Sec 16 MCTLG

Department of Defense
MILITARILY CRITICAL TECHNOLOGIES

LIST
SECTION 16: POSITIONING NAVIGATION AND TIME TECHNOLOGY

August2009

Under Secretary of Defense, Acquisition, Technology and Logistics
Pentagon, VA

PREFACE
A. THE MILITARILY CRITICAL TECHNOLOGIES PROGRAM (MCTP)
The MCTP supports the development and promulgation of the congressionally mandated Militarily Critical
Technologies List (MCTL) and the Developing Science and Technologies List (DSTL).
Congress assigns the Secretary of Defense the responsibility of providing a list of militarily critical technolo-
gies (the MCTL) and of updating this list on an ongoing basis. The MCTL identifies technologies crucial to weapons
development and has been a key element in evaluating U.S. and worldwide technological capabilities. The MCTP
has provided the support for a wide range of assessments and judgments, along with technical justifications for
devising U.S. and multilateral controls on exports. The DSTL, another MCTP product, identifies technologies that
may enhance future military capabilities and provides an assessment of worldwide science and technology (S&T)
capabilities.
The MCTP process is a continuous analytical and information-gathering process that refines data and updates
existing technology lists to provide thorough and complete technical information. It covers the worldwide
technology spectrum and provides a systematic, ongoing assessment and analysis of technologies and determines
values and parameters for these technologies.
Technology Working Groups (TWGs), which are part of this process, provide a reservoir of technical experts
who can assist in time-sensitive and quick-response tasks. TWG chairpersons continuously screen technologies and
nominate items to be added or removed from the MCTL and DSTL. TWG members are subject matter experts
(SMEs) from the military Services, DoD and other federal agencies, industry, and academia. A balance is
maintained between public officials and private-sector representatives. TWGs collect a core of intellectual
knowledge and reference information on an array of technologies, and these data are used as a resource for projects
and other assignments. Working within an informal structure, TWG members strive to produce precise and objective
analyses across dissimilar and often disparate areas. Currently, the TWGs are organized to address 20 technology
areas:
Aeronautics Information Systems
Armament and Energetic Materials Lasers, Optics, and Imaging
Biological Processing and Manufacturing
Biomedical Marine Systems
Chemical Materials and Processes
Directed Energy Systems Nuclear Systems
Electronics Positioning, Navigation, and Time
Energy Systems Signature Control
Ground Systems Space Systems
Information Security Weapons Systems
B. THE MILITARILY CRITICAL TECHNOLOGIES LIST (MCTL)
DODI 3020.46, The Militarily Critical Technologies List (MCTL) establishes policy, assigns responsibilities,
and prescribes procedures for developing and maintaining the MCTL. The MCTL provides a coordinated
description of technologies that DoD assesses are essential to the design, development, production, operation,
application, or maintenance of an article or service which makes or could make a significant contribution to the
military potential of any country, including the United States. This includes, but is not limited to, design and
manufacturing know-how, technical data, keystone equipment, and inspection and test equipment. It includes
discrete parameters for systems; equipment; subassemblies; components; and critical materials; unique test,
inspection, and production equipment; unique software, development, production, and use know-how; and
worldwide technology capability assessments.
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C. LEGAL BASIS FOR THE LIST OF MILITARILY CRITICAL TECHNOLOGIES
The Export Administration Act (EAA) of 1979 assigned responsibilities for export controls to protect
technologies and weapons systems. It established the requirement for DoD to compile a list of militarily critical
technologies. Specifically the EAA stated:
(5)(d)(2) The Secretary of Defense shall bear primary responsibility for developing a list of militarily critical
technologies. In developing such list, primary emphasis shall be given to--
(A) arrays of design and manufacturing know-how,
(B) keystone manufacturing, inspection, and test equipment,
(C) goods accompanied by sophisticated operation, application, or maintenance know-how, and
(D) keystone equipment which would reveal or give insight into the design and manufacture of a
United States military system, which are not possessed by, or available in fact from sources
outside the United States to, controlled countries and which, if exported, would permit a
significant advance in a military system of any such country.
(3) The list referred to in paragraph (2) shall be sufficiently specific to guide the determinations of any official
exercising export licensing responsibilities under this Act.
The EAA and its provisions, as amended, were extended by Executive Orders and Presidential directives.
D. USES AND APPLICATIONS
The MCTL is not an export control list. It is DoDs recommendation for what should be controlled. When
goods are identified as being militarily critical, the technology for the development or production is also
recommended for control. The document is to be sufficiently specific for evaluating potential technology transfers
and has been used for reviewing technical reports and scientific papers for public release. Technical judgment must
be used when applying the information. It should be used to determine if the proposed transaction would result in a
transfer that would give potential adversaries access to technologies whose specific performance levels are at or
above the characteristics identified as militarily critical. It should be used with other information to determine
whether a transfer should be approved.
The first list of militarily critical technologies that was published in the Federal Register on October 1, 1980
said that, Some of these technologies will be recommended for control on the USML. This has been the practice
since. The linkage was confirmed by the Secretary of Defense/Secretary of State Defense Trade Security Trade
Initiative (DTSI) of May 2000. One of its measures, DTSI #17 was to: Review/Revise the U.S. Munitions List: The
process would involve a four-year review cycle, where one-quarter of the USML would be reviewed each year. The
objective would be to comport what is controlled by the USML more directly with the Military Critical
Technologies List. Thus, while the focus of the MCTL is on dual use technologies, defense article/technologies
may also be included.
This document, MCTL Section 16: Positioning Navigation and Time Technology supersedes MCTL Section
16, Positioning Navigation and Time Technology, July 2007.

