between aircraft and on the maneuvering area between aircraft and obstructions and to

expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic [3]. To properly manage the traffic in
the system, the jurisdiction of control is divided into three parts: en route, terminal, and
oceanic. Terminal air traffic control may be divided into terminal radar approach control
(TRACON) and air traffic control tower (ATCT) operations at an airport. Each part has a
specific function.

Air route traffic control centers
Air route traffic control centers (ARTCC) have the responsibility of controlling the
movement of en route aircraft along the airways and jet routes and in other parts of the
airspace. Each of the 20 air traffic control centers within the continental United States has
control of a definite geographical area which may be bigger than 100,000 mi
2
. At the
boundary point, which marks the limits of the control area of the center, control of aircraft
may be transferred to an adjacent center or an approach control facility, or radar service
may be terminated and aircraft using VFR are free to contact the next center. Air traffic
control centers are normally not located at airports. Air traffic control centers can also
provide approach control service to non towered airports and to non terminal radar
approach control airports. The ARTCC is concerned primarily with the control of aircraft
operating under instrument flight rules (IFR).
Under IFR pilots are required to file a flight plan indicating the route and altitude they
desire to fly. The ARTCC will then check to determine whether the flight plan, as filed, can
be approved so that a safe separation between aircraft can be ensured. Changes in flight
plans en route are permitted if approved by each ARTCC along the route of the flight.
Each ARTCC geographic area is divided into sectors. The configuration of each sector is
based on equalizing the workload of the controllers. Control of aircraft is passed from one
sector to another. The geographic area is sectored in both the horizontal plane and the verti-
cal plane. Thus there can be a high altitude sector above one or more low altitude sectors.
Each sector is staffed by one or more controllers, depending on the volume
,
and complexity
of traffic. The average number of aircraft that each sector can handle depends on the
number of people assigned to the sector, the complexity of traffic, and the degree of
automation provided.
Each sector is normally provided with one or more air route surveillance radar (ARSR)
units which cover the entire sector and allow for monitoring of the separation between
aircraft. In addition, each sector has data on the identification of the aircraft, destination,
flight plan route, estimated speed, and flight altitude, which are posted on pieces of paper
called flight progress strips or may be superimposed on the radarscope adjacent to the blips
which specify the position and identity of the aircraft. The strips are continuously updated
as the need arises.

At present, communication between the pilot and the controller is by voice. Therefore each
ARTCC is assigned a number of very high and ultra high radio communication frequencies.
The controller in turn assigns a specific frequency to the pilot.

Terminal approach control facility
The terminal approach control facility monitors the air traffic in the airspace surrounding
airports with moderate to high density traffic. It has jurisdiction in the control and
separation of air traffic from the boundary area of the air traffic control tower at an airport
to a distance of up to 50 mi from the airport and to an altitude ranging up to 17,000 ft. This
is commonly referred to as the terminal area. Where there are several airports in an urban
area, one facility may control traffic to all the airports. In essence, the facility receives
aircraft from the ARTCC and guides them to one of several airports. In providing this
guidance, the facility performs the important function of metering and sequencing aircraft
to provide uniform and orderly flow to airports.
The radar approach control facility is referred to as TRACON, an abbreviation for terminal
radar approach control. There are various degrees of automation in an approach control
facility depending on the volume of traffic normally handled. Various abbreviations are
used to designate the type of hardware in an approach control facility. As an example,
ARTS III is an acronym for automated radar terminal system. The designation III denotes
the highest level of automation, while I is the lowest level of automation. Thus one can
have ARTS 1, II, III automation capability in a TRACON facility. ARTS IIIA and ARTS
IIIE are updated enhancements of the ARTS III system capability to accommodate
automation data.
The organizational structure of an approach control facility is very similar to that of the
ARTCC. Like the ARTCC, the geographic area of the facility is divided into sectors to
equalize the workload of the controllers. The approach control facility transfers control of
an arriving aircraft to the airport control tower when the aircraft is lined up with the runway
about 5 mi from the airport. Likewise control of departing aircraft is transferred to the
approach control facility by the airport control tower.
If the flow of aircraft is greater than the facility can handle, traffic management and the air
traffic system command center (ATSCC), formerly called the central flow control facility
(CFCF), manipulate aircraft on the ground and en route to adjust, or meter, the arrival flows
to their destination airports. This may result in delays to departing aircraft or delays en
route. In the past such aircraft were delayed by either reducing their speed en route or
detaining them at specified radio fixes within the area of the destination facility. The latter
method is referred to as stacking. In a stack, aircraft navigate around a fix in a racetrack
pattern, a holding pattern, and are separated vertically by 1000 ft intervals. There may be as
many as 10 aircraft in a stack, and each is directed in turn to a landing by the approach
control facility. As a matter of procedure, stacking is no longer performed except when the
arrival capacity at an airport is reduced due to unexpected events.
In 1990 there were more than 200 various types of terminal area approach control facilities
operated by the FAA in the United States.

