large masses
which can be attached to the rotating rail, various masses, string, a pulley and a computer with the
Scientic Workshop interface connected to the rotational measurement sensor that allows you to measure
the rotational acceleration via Data Studio. The string can be wound around 3 dierent spool settings
(bobbins), each with a dierent radii. Using this equipment:
Devise an experiment to measure the moment of inertia of the rail by varying the length of lever
arm, keeping the applied force constant. Convince yourself what the lever arm is in this set-up.
Devise an experimental procedure to verify Newtons second law for rotational motion. First you will
need to verify that torque is proportional to angular acceleration for xed moment of inertia.
Then you will need to verify that for a constant torque, the moment of inertia is inversely proportional
to angular acceleration. Make a graph for both of these cases and explain the slopes.
Questions
Answer these questions in your lab write-up. Show all your work.
1. Calculate the inertia of the rotational platform and of the masses which can be attached to the rotating
rail at various distances from the axis of rotation and compare it the experimental measurements.
2. Can friction truly be ignored in this experiment? Explain using your data.
2
Experiment 12: Angular Momentum
In this lab we will study the conservation of angular momentum by studying the moment of inertias
of various systems. The angular momentum,

L, of a particle with a mass m and a linear velocity v with
respect to a xed point, typically the origin, is given as

L = r p = m(r v) (1)
The r term is once again the position vector locating the particle relative to a xed point. Thus, we can
write the magnitude of the angular momentum as L = rmv sin, where is the angle between r and p.
The angular momentum component of a rigid body rotating about a xed axis is given as
L = I (2)
where I is the moment of inertia and is the angular speed. Similar to translational motion, we can write
Newtons second law in angular form, that is in terms of torque and angular momentum as
=
d

L
dt
(3)
Consequently, if the net external torque acting on the system is zero, the angular momentum remains
constant (

L = constant):

L
initial
=

L
final
(4)
This is the fundamental law of conservation of angular momentum that you will be studying in this
lab. We can express this in term of the moment of inertia and angular speed as
I
i

i
= I
f

f
(5)
where the nal moment of inertia can be obtained using the parallel axis theorem.
Experimental Objectives
In this lab experiment you have a rotating disk attachment, a short cylindrical tube which ts into a
groove of the rotating disk attachment, a mass hanger, various masses, string, a pulley and a computer with
the Scientic Workshop interface connected to the rotational measurement sensor. Using this equipment:
Devise an experimental procedure to measure the moment of inertia of the disk attachment and the
short cylindrical tube. How do these measured values agree with the expected theoretical moments
of inertia as calculated using the parallel axis theorem? You can nd the equations in your textbook.
Use the measured moments of inertia to study the conservation of angular momentum in a rotational
collision between the disk attachment and the cylindrical tube. You can set the initial angular speed
by hand, and then, gently and carefully, drop the tube onto the disk.
1
Conceptual Test
This part of the experiment requires no calculations, yet it may be the most dicult part to discuss
in your write-up. Your skill in describing what you observe and giving a reasonable explanation of your
observations using the physics involved will be tested here. CAUTION: SAFETY GLASSES MUST BE
WORN FOR THIS PART OF THE EXPERIMENT.
Set up the rotating platform to include the tilted metal ramp. Note: you must have the counter mass
attached to the other end to ensure that the rotating platform is balanced.
Display the versus time graph on the computer screen.
Place a single ball at the top end of the metal ramp.
Give the ramp a small push so that the metal ball stays at the end of the ramp. THE RAMP DOES
NOT HAVE TO BE SPUN VERY FAST TO ACHIEVE THIS! BE VERY CAREFUL!
Start recording the versus time graph. As the angular velocity of the ramp decreases, carefully
observe what happens to the ball and how this corresponds to what you observe on the versus t
graph.
After the ball rolls down the ramp, press the STOP button to stop recording.
Be sure to print out this graph so that you may refer to it as you are writing your report. (Hint: to
help you with your description and explanation, it may be benecial to properly annotate this graph
so that you may refer to parts of the graph more easily.)
Repeat the procedure described in the above paragraph, but instead of using one ball, place three
balls at the top of the ramp. The apparatus may need to spun a little faster, but not much faster. It
is important to be very cautious.
In a clear and concise manner, describe your observations of the single ball experiment. Explain how
the conservation of angular momentum can account for the behavior of the graph obtained. In the
same manner, describe and explain your observation of the three-ball experiment.
A full lab report is not necessary for this lab. Answer the questions on the following page and turn it
in with your signed datasheet.
2
PHYS 123, Lab 12 Questions
Name: CWID:
Write your answers on a separate sheet and attach your signed datasheet when turning it in. You must
show all of your work for full credit. Make it clear to me you understand what youre doing. Any graphs
or tables should be made via computer software and attached to this handout.
1. Answer the following questions using the data you acquired in this experiment:
(a) Using the parallel axis theorem, write down the equations for the moment of inertia of a short
disk attachment and the short cylindrical tube. Calculate the moments of inertia using the
measured values of mass and radius.
(b) How well do the experimental values agree with the expected theoretical moments of inertia
when calculated using the parallel axis theorem?
(c) How well is the angular momentum conversed in the second experiment? Is this collision elastic
or inelastic? Explain using energy relations.
2. In a clear and concise manner, describe your observations of the single ball experiment. Explain how
the conservation of angular momentum can account for the behavior of the graph obtained. In the
same manner, describe and explain your observations of the three-ball experiment.
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