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INTRODUCTION
A. ORGANIZATION OF THE MILITARILY CRITICAL TECHNOLOGIES LIST (MCTL)
The MCTL is a documented snapshot in time of the ongoing MCTP militarily critical technology process. It
includes text and graphic displays of technical data on individual technology data sheets.
Each section contains subsections devoted to specific technology areas. The section front matter contains the
following:
Scope identifies the technology groups covered in the section. Each group is covered in a separate
subsection.
Highlights identify the key facts in the section.
Overview discusses the technology groups identified under Scope.
Background provides additional information.
Each technology group identified under Scope has a subsection that contains the following:
Highlights identify the key facts found in the subsection.
Overview identifies and discusses technologies listed in data sheets that follow.
Background provides additional information.
Data Sheets, which are the heart of the MCTL, present data on individual militarily critical technologies.
The principal data element is the Critical Technology Parameter, which is the technology parameter that
defines where the technology would permit significant advances in the development, production and use of
military capabilities of potential adversaries.
B. TECHNOLOGY DATA SHEETS
The technology data sheets are of primary interest to all users. They contain the detailed parametric
information that export control policy makers and licensing officials need to execute their responsibilities.
Critical Technology Parameter(s) includes the parameter, data argument, value, or level of the technology
which would permit significant advances in the development, production and use of military capabilities of
potential adversaries.
Critical Materials are those materials that are unique or enable the capability or function of the technology.
Unique Test, Production and Inspection Equipment includes that type of equipment that is critical or
unique.
Unique Software is software needed to produce, operate, or maintain this technology that is unique.
Major Commercial Applications addresses commercial uses of this technology.
Affordability Issues are those factors that affect the cost of the technology.
Export Control References indicate international and U.S. control lists where this technology is controlled.
Note: Export control references are:
WA ML 2 (Wassenaar Arrangement Munitions List Item)
WA Cat 1C (Wassenaar Dual Use List Subcategory)
MTCR 17 (Missile Technology Control Regime Item)
NTL B3 (Nuclear Trigger List Subitem Nuclear Suppliers Group)
NDUL 1 (Nuclear Dual Use List Item Nuclear Suppliers Group)
AG List (Australia Group List)
BWC (Biological Weapons Convention)
CWC (Chemical Weapons Convention)
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USML XII (United States Munitions List Category ITAR)
CCL Cat 2B (Commerce Control List Subcategory EAR)
NRC A (Nuclear Regulatory Commission Item)
Background provides a description of the technology.

SECTION 16 - POSITIONING NAVIGATION AND TIME TECHNOLOGY
Scope
16.1 Inertial Navigation Systems and Related Components
16.2 Gravity Meters and Gravity Gradiometers
16.3 Radio, Acoustic and Data-Based Referenced Navigation (DBRN) Systems
16.4 Magnetic and Electromagnetic Sensor Systems
16.5 Precise Time and Frequency