Airport traffic control tower
The airport traffic control tower is the facility which supervises, directs, and monitors the
arrival and departure traffic at the airport and in the immediate airspace within about 5 mi
from the airport. The tower is responsible for issuing clearances to all departing aircraft;
providing pilots with information on wind, temperature, barometric pressure, and operating
conditions at the airport; and controlling all aircraft on the ground except in the
maneuvering area immediately adjacent to the aircraft parking positions called the ramp
area. In the United States in 1990, 400 air traffic control towers were operated by the FAA,
and 25 air traffic control towers operated under contract to the FAA.

Flight service stations
The flight service stations (FSS) are located along the airways and at airports. Flight service
stations are not air traffic control facilities but provide essential information to pilots. Their
principal function is to accept and close flight plans and to brief pilots, before flight and in
flight, on weather, navigational aids, airports and navaids that are out of commission, and
changes in procedures and new facilities. A secondary function is to relay traffic control
messages between aircraft and the appropriate control facility on the ground. The FAA
operated 183 domestic and international flight service stations in 1990. Flight service
stations are in the process of being converted to automated flight service stations (AFSS),
and when the transition is completed, there will be 60 AFSS in the United States.

Air Traffic Separation Rules
Air traffic rules governing the minimum separation of aircraft in the vertical, horizontal or
longitudinal, and lateral directions are established in each country by the appropriate
government authority. The current rules described in this text are those prescribed by the
FAA for use in the United States. The separation rules are prescribed for IFR operations,
and these rules apply whether or not IMC conditions prevail. Minimum separations are a
function of aircraft type, aircraft speed, availability of radar facilities, navigational aids, and
other factors such as the severity of wake vortices [3].

Vertical separation in the airspace.
The minimum vertical separation of aircraft outside the terminal area from the ground up to
and including 29,000 ft above mean sea level (AMSL) is 1000 ft. Higher than 29,000 ft
AMSL the minimum separation is 2000 ft. Within a terminal area a vertical separation of
500 ft is maintained between aircraft, except that a 1000 ft vertical separation is maintained
below a heavy aircraft.

Use of VFR altitudes
VFR altitudes below 18,000 ft AMSL are designated as the odd 1000 ft altitudes plus 500 ft
beginning at 3500 ft AMSL for course headings from 0 to 179 magnetic azimuth and the
even 1000 ft altitudes plus 500 ft beginning at 4500 ft AMSL for course headings from
180 to 359 magnetic azimuth. The authorized VFR altitudes between 18,000 ft AMSL
and 29,000 ft (flight level 290, or FL 290) are designated as the odd 1000 ft altitudes plus
500 ft beginning at FL 195 for course headings from 0 to 179 magnetic azimuth and the
even 1000 ft altitudes plus 500 ft beginning at FL 185 for course headings from 180 to
359 magnetic azimuth. The authorized VFR altitudes above FL 290 are designated as the
even 1000 ft altitudes. at 4,000 ft intervals beginning at FL 300 for course headings from 0
to 179 magnetic azimuth and the even 1000 ft altitudes at 4000 ft intervals beginning at FL
320 from 180 to 359 magnetic azimuth.
These altitudes are in effect under VFR at altitudes of 3000 ft above the surface in both
controlled and uncontrolled airspace.

Assigned IFR altitudes
The assigned IFR altitudes below 18,000 ft AMSL are designated as the odd 1000-ft
altitudes for course headings from 0 to 179 magnetic azimuth and the even 1000-ft
altitudes for course headings from 180 to 359 magnetic azimuth. The assigned IFR
altitudes from 18,000 ft AMSL up to but not including 29,000 ft (flight level 290, or FL
290) are designated as the odd 1000-ft altitudes for course headings from 0 to 179
magnetic azimuth and the even 1000-ft altitudes plus 500 ft for course headings from 180
to 359 magnetic azimuth. The assigned IFR altitudes at and above FL 290 are designated
as the odd 1000-ft altitudes at 4000-ft intervals beginning at FL 290 for course headings
from 0 to 179 magnetic azimuth and the odd 1000-ft altitudes at 4000-ft intervals
beginning at FL 310 from 180 to 359 magnetic azimuth.