Highlights
Inertial navigation system technologies provide an autonomous, covert, and nonjammable
three-dimensional (3-D) position and velocity reference for military weapon systems.
Advances in commercial hybrid inertial navigation systems embedded with Global
Positioning System (GPS), Doppler or data-based referenced navigation (DBRN) systems
provide a significant capability to potential adversaries against the U.S. forces and its allies.
GPS is the most accurate worldwide standard for positioning, navigation, and time (PNT)
dissemination. These capabilities provide a very accurate positioning and time (POSITIME)
system for combat situational awareness to the U.S. forces and its allies, as well as potential
adversaries. Anti-jam capability in GPS receivers can provide a significant additional
capability to an adversary that is a concern.
Precise time and frequency (PT&F) are required for autonomous operation of terrestrial and
satellite geolocation systems and enhanced transmission security in spread-spectrum systems.
The importance of PT&F has only recently been recognized because of the availability and
accuracy of GPS time.
Low power clocks and oscillators that are now in advanced development will perform at or
near the accuracy level of current atomic clocks and provide a significant capability to
potential adversaries against the U.S. forces and its allies.
Improvements in gravity meter and gradiometer arrays and satellite sensor systems provide
increased detection and location of submarines, mines, tunnels, and mobile missile launchers.
Magnetic and electromagnetic sensor and array technology for covert detection and
classification is evolving because of better sensors, advances in processor speed and memory
capacity, and integration with PT&F devices and geo databases.
Low probability of intercept/low probability of detection (LPI/LPD) radar altimeters
integrated with greatly improved terrain databases provide a military alternative to GPS,
particularly in a jamming environment.
OVERVIEW
This section covers technologies for both autonomous and cooperative PNT systems for the
coordination and control of military force elements. All of these technologies have dual-use requirements,
and all of them are essential for various military missions.
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Section 16.1 includes inertial systems and components that form the basis for autonomous, covert
navigation and motion sensing. Included are inertial navigation systems, various types of integrated or
hybrid inertial navigation systems, and many distinct types of gyroscopes and accelerometers that can be
found in a navigation system. Also included are gyro astro trackers and azimuth determination systems that
require gyroscopic systems for a stable level reference. Technologies below the gyroscope and
accelerometer sensor level (i.e., fiber-optic cables) are included in Section 10, Information Technology.
Hybrid systems bound the time-dependent errors of the inertial sensors. Accuracy of position and time
provides a more robust navigation system. Further improvements in hybrid inertial navigation system
performance are expected.
Section 16.2 includes both gravity meters and gravity gradiometers for ground use or mobile use.
Continuing improvements in gravity sensors are enabling better positioning updates for inertial navigation
system error compensation, strategic arms treaty verification, and detection of tunnels and terrain
estimation.
Section 16.3 covers a limited category of militarily critical radio, acoustic and DBRN technology and
systems having a wide range of dual-use applications. Under radio navigation, only Global Navigation
Satellite System (e.g., GPS, GLONASS and GALILEO) receivers are included. The U.S. GPS consists of
three segments: (1) space systems (including satellites), (2) satellite command and control systems, and (3)
user receivers and associated equipment. Only the last is included in this section; refer to Section 19, Space
Systems Technology for (1) and (2). Under acoustic navigation, both active and passive underwater
acoustic Doppler/sonar navigation systems are included. Under DBRN, only underwater bathymetric,
magnetic and gravity DBRN systems are included as well as LPI/LPD radar altimeters/fathometers.
Section 16.4 covers the technology relative to magnetometers of various types, including active
electromagnetic sensors, underwater electric field sensors, magnetic gradiometers, and arrays composed of
magnetic and electric field sensors. Magnetic sensor systems detect and display the presence of a magnetic
field and measure its magnitude or direction. Magnetic sensor types of special interest include
superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID), nuclear precession, optically pumped, induction
coil, flux gate, and fiber optic. Magnetic sensor systems can be configured to detect the spatial variation of
the magnetic field intensity from sources external to the instrument, that is, the gradient of the magnetic
field intensity. In this mode they are called magnetic gradiometers.
Section 16.5 includes two PT&F technology areas: atomic clocks (used in ground stations and
satellites) and low power clocks and oscillators (used in inertial navigation systems and receivers). Most
types of positioning and navigation (POSNAV) systems are highly dependent on precise time, but other
applications depend on frequency and not absolute time (refer to Section 16.3 for GPS as a timing
distribution system).
BACKGROUND
Over the past 10 years, PNT technologies have been highly affected by advances in computer
throughput, memory, and algorithms, as well as miniaturization and reliability of electronic components.
These technologies, in turn, have been highly influenced by advances in material, manufacturing, and
fabrication technologies. The applications of satellite PNT technologies, particularly the U.S. GPS, has had
an enormous positive impact on military and commercial users, especially the telecommunications
industry, which has had a need for accurate time.
The American Practical Navigator by Bowditch can be viewed at http://www.irbs.com/bowditch/ and
provides general information on navigation and positioning, its history, and its instruments.

16.1 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND RELATED COMPONENTS
Highlights
Inertial navigation system (INS) technologies provide an autonomous, covert, and
nonjammable 3-D position, attitude, heading, and velocity reference for potential adversaries
for navigation, guidance for weapons of mass destruction and other military weapons.
The performance levels for commercial and military (aircraft and ground use) inertial
navigation systems have stayed at their respective levels of 1.0 and 0.8 nmi/hour CEP over
the last 20 years. The difference between commercial and military use is mainly in the
environment that the performance must be achieved.
Emergence of fiber-optic gyroscope and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) gyroscope
and accelerometer technology provides the ability to survive in a high-g environment for
applications in tactical missiles, gun-launched projectiles and smart weapons.
Commercial application for hybrid inertial navigation systems with embedded GPS,
Doppler/SONAR, DBRN and/or low power clock technology have increased over the past
several years and will continue to increase as their cost, weight, and size improve. These
hybridized systems provide a very precise navigation and guidance capability.
Built-in redundancy through low-cost, small-size, lightweight, and highly reliable
components allows an affordable, throwaway logistics concept. This will enable a rapid and
affordable technology insertion of emerging inertial navigation system technology. The
challenge will be to protect transfer of older technology to potential adversaries that can be
used against the United States and its allies.
OVERVIEW
This section of PNT includes inertial systems and components that form the basis for autonomous,
covert navigation and motion sensing. Included are inertial navigation systems, various types of integrated
or hybrid inertial navigation systems, and each of many distinct types of gyroscopes and accelerometers
that can be found in a navigation system. The inertial measurement unit provides delta-angle (sometimes
referred to as delta theta) and delta velocity outputs for use by the vehicle or the system performing the
navigation. Synonymous terms include, but are not limited to, inertial reference unit, inertial sensor
assembly, and inertial sensor unit. These subassemblies have the militarily critical parametric levels of the
inertial instruments (gyroscopes and accelerometers) used therein. An attitude and heading reference
system (AHRS) provides attitude and heading, but does not necessarily provide a complete navigation
solution. An AHRS may also provide velocity, angular rate, and acceleration data. An AHRS is protected at
the level of the inertial instruments (gyroscopes and accelerometers) used therein. Both gyro astro trackers
and azimuth-determination systems require gyro systems for reference (level). Not included in this section
are technologies below the gyroscope and accelerometer sensor level (i.e., fiber-optic cables).
BACKGROUND
An inertial navigation system is a self-contained system that provides a capability to continuously
estimate a weapons systems position, velocity, acceleration, attitude, angular rate, and often guidance or
steering inputs. An inertial navigation system contains accelerometers and gyroscopes to sense linear and
angular rate. The system can be mechanized as a gimbaled platform, as a strapdown inertial sensing unit
employing a computer to provide the software equivalent of gimbals, or as a hybrid unit with both gimbal
and strapdown features. Hybrid systems bound the time-dependent errors of the inertial sensors or systems,
resulting in a more robust nonjammable navigation system. Further improvement in hybrid inertial
navigation system performance is expected to continue. A hybrid INS/DBRN can also provide an accurate
autonomous, nonjamming, and covert navigation capability, independent of any GNSS. A gyro astro
tracker or astro compass is an automated optical or radiometric sextant that tracks selected stars and
provides true heading and position data by triangulation using the referenced stars. The system can operate
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day or night very accurately. The system requires a stable reference to level and is composed of
components of, or hybridized with, an inertial navigation system.

LIST OF MCTL TECHNOLOGY DATA SHEETS
16.1 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND RELATED COMPONENTS
16.1-1 Inertial Navigation Systems and Related Components (including IMU)
16.1-2 Hybrid Inertial Navigation Systems (including GNSS and DBRN)
16.1-3 Gyro Astro-Tracking Devices
16.1-4 Azimuth (North-Pointing) Determination Systems
Gyroscopes and Angular Rate Sensors
16.1-5 Mechanical or Spinning Mass Gyroscopes
16.1-6 Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscopes
16.1-7 Optical Gyroscopes or Angular Rate Sensors
16.1-8 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) Gyroscopes
Accelerometers
16.1-9 Linear Accelerometers (Other than MEMS)
16.1-10 MEMS Linear Accelerometers
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MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-1. INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND
RELATED COMPONENTS (INCLUDING IMU)
An inertial navigation system (INS) is a self-contained, covert navigation system that provides
continuous estimates of some or all components of a vehicle state, such as position, velocity, acceleration,
attitude, angular rate, and often guidance or steering inputs.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any inertial navigation system (gimbaled or strapdown) and inertial
equipment that meets any of the following:
o Position, velocity, attitude, guidance, or control, having a
navigation error (free inertial) after normal
alignment/calibration of 0.8 nmi/hour (CEP) or less (better);
o Having an azimuth accuracy of less (better) than 6 arc
minutes rms at 45 degrees latitude;
o Contains accelerometers or gyroscopes that are militarily
critical;
o Capable of functioning at continuous acceleration levels
exceeding 10 g; or
o Designed to have a non-operating shock level of 900 g or
greater at a duration of 1 millisecond, or greater.
Any inertial measurement equipment including Inertial Measurement Units
(IMU) that: (1) contains accelerometers or gyroscopes that are militarily
critical; and, (2) meets same shock level as INS. Excludes INS which is
certified for use on civil aircraft by FAA.
Critical Materials None identified.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Components requiring specially designed test, calibration, or alignment equipment for test,
calibration, alignment, or production.
Ship-motion simulator capable of motion with three or more simultaneous degrees of
freedom.
Unique Software Software specially designed or modified to improve the operational performance or reduce
navigational error to the levels specified above.
Source code for inertial navigation system for autonomous use. Source code, algorithms,
and verified data needed to meet militarily critical parameters.
Software for optimizing inertial navigation system alignment time for moving platforms and
transfer alignment techniques. Algorithms for gyro compensation.
Major Commercial
Applications
Aviation, ships, space, and land vehicles.
Affordability Issues Accuracy is a cost driver. Reduced costs are attendant with strapdown systems and
production base.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.3.a; MTCR 9.A.6; USML VIII(e)(Component); CCL Cat
7A003.a.
BACKGROUND
The INS is made from a navigation computer and a set of gyroscopes and accelerometers, generally
called inertial sensors that measure a Newtonian inertial reference frame. Gyroscopes measure rotation or
angular rate, and accelerometers measure acceleration. Integrating the output from an accelerometer gives
speed, and integrating speed gives distance traveled. The gyroscopes provide information on where the
accelerations are directed, and therefore heading and distance, the essential ingredients for dead reckoning,
are known.
The inertial sensors might be mounted in a set of gimbals so that they (1) stay level in a fixed direction
no matter how the vehicle moves, i.e., space stable INS; or (2) remains parallel to the reference ellipsoid,
i.e., a local level INS. Both of these are called a gimbaled system. As an alternative, the inertial sensors
might be attached to the vehicle, in which case they measure its motion components in the vehicle axes by
transforming the measurements from the vehicle axes to the reference axes. This is called a strapdown
system.[1]
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Inertial measurement equipment includes the inertial navigation unit, inertial measurement unit,
inertial reference unit, inertial sensor assembly, or inertial sensor unit which are subassemblies of an
inertial navigation system; a self-contained, covert system that provides continuous estimates of some or all
components of a vehicle state, such as position, velocity, acceleration, attitude, angular rate, and often
guidance or steering inputs. It also includes an Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) or
Gyrocompass that provides attitude and magnetic heading, but does not provide a complete navigation
solution. An AHRS or Gyrocompass may provide velocity, angular rate, and acceleration data in addition
to attitude and heading. This system may be combined into hybrid systems to complete the navigation
function.