Longitudinal separation in the airspace
The minimum longitudinal separation depends on a number of factors; among the most
important are aircraft size, aircraft speed, and availability of radar for the control of air
traffic. For the purposes of maintaining aircraft separations, aircraft are classified by the
FAA as heavy, large, or small based upon their maximum certified takeoff weight. Heavy
aircraft have a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 300,000 lb or more. Large aircraft
have a maximum certificated takeoff weight in excess of 12,500 lb but less than 300,000 lb.
Small aircraft have a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 12,500 lb or less. Aircraft size
is related to wake turbulence. Heavy aircraft create trailing wake vortices which are a
hazard to lighter aircraft following them.
The minimum longitudinal separations en route are expressed in terms of time or distance
as follows:
1. For en route aircraft following a preceding en route aircraft, if the leading aircraft
maintains a speed at least 44 kn faster than the trailing aircraft, 5 mi between aircraft
using distance-measuring equipment (DME) or area navigation (RNAV) and 3 min
between all other aircraft
2. For en route aircraft following a preceding en route aircraft, if the leading aircraft
maintains a speed at least 22 kn faster than the trailing aircraft, 10 mi between air' craft
using DME or RNAV and 5 min for all other aircraft
3. For en route aircraft following a preceding en route aircraft, if both aircraft are at the
same speed, 20 mi between aircraft using DME or RNAV and 10 min for all other
aircraft
4. When an aircraft is climbing or descending through the altitude of another aircraft, 10
mi for aircraft using DME or RNAV if the descending aircraft is leading or the
climbing aircraft is following and 5 min for all other aircraft
5. Between aircraft in which one aircraft is using DME or RNAV and the other is not, 30
mi
The minimum longitudinal separation over the oceans is normally 10 min for
supersonic flights and 15 min for subsonic flights, but in some locations it can be slightly
more or less than these values [3].
When the aircraft mix is such that wake turbulence is not a factor and radar coverage is
available, the minimum longitudinal separation for two aircraft traveling in the same
direction and at the same altitude is 5 nmi, except that when the aircraft are in the terminal
environment within 40 nmi of the radar antenna, the separation can be reduced th 3 nmi.
For this reason the minimum spacing in the terminal area is 3 nmi because the airport is
almost always within 40 nrni of a radar antenna. Under certain specified conditions, a
separation between aircraft on final approach within 10 nmi of the landing runway may be
reduced to 2.5 nmi [3].
If wake turbulence is a factor, the minimum separation in the terminal area between a
small or large aircraft and a preceding heavy aircraft is 5 nmi. The spacing between two
heavy aircraft following each other is 4 nmi. The spacing between a heavy aircraft and a
preceding large aircraft is 3 nmi.
For landing aircraft, when wake turbulence is a factor, the longitudinal separation is
increased between a small aircraft and . preceding large aircraft to 4 rni and between a
small aircraft and a preceding heavy aircraft to 6 mi.
The instrument flight separation rules for consecutive arrivals on the same runway
which are used when wake vortices are a factor are shown in Table 4-1. This table also
displays the observed average spacings maintained by pilots in VFR at Chicago O'Hare
International Airport. Note that the VFR separations in Table 4-1 are not maintained by air
traffic control but are the average observed separations maintained by pilots and, as such,
are not valid measures upon which runway or airspace capacity studies can be based. They
are simply presented for comparative purposes.
TABLE 4-1 Horizontal Separates in Landing for Arrival-Arrival Spacing ell Aircraft on
Same Runway Approaches in VFR and IFR Condition.% nmi
Leading aircraft type
VFR* IFR (wake vortex)
Trailing aircraft type Trailing aircraft type
Heavy Large Small Heavy Large Small
Heavy 2.7 3.6 4.5 4.0 5.0 6.0
Large 1.9 1.9 2.7 3.0 3.0 4.0
Small 1.9 1.9 1.9 3.0 3.0 3.0

*These values are shown to appropriately represent these operations and are not regulatory
in nature.
souace: Federal Aviation Administration [181