1. Anthony Lawrence, Modern Inertial Technology, 1998.
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MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-2. HYBRID INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
(INCLUDING GNSS AND DBRN)
Hybrid INS/GNSS/DBRN systems combine the best features of different navigation systems to
provide a very accurate navigation capability that is autonomous, covert, and nonjammable.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any hybrid (the terms hybrid and integrated are the same) inertial navigation system
(gimbaled or strapdown) having any of the following:
1. Embedded with GNSS receiver or DBRN System(s) having a navigation
position accuracy, after loss of GNSS;
2. DBRN for a period of up to 4 minutes, of less (better) than 10 meters CEP;
3. Embedded with any INS, IMU, GNSS receiver or a DBRN system that is
militarily critical; or
4. Embedded with any gyroscope or accelerometer that is militarily critical.
Critical Materials Tamper-resistant thermal-spray technology to protect components containing sensitive U.S.
cryptographic logic.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Components that require specially designed test, calibration, or alignment equipment.
GNSS receivers that require use of military-capable, signal-simulator testing systems.
Systems that simulate/generate the specialized radio-frequency signal and data message
structure and require the use of U.S. cryptography.
Any antispoofing signal simulators.
Unique Software Software specially designed or modified to meet militarily critical parameters.
Source code for inertial navigation systems for hybridized use. Source code, algorithms,
and verified data needed to meet militarily critical parameters with any of following
navigation data: Doppler radar or sonar, GNSS, or DBRN (acoustic, stellar, gravity, and
magnetic databases, or 3-D digital terrain maps and other geomapping data).
Source code for integrated INS equipment, sensors and processors that meet or exceed
militarily critical parameters.
Major Commercial
Applications
Aviation, ships, space, and land vehicles.
Affordability Issues Not an issue.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.3.b; MTCR 9.A.7, 11; USML VIII(e)(Component); CCL
Cat 7A003.b.
BACKGROUND
Hybrid inertial navigation systems provide the means to accurately locate forces and infrastructures
with minimal detectability.
The hybrid INS/navigation system include Doppler (sonar, laser, radar) that can provide a very
accurate navigation system independent of GNSS.
In all cases, the INS provides a flywheel effect for continuous accurate navigation, even when the
other navigation signals are lost (intentionally or not).
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MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-3. GYRO ASTRO-TRACKING DEVICES
Gyro astro-tracking devices or star trackers are a type of telescope on a stable (gyroscopic) platform
with an optical detector array at its focus, which can be precisely pointed at a star whose location is known.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
1. Any gyro astro compasses, and other devices which derive position or
orientation by means of automatically tracking celestial bodies or satellites,
with an azimuth accuracy equal to or less (better) than 6 seconds of arc.
2. Any zenith camera used to determine vertical deflection to better than 0.1
seconds of arc and with the ability to rapidly measure at multiple sites.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Components require specially designed test, calibration, or alignment equipment including
clock accuracy of a microsecond per 24 hours. Star simulators required.
Unique Software Algorithms and verified data needed to exceed militarily critical parameters. Source code
for combining an inertial navigation system with a gyro astro tracker is unique. Gyro astro
tracker stabilization requires accurate initialization and reference data from an inertial
navigation system.
Major Commercial
Applications
None identified.
Affordability Issues Very expensive because of low volume requirements and technical complexity.
Export Control
References
WA Cat 7.A.4; MTCR 9.A.2; USML VIII(e)(Component); CCL Cat 7A004.
BACKGROUND
The star tracker in a gyro astro-tracking device locks onto the preselected star and uses the stars
known position to determine the vehicles position. These devices are immune from jamming, but are
affected by atmospheric turbulence, such as smoke and haze. Star trackers are expensive and require a
window in a vehicle.[1] Zenith cameras are used to determine the deflection of the vertical at a fixed site. If
these instruments can be used to make very accurate measurements very quickly, they can provide data
valuable for initializing the guidance systems of mobile ballistic missiles, or providing a reference grid of
vertical deflections useful for compensating an inertial navigation system.
The following Web site describes applications of gyro astro-tracking devices:
Basics of Celestial Navigation: http://www.springerlink.com/content/n1624k7j11214312/.
Description of a zenith camera for determining deflection of the vertical: http://www.geodaesie-
geodynamik.ethz.ch/research/wg18/.

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MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-4. AZIMUTH (NORTH-POINTING)
DETERMINATION SYSTEMS
Azimuth, or north-pointing systems use gyroscopes to precisely determine the orientation of the
vehicle with respect to true geographic north.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any inertial equipment having any of the following characteristics, and specially designed
components therefore:
1. Having an azimuth, heading, or north pointing accuracy equal to or better
than 6 arc minutes rms at 45 degrees latitude; or
2. Having a non-operating shock level of 900 g or greater at a duration of 1-
msec, or greater.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Components require specially designed test, calibration, or alignment equipment.
Unique Software Algorithms and verified data needed for compensation.
Major Commercial
Applications
Satellite communications, bore sighting, geodesy, surveying, and construction.
Export Control
References
WA Cat 7.A.3.c and 7.A.4; MTCR 9.A.2; USML XIII(e); CCL Cat 7003.c and 7A004.
BACKGROUND
The rate gyroscope is used to measure Earths rotation rate (approximately 15 degrees/hour at the
equator); this value is then used to compute the angle (of the vehicle) with respect to true north. The only
external input required is the approximate latitude. This system offers a significant improvement over
magnetic measurement techniques, which are susceptible to local anomalies in Earths magnetic field,
distortion caused by ferrous metals, and currents in the equipment to which it is mounted.
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MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-5. MECHANICAL OR SPINNING MASS
GYROSCOPES
The mechanical or spinning mass gyroscope includes floated gyroscopes, dynamically tuned
gyroscopes and electrostatically supported gyroscopes.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any mechanical or spinning gyroscope having any of the following capability:
1. A drift-rate stability, when measured in a 1-g environment over a period of 1
month, and with respect to a fixed calibration value of less (better) than 0.5
degree/hour when specified to function at linear acceleration levels up to and
including 100 g; or
2. Specified to function at linear accelerations levels exceeding 100 g.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Equipment specially designed for the production of this equipment, including:
1. Gyro tuning test stations;
2. Gyro dynamic balance stations;
3. Gyro run-in/motor test stations;
4. Gyro evacuation and fill stations; or
5. Centrifuge fixtures for gyro bearings.
Unique Software Algorithms and verified data needed to exceed militarily critical parameters. Error
compensation for environmental effects and differing technology characteristics.
Major Commercial
Applications
Aviation, ships, land and space vehicles, robotics, manufacturing, and stability reference
(cameras, telescopes, etc.).
Affordability Issues Accuracy is a cost driver. Reduced costs are attendant with optical gyroscopes. Use of
MEMS will further reduce cost of gyroscopes.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.3.c and 7.A.4; MTCR 9.A.4; USML VIII(e) (Component);
CCL Cat 7A003.c and 7A004.
BACKGROUND
Mechanical or spinning mass gyroscopes include floated gyroscopes, dynamically tuned gyroscopes
and electrostatically supported gyroscopes.
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MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-6. HEMISPHERICAL RESONATOR GYROSCOPES
The hemispherical resonator gyroscope is a fused-quartz hemispheric vibrating shell supported by a
stem along a diameter, like a wineglass with its stem continued into the bowl.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any gyroscope having any of the following capability:
1. A drift-rate stability, when measured in a 1-g environment over a period of 1
month, and with respect to a fixed calibration value of less (better) than 0.5
degree/hour when specified to function at linear acceleration levels up to and
including 100 g; or
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
Major Commercial
Applications
None identified.
Affordability Issues Extremely costly because of low production quantities; cost decreases as production
increases.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.3.c and 7.A.4; MTCR 9.A.4; USML VIII(e)(Component);
CCL Cat 7A003.c and 7A004.
BACKGROUND
The hemispherical resonator gyroscope shell is electrostatically excited at its natural frequency by an
alternating current (AC) signal applied to fixed electrodes on the case. A servo system drives the shell to
resonance and maintains the oscillation amplitude constant. Because the internal damping of quartz is so
low and the enclosure is evacuated, little energy needs to be supplied to maintain resonance. The
hemispherical resonator gyroscope continues to resonate when power is removed. Thus, it remembers
rotations occurring while it is temporarily unexcited. This memory could be useful in guidance systems for
missiles that have to operate near nuclear blasts. The hemispherical resonator gyroscope is expensive to
manufacture because its performance comes from the precise manufacturing of the shell and housing and
the high vacuum sealing.[1]