TABLE 4-2 Separation for Same-Runway Consecutive Departures in VFR and IFR
Conditions, s

Leading aircraft type
VFR* IFR
Trailing aircraft type Trailing aircraft type
Heavy Large Small Heavy Large Small
Heavy 90 120 120 120 120 120
Large 60 60 50 60 60 60
Small 50 45 35 60 60 60
* These values are shown to appropriately represent these operations and are not regulatory
in nature.
Source: Federal Aviation Administration [181.
The visual and instrument flight separation rules for consecutive departures from the same
runway are expressed in terms of time and are shown in Table 4-2.
Lateral separation in the airspace
The minimum en route lateral separation below 18,000 ft AMSL is 8 nmi, and at arid above
18,000 ft AMSL the minimum en route lateral separation is 20 nmi. Over the oceans the
separation varies from 60 to 120 nmi depending on the location [3].
Genera considerations
The longitudinal separation standards significantly influence the capacity of the airspace
and the airport runways since separations reflect the size of headways between aircraft. The
significant influence of radar in reducing headways can be illustrated as follows. With radar
the minimum en route separation is 5 nmi for aircraft equipped with DME or RNAV. If
radar is not available, the separation must be increased to 20 mi for aircraft equipped with
distance-measuring or area navigation equipment and to about 30 mi if none of this equip-
ment is installed in the aircraft. Over the oceans the longitudinal separation varies from 60
to 120 nmi. These large separations reduce capacity of the airspace and increase delays, and
for this reason efforts are being made to reduce aircraft spacing. Figure 4-5 illustrates the
impact of a variety of minimum-spacing rules for arriving aircraft on runway capacity.

Navigational Aids
Aids to aerial navigation can be broadly classified into two groups: those that are located on
the ground, or external aids, and those installed in the cockpit, or internal aids. Some aids
are primarily for flying over the oceans, other aids are only applicable to flight over land
masses, and still other aids can be used over either land or water. Some aids are used only
during the en route portion of the flight, while other aids are necessary in terminal areas or
near airports.

External overland e route aids
Very high-frequency omnirange radio. The advances in radio and electronics during and
after World War II led to the installation of the very high-frequency omnirange radio
(VOR) stations These stations are located on the ground, and they send out radio signals in
all directions. Each signal can be considered as a course or a route, referred to as a radial,
that can be followed by an aircraft. In terms of 1
O
intervals, there are .360 courses or routes
that are radiated from a VOR station, from 0 pointing toward magnetic north increasing to
359 in a clockwise direction. The VOR transmitter station is a small square building
topped with what appears to be a white derby hat. It broadcasts on a frequency just above
that of FM radio stations. The very high frequencies it uses are virtually free of static. The
system of VOR stations establishes the network of airways and jet routes and is essential to
area navigation. The range of a VOR station varies but is usually less than 200 nmi.
Aircraft equipped with a VOR receiver in the cockpit have a dial for tuning in the
desired VOR frequency. A pilot can select the VOR radial or route to follow to the VOR
station. In the cockpit a position deviation indicator (PDI) specifies the heading of the
aircraft relative to the direction of the desired radial and whether the aircraft is to the right
or left of the radial. Figure 4-6 shows schematically the type of information the PDI
provides. At A the aircraft is on the selected radial, and the needle is pointed vertically and
passes through the cross, which is a symbol for the aircraft. In other words, the aircraft is
heading in the same direction as the desired radial. At B the aircraft is flying parallel to but
to the right of the desired radial. At C the aircraft is to the right of the radial and is heading
across the radial.
Distance-measuring equipment. Distance-measuring equipment (DME) has been
installed at nearly all VOR stations in the United States. Those so equipped are called
VORTAC facilities. The DME shows to the pilot the slant distance between the aircraft and
a particular VOR station. Since it is the air distance in nautical miles that is measured, the
receiving equipment in an aircraft flying' at 35,000 ft directly over the DME station will
read 5.8 nmi.
An en route air navigation aid which best suited the tactical needs of the military
was developed by the Navy in the early 1950s. This aid is known as TACAN, which stands
for tactical air navigation. This aid combines azimuth and distance measuring into one unit
instead of two and is operated in the ultra-high-frequency band. As a compromise between
civilian and military requirements, the FAA replaced the DME portion of its VOR facilities
with the distance-measuring components of TACAN. These stations are known as VOR-
DMET. If a station has full-TACAN equipment, both azimuth- and distance-measuring
equipment, and VOR, it is designated as VORTAC.
Air route surveillance radar. Long-range radar for tracking en route aircraft has been
established throughout the continental United States and in other parts of the world. While
in the United States there is complete radar coverage in the 48 contiguous states, this is not
the case elsewhere in the world. These radars have a range of about 250 nmi. Strictly
speaking, radar is not an aid to navigation. Its principal function is to provide air traffic
controllers with a visual display of the position of each aircraft so they can monitor the
spacings and intervene when necessary. However, radar can be and is used by air traffic
controllers to guide aircraft whenever necessary. For this reason it has been included as an
aid to navigation.