MCTL-16-13

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-7. OPTICAL GYROSCOPES OR ANGULAR RATE
SENSORS
Optical Gyroscopes or Angular Rate Sensors include Ring Laser Gyroscopes (RLGs) and Fiber Optic
Gyroscopes (FOGs).
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any ring laser or fiber optic gyroscope or angular rate sensor that meets any of the
following:
1. Having a drift-rate stability, when measured in a 1-g environment over a
period of 1 month, and with respect to a fixed calibration value of less
(better) than 0.5 degree/hour when specified to function at linear acceleration
levels up to and including 100 g;
2. Having an angle random walk of less (better) than or equal to 0.0035
deg/hour;
3. Having a drift rate stability, over a period of three minutes, of less (better)
than 40 degrees/hour when specified to have any of the following
characteristics: 1) An input rate range greater than or equal to 500
degrees/second; or 2) An ARW of less (better) than or equal to 0.2 degree
per square root hour; or
Note: Drift rate stability is measured with respect to a fixed calibration value and at a
constant temperature.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Fiber optic gyro coil winding machines; Scattermeters having a measurement accuracy of
10 ppm or less (better); Profilometers having measurement accuracy of 0.5 nm (5
angstrom) or less (better).
Major Commercial
Applications
Aviation, ships, land and space vehicles, and robotics.
Affordability Issues High cost for initial national capability because clean rooms and ultra-clean, high-vacuum
equipment are required. High production base will reduce cost.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.3.a; MTCR 9.A.4; USML VIII(e)(Component); CCL Cat
7A003.a.
BACKGROUND
Invented in the 1960s, the ring-laser gyroscope is an active-resonator optical gyroscope. A laser, the
optical oscillator, is used as the light source. When used in a Fabry-Perot resonator with three or more
mirrors making the light circulate through an enclosed-glass, waveguide medium, a beam splitter is used to
provide clockwise and counterclockwise light beams. Both clockwise and counterclockwise waves will be
generated; these will resonate when the path perimeter is an integral number of wavelengths, and the two
waves will form a standing-wave pattern. Such a laser is called a ring laser.
As the ring-laser gyroscope is rotated about an axis normal to the resonator plane, the difference in
transit time (or frequency shift) of the light beam traveling in opposite directions is proportional to the
rotation rate. This is called the Sagnac effect.[1] Ring-laser gyroscopes are replacing conventional
spinning-mass gyroscopes in many inertial navigation system applications because of their stability, high
accuracy, high reliability, and low costs.
Like the ring laser gyroscope, the fiber-optic gyroscope was also invented in the 1960s, but developed
more slowly. Its development tracked the communications industry light source and optical fiber
developments. A fiber-optic gyroscope uses the Sagnac effect to determine rotation rate. The Sagnac effect
results from the counter-propagation of light beams in an optical waveguide consisting of a coil of optical
fiber, where the number of turns and diameter affect the accuracy of rotation-rate measurement. The
MCTL-16-14

difference of frequency is the optical reciprocity between clockwise and counterclockwise paths of the light
beams. Rotation normal to the waveguide upsets the symmetry, which is then photoelectronically detected
and processed to provide an indication of rotation rate.

MCTL-16-15

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-8. MICROELECTROMECHANICAL
SYSTEMS (MEMS) GYROSCOPES
Any gyroscope using an electro-mechanically driven resonator in accordance with the dynamic theory
that when an angular rate is applied a Coriolis force is generated proportional to the applied angular rate.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any MEMS gyroscopes:
1. Having a drift rate stability, over a period of three minutes, of less (better)
than 40 degrees/hour when specified to have any of the following
characteristics: 1) An input rate range greater than or equal to 500
degrees/second; or 2) An ARW of less (better) than or equal to 0.2 degree
per square root hour; or
Note: Drift rate stability is measured with respect to a fixed calibration value and at a
constant temperature.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Specially designed test, calibration, or alignment equipment. Gyroscope axis alignment
fixture. The fabrication process relies on commonly available semiconductor process
equipment, including high-precision lithography, ion milling, plasma arc, and electronic-
sputtering production equipment.
compensation for environmental effects and technology characteristics.
Major Commercial
Applications
Vehicle control and robotics.
Affordability Issues None identified.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.1, 2 and 3; MTCR 9.A.4; USML VIII(e)(Component);
CCL Cat 7A001, 7A002 and 7A003.
BACKGROUND
A MEMS gyroscope is usually designed as an electromechanically driven resonator, often fabricated
out of a single piece of quartz or silicon. Most MEMS gyroscopes operate in accordance with the dynamic
theory that when an angle rate is applied to a body, a Coriolis force is generated. When this angle rate is
applied to the axis of a resonating tuning folk, its prongs receive a Coriolis force proportional to the applied
angular rate. This force can be measured capacitively (silicon) or piezoelectrically (quartz).[1]
Many manufacturers are developing these MEMS gyroscopes to reduce the cost of inertial sensors in
commercial applications, as well as opening new applications because of their reduced size and weight
compared to existing traditional gyroscopes.

MCTL-16-16

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-9. LINEAR ACCELEROMETERS (OTHER THAN
MEMS)
A linear accelerometer is a device that senses the acceleration in one direction.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any linear accelerometer having the following:
Specified to function at linear acceleration levels less than or equal to 15 g
and having any of the following:
o A bias stability of less (better) than 130 g with respect to a
fixed calibration value over a period of 1 year; or
o A scale factor stability of less (better) than 130 ppm with
respect to a fixed calibration value over a period of one year.
Specified to function at linear acceleration levels exceeding 15 g and having
all of the following:
o A bias repeatability of less (better) than 5,000 micro g over a
period of one year; and
o A scale factor repeatability of less (better) than 2,500 ppm
over a period of one year.
Designed for use in inertial navigation or guidance systems and specified to
function at linear acceleration levels exceeding 100 g.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Specially designed test, calibration, or alignment equipment. Accelerometer axis-alignment
stations and programmable dividing head.
Major Commercial
Applications
Aviation, ships, land and space vehicles, robotics, manufacturing reference, geodesy, and
seismic detection.
Affordability Issues Not an issue, except for extremely accurate sensors with low quantity requirements.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.1; MTCR 9.A.3; USML VIII(e)(Component); CCL Cat
7A001.
BACKGROUND
A basic linear accelerometer is a single-degree-of-freedom accelerometer made up of at least the
following elements: 1) a mass, often called the proof mass; 2) a suspension, which locates the mass; and
3) a pickoff, which puts out a signal related to the acceleration sensed.
There are two types of linear accelerometers, open loop and closed loop. The former will have a mass
on a spring hinge as the sensing element. This is called an open-loop pendulous accelerometer. A pickoff
will measure the angular deflection of the sensing element, which is the accelerometers output. Because of
this deflection, the accelerometer can suffer from cross-coupling acceleration and vibrations. Open-loop
accelerometers are satisfactory where dynamic range does not exceed 5,000 to 1 and where scale-factor
error can be 0.1 percent or more.
Where higher performance is needed, it is better to use a closed-loop pendulous accelerometer. The
closed-loop sensor relies on the feedback system to restrain the sensitive element under high acceleration
and rotations. Closed-loop pendulous accelerometer designs vary with different kinds of materials and
sensitivities of the core three elements.[1] Until the 1990s, most accelerometers were produced using other
than micromachined techniques.