External overland terminal aids
The principal aids in the terminal area are used for landing aircraft,' and these are
described below.
Instrument Banding system. The most widely used method is the instrument landing
system (ILS). It consists of two radio transmitters located at the airport. One radio beam is
called the localizer, and the other is the glide slope. The localizer indicates to pilots whether
they are left or right of the correct alignment for approach to the runway. The glide slope
indicates the correct angle of descent to the runway. Glide slopes measure on the order of
2 to 3 minimum to 7.5 maximum.
To further help pilots on their ILS approach, two low-power fan markers, called ILS
markers, are usually installed so that pilots will know just how far along the approach to the
runway they have progressed. The first is called the outer marker (LOM) and is located
about 3.5 to 5 mi from the end of the runway. The other is called the middle marker (MM),
and it is located about 3000 ft from the end of the runway. For category II operations, when
visibility is quite poor, an additional marker called the inner marker (IM) is located 1000 ft
from the end of the runway. This inner marker is placed so as to alert pilots that they must
have visual reference with the ground at that point and if they do not, abandon the
approach. When the plane passes over a marker, a light goes on in the cockpit and a high-
pitched tone sounds. The configuration of the ILS is shown in Fig. 4-7. At many locations
the fan markers have been replaced with DME using the airport VORTAC or TACAN at
the airport.
The localizer consists of an antenna, which is located on the extension_ of the
runway centerline approximately 1000 ft from the far end of the runway, and a localizer
transmitter building located about 300 ft to one side of the runway at the same distance
from the end of the runway as the antenna. The glide slope facility is placed 750 to 1250 ft
down the runway from the threshold and is located to one side of the runway centerline at a
distance which can vary from 400 to 650 ft. The functioning of the localizer and the glide
slope facility is affected by the close proximity of moving objects such as vehicular and air-
craft traffic. During inclement weather, the use of the ILS critical areas keeps aircraft and
vehicles from entering areas that would impede an aircraft inside of the outer marker from
receiving a clear signal. Stationary objects nearby can also cause a deterioration of the
signals. Abrupt changes of slope in proximity to the antennas are not permitted, or else the
signal will not be transmitted properly. Another limitation of the ILS is that the glide slope
beam is not reliable below a height of about 200 ft above the runway.
Microwave landing system. The
.
ILS has a number of problems which have made
the development of more sophisticated landing systems necessary. The ILS is based on
signals reflecting from the surface of the ground. Thus the area adjacent to the antennas
must be relatively smooth and must be kept clear of any obstructions such as buildings and
taxiing aircraft; otherwise the beams are distorted. There have been improvements in the
transmission of the localizer beam brought about by the installation of a waveguide
antenna, which confines the beam spray and reduces the probability of reflections from
buildings and other obstructions. But this has not solved all the problems associated with
the ILS. The ILS provides only one path in space, which all aircraft must follow if they are
using the system. Some aircraft, particularly the STOL (short takeoff and landing) type, can
use a steeper approach angle, about 7, than conventional aircraft, which use 2.5 to 3
approaches. Other aircraft may wish to make a two-segment approach to reduce noise
beneath the flight_ path. The ILS is unable to provide for these types of operations. Finally,
only a limited number of frequency channels are available for the ILS, and as the number of
installations has increased, it is becoming difficult to provide the necessary discrete
channels required.
To overcome these limitations, the microwave landing system (MLS) was
developed. Instead of providing only one glide slope as the ILS does, the MLS provides for
a number of slopes. In the horizontal plane, the MLS provides for any desired routes as
long as they are within an area that is from 20 to 60 on each side of the runway cen-
terline, whereas the ILS provides only one route to the runway. Distance-measuring
capability can be incorporated into the MLS, providing the pilot with continuous
information on the aircraft distance from the end of the runway and removing the need for
establishing markers as in the ILS. The MLS is far less susceptible to interference from
surrounding objects than the ILS. With the MLS a pilot can choose any desired route to the
runway at any glide slope within the vertical coverage of the system. A microwave landing
system is shown schematically in Fig. 4-8.
From the standpoint of airport planning, one of the most significant advantages of
the MLS is the potential reduction of noise since aircraft can be kept at higher altitudes
before they make the descent to the airport or follow curved routes which do not affect as
much land as the ILS routes do. The difference between an ILS and an MLS approach into
Kennedy (JFK) and LaGuardia (LGA) airports in the New York area is shown in Fig. 4-9.
Another advantage is the elimination of the requirement that all aircraft, large or small,
follow a common approach route to the runway.
Precision-approach radar. At a number of military airports, another landing aid
known as ground-controlled approach (GCA) has been installed. The GCA operates either
with the airport surveillance radar alone or with both the airport surveillance radar and
precision-approach radar (PAR) The latter equipment was developed by the military during
World War II in order to provide a mobile unit that is not dependent on airborne navigation
equipment. The precision-approach radarscope gives controllers a picture of the descending
aircraft in both plan and elevation; i.e., one-half the radarscope is in plan, and one-half is in
elevation. Thus controllers can determine whether an aircraft is on the glide path and
whether it is on the correct alignment. Instructions from controllers to pilots are given by
voice communication, and thus no airborne navigation'\equipment is necessary.
Commercial airline pilots use the ILS almost exclusively, because using PAR places too
much dependence on the controller and does not provide any direct information to the pilot.
At airports where there are both ILS and PAR facilities, commercial airline pilots use ILS
but often request that they be monitored by PAR.
Airport surveillance radar. To provide the MACON and control tower operators
with an overall picture of what is going on within the airspace surrounding the terminal,
airport surveillance radar (ASR) has been installed at many of the major U.S. airports. The
ASR rotates through 360, and the information is received by an ARTS (automated radar
terminal system) type of computer system in the TRACON and relayed to a bright radar
tower equipment (BRITE) radarscope in the control tower. The primary range of ASR is
from 30 to 60 mi_ It shows the aircraft in their relative horizontal positions on the
radarscope as blips. With non mosaic radars, the blips of moving aircraft leave a luminous
trail and indicate the direction in which the aircraft are moving. ARTS can also determine
and show an indication of the aircraft speed. ASR does not indicate the altitude of aircraft
since it simply responds to the reflection df the signal from the skin of the aircraft. This
type of return radar is called primary radar or skin paint.
Approach lighting systems. The most critical point of approach to landing comes
when the aircraft breaks through the overcast and the pilot must change from instrument to
visual conditions. Sometimes, only a few seconds are available for the pilot to make the
transition and complete the landing. To aid in making this transition, lights are installed on
the approach to the runways and on the runways themselves. These are generally termed
approach lighting systems (ALS). A number of types and configurations are used, and
others are under experimental testing today. More details concerning these systems are
contained in Chap. 13 on signing, marking, and lighting.
Airport surface detection. At large high-density airports, controllers have difficulty
in regulating taxiing aircraft because they cannot see the aircraft in poor visibility
conditions. A specially designed radar, called airport surface detection equipment (ASDE),
often referred to as ground radar, has been developed to aid the controller. The system
gives the air traffic controller in the control tower a pictorial display of the runways,
taxiways, and terminal area, with radar indicating the positions of aircraft and other
vehicles moving on the surface of the airport.
Visual-approach slope indicators. These systems (VASI and PAPI) provide, through
a system of lights, the proper approach slope to the runway much the same as the glide
slope of an ILS system. VASI systems are intended for day or night use during good (VFR)
weather conditions, and they cannot be used under very poor visibility conditions. A
refined version of the visual approach slope indicator the precision approach path indicator
(PAPI) system is presently being installed at airports in the United States. The PAPI system
gives a more definitive indication of approach slope to the pilot and uses only a single set
of electronic devices at one point down the runway. A more detailed explanation of the
VASI and PAPI systems is contained in Chap. 13 on signing. marking, and lighting.
Runway end identifier lights. Runway end identifier lights (REIL) are installed to
give the pilot positive visual identification of the approach end of the runway when there
are no approach lights.
The relative location of terminal-area navigational aids is shown in Fig. 4-10. The
siting requirements for visual aids and the ILS antennas can be found in the References [1].
External verwater en route aids
The principal overwater aid to navigation is LORAN, which consists of stations
located on the ground. LORAN stands for long-range aerial navigation. The system was
developed during World War II. LORAN stations are located in all parts of the world. The
particular system in use today is designated LORAN-C. The principle of the LORAN
system is as follows. Each element consists of a master station and a slave station located
some distance from the master. The master station sends radio signals into space, and at the
same time one of the signals goes to the slave station, where it is delayed a specified
amount of time and then sent into space. At any point in space, there is a difference in time
between the original signal from the master and its intersection with the delayed signal
from the slave. Thus a contour of equal time differences can be drawn in space. The same
thing can be done from another master and slave station, resulting in another contour. The
intersection of the two contours establishes a position in space. In the aircraft the LORAN
receiver tunes in on two master and slave stations, establishing an intersection of two time-
difference contours in space. The range of LORAN is affected by the time of day, being
greater at night than during daylight. LORAN requires the use of a navigator in the cockpit.

Internal overwater en route aids
There are two principal aids used in overwater operation: the doppler navigation
system and the inertial navigation system (INS). A third system which derives from use on
ships at sea is celestial navigation. It was quite popular prior to the development of the
doppler and inertial navigation systems. The advantages of these later systems are related to
the economics of aircraft operation: They do not require the use of a navigator.
Doppler navigation system. This is a long-range-radar type of aid that provides the
pilot with the ground speed, angle of the aircraft axis relative to the desired course (drift
angle), distance of the aircraft right or left of the desired course, and distance to the
destination or way point. Suppose an aircraft is to fly from point A to point B via a great
circle route of length L. The length L is usually divided into several shorter lengths or
segments. The ends of these segments are established in space by way points. A way point
is an imaginary point in space. Inputs into the system are the latitudes and longitudes of
points A and B and of all way points along the route. The number of way points depends on
the length of the trip.
The doppler system is based on the following: The aircraft sends to the ground four
beams of continuous wave energy (8800 Mc), two forward and two toward the rear. The
change in frequency of the energy return from the ground is measured.. This change in
frequency is known as the doppler shift and is proportional to the aircraft speed in the
directions the beam is pointing.. By checking the speed in the four directions in which the
beams are pointing, the system derives the ground speed and drift angle. The smoother the
surface, the less chance there is for the radiated energy to reflect to the aircraft's antenna.
This is a limitation of the system and is encountered over smooth bodies of water.
Inertial navigation system. The inertial navigation system is by far the most popular
overwater long-range aid. It provides all the information that the doppler system provides
as well as the wind speed and direction, latitude and longitude of the aircraft at any instant,
and time to reach the next way point. As for the doppler system, the inputs are the latitudes
and longitudes of the origin, destination, and way points. The inertial guidance system is a
development of the space program. It is quite accurate and reliable. Both the inertial and
doppler navigation systems provide azimuth information referenced to true north, not
magnetic north.

Internal overland en route aids
Both the doppler and the inertial navigation systems can be used over land masses.
There are also area navigation systems (RNAV) which can be used only over land. They
use as inputs the distance and azimuth information provided by VORTAC stations. The
desired course is referenced to way points, as for the other systems. The way points are
established by distances and azimuth from the nearest adjacent VORTAC station.
Information provided in the cockpit is similar to that for the doppler and inertial navigation
systems.

Internal overland terminal aids
Area navigation systems used for en route navigation can also be used in the terminal area.
In addition to guidance in the horizontal plane, these systems provide guidance in the
vertical plane. This latter capability is particularly useful for guidance to runways.

Global positioning system
The global positioning system (GPS) is a space-based satellite radio positioning and
navigation system. The system is designed to provide highly accurate position and velocity
information on a continuous global basis to an unlimited number of properly equipped
users. The system by weather and provides a common worldwide grid reference system.
The GPS concept is predicated upon accurate and continuous knowledge of the spatial
position of each satellite in the system with respect to time and distance from the
transmitting satellite to the user. It is expected that the full GPS will consist of 24 satellites
in near-circular orbit about the earth. The GPS receiver automatically selects the
appropriate signals from the satellite which is in view of the receiver and translates these
signals to a three dimensional position, velocity and time. It is expected that the GPS will
have a horizontal accuracy on the order of 100 m. The global positioning system offers
considerable assistance in navigation by providing precise position information to aircraft,
and therefore it is likely to become an external navigational aid in the near future.
A variation of the system, called the relative global positioning system, has the potential to
assist aircraft in conducting precision instrument approaches to airports. Relative GPS is
based on the concept that the knowledge of the location of the GPS receiver in an aircraft
relative to the GPS receiver at an airport is more accurate than the knowledge of the
absolute position of each receiver. An aircraft on approach would receive GPS satellite
position signals, and the beacon radar at the airport would relay its own position at the
airport. By comparing the beacon radar position with the position of the aircraft, the aircraft
can compute a vector to the beacon radar site. Knowledge of the range and bearing from the
beacon radar site to the point of touchdown allows the aircraft system to compute a vector
to touchdown. It is expected that the relative GPS will reach an accuracy on the order of 2
m, which would make it useful in precision instrument approaches to runways [20]. The
FAA is currently conducting tests on another variation of the system, the differential global
positioning system, for use in precision instrument approaches to runways.
The global positioning system has the capability of providing external overland and
overwater precise navigational assistance to aircraft as well as assistance to aircraft in
conducting terminal-area precision approaches to runways.

Aids for the Control of Air Traffic
The principal aids for the control of air traffic are voice communication and radar. The
controller monitors the spacing between aircraft on the radarscope and instructs pilots by
voice communication. There are two types of radar: primary and secondary. The primary
radar returns appear on the radarscope as small blips. These are reflections from the aircraft
body. The primary radar as it appears on a radarscope is shown in Fig. 4-11. Primary radar
requires the installation of rotating antennas on the ground, and the range of the primary
radar is a function of its frequency. Beacon radar, sometimes referred to as secondary radar,
consists of a radar receiver and transmitter on the ground that transmit a coded signal to
b
an
aircraft if that aircraft has a transponder. A transponder is an airborne receiver and trans-
mitter which receives the signal from the ground and responds by returning a coded reply to
the interrogator on the ground. The coded reply normally contains information about the
aircraft's identity and altitude. The interrogator (receiver and transmitter) is the beacon
radar antenna. It is usually installed as an integral part of the primary radar antenna. Beacon
radar returns are presented on the radarscope as two slashes if they are decoded and a single
slash if they are not decoded. Prior to the development of ARTS, which, provides
alphanumeric information about the flight in a data block, controllers would decode only
those aircraft that they were controlling. The slashes always appear at a right angle to the
radial from the location of the antenna to the aircraft, as shown in Fig. 4-11. The center of
the slash closest to the antenna is the location of the aircraft. Prior to the installation of
ARTS, the primary and beacon radar presentations did not provide identity of the aircraft or
its altitude. This was obtained by voice communication and was recorded on flight progress
strips.
To overcome the deficiencies of the original beacon radar presentation, and to reduce the
amount of communication, a video presentation which includes identity and altitude was
developed. This is shown in Fig. 4-11 and is referred to as the alphanumeric display. The
first line shows the identity of the aircraft; the second line shows its altitude and ground
speed; and the third line gives the beacon code transponder number and the aircraft track
number. To be able to have this information presented on the radarscope, the aircraft must
carry a mode C transponder that has the capability of reporting altitude along with aircraft
identity. All commercial airline aircraft carry a mode C transponder, which satisfies the
requirement for reporting altitude. One problem with the original beacon radar system was
its inability to selectively interrogate aircraft. A modified beacon radar system has been
incorporated into ATC to alleviate this difficulty in congested areas through the use of a
discrete-address beacon system (DABS) using a mode S transponder [15].
If all aircraft, including general aviation, were equipped with transponders, there would be
no need for primary radar except possibly in a backup role.

Automation in Terminal and En Route
Air Traffic Control
There are a number of reasons for updating and automating the air traffic control system.
The more important are as follows [17]:
1. Having an operational system that is capable of being technically expanded in
incremental steps to meet the needs of aviation as time requires
2. Accommodating increasing demands in a manner that allows users to operate in the
airspace with minimal regulatory constraints and in a fuel-efficient way
3. Reducing the risks of midair and surface traffic collisions, landing and weather-related
accidents, and collisions with the ground
4. Increasing the productivity of air traffic control personnel in terms of the amount of air
traffic handled
5. Decreasing the technical staff required to maintain and operate the system
6. Maintaining the overall operating costs of the system at reasonable levels