MCTL-16-17

MCTL-16-18
MCTL DATA SHEET 16.1-10. MEMS LINEAR ACCELEROMETERS
A linear accelerometer is a device that senses the acceleration in one direction.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any MEMS linear accelerometer having the following:
Specified to function at linear acceleration levels less than or equal to 15 g
and having any of the following:
o A bias stability of less (better) than 130 g with respect to a
fixed calibration value over a period of 1 year; or
o A scale factor stability of less (better) than 130 ppm with
respect to a fixed calibration value over a period of one year.
Specified to function at linear acceleration levels exceeding 15 g and having
all of the following:
o A bias repeatability of less (better) than 5,000 micro g over a
period of one year; and
o A scale factor repeatability of less (better) than 2,500 ppm
over a period of one year.
Designed for use in inertial navigation or guidance systems and specified to
function at linear acceleration levels exceeding 100 g.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Specially designed test, calibration, or alignment equipment. Accelerometer axis-alignment
stations. The fabrication process relies on commonly available semiconductor process
equipment, including high-precision lithography, ion-milling, plasma-arc, and electronic-
sputtering production equipment.
Major Commercial
Applications
Safety air bags and dynamic vehicle control.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.1; MTCR 9.A.3 and 5; USML VIII(e)(Component); CCL
Cat 7A001.
BACKGROUND
The microelectronics field has made pure single-crystal silicon readily available, and silicon has
excellent mechanical properties: 1) harder than most metals; 2) higher elastic limits in both tension and
compression than steel; and, 3) negligibly small hysteresis and virtually infinite fatigue life. By using an
anistropic-etching process, it can be made into microscopically small devices, including accelerometers.
There are many designs of silicon accelerometers, from a simple pendulum to a tuning fork. There are
also numerous other types. This is a relatively new technology area. MEMS sensors are one-tenth the cost
of the electromechanical sensors they replace. This reduced cost will dramatically change the inertial sensor
business, just as integrated circuits changed electronics.[1]


16.2 GRAVITY METERS AND GRAVITY GRADIOMETERS
Highlights
Uncompensated gravity disturbances are a large error source for inertial navigation system
initialization and subsequent field operation. Evolving gravity models are enabling better
inertial navigation system error compensation.
Use of a worldwide gravity database based on better instrumentation and having greater
computer capabilities, in conjunction with on-board gravity sensors, provides autonomous
and continuous updates to inertial navigation systems, yielding accuracy or noise level
comparable with projected inertial navigation system/GPS hybrid systems for short periods of
time.
Gravity meter and gravity gradiometer arrays with accurate time sequencing, faster computer
speeds, and memory advances can provide improved detection and location of submarines,
mines, tunnels, and mobile missile launchers.
An evolving technology to compute real-time gravity data from a moving research platform
using the difference in acceleration data from an uncompensated inertial navigation system
and the GNSS has been demonstrated.
OVERVIEW
This section on gravity sensors includes both gravity meters and gravity gradiometers used in either
ground (fixed) or mobile (moving base) applications. These sensors can be used for detecting variations
in mass distributions, either on local or global scales. Practical applications include detection of ore bodies
or faults and generating a worldwide gravity database that can then be used for navigation-system error
compensation. Refer to Inertial Navigation Systems, Section 16.1, and to DBRN, Section 16.3, for mobile
use measurements. For mobile gravity or gravity gradient measurements, compensation techniques must be
used to remove the noise and errors caused by the motion (acceleration) of the system and the mass of the
compensation instrumentation. This generally requires a stable reference that can be obtained using gyros.
The accuracy or noise level of the system is a function of the system stability and the complexity of the
mechanical, electronic, and software compensation systems. A gradiometer in principle is immune to the
effects of linear acceleration of the platform and the velocity-dependent interactions with the rotation of
Earth. However, in practice, vibration and rotational motion must be accounted for in order to improve
accuracy.
BACKGROUND
There are many methods of measuring or computing quantities related to the Earths gravity field.[1]
For instance, an absolute measurement of gravity acceleration can be made using accurate timing of a
falling weight or a swinging pendulum in a controlled environment. A cold atom interferometric gravimeter
can also make an absolute measurement by observing the acceleration of a cloud of cooled Rubidium
atoms.[2] A relative gravity measurement can be accomplished by using a gravity meter (gravimeter) based
on the deflection of a spring. The most commonly used unit for the acceleration of gravity is the milligal
(the unit gal is named after Galileo, the unit symbol is Gal, and 1 Gal is defined as 1 cm/sec
2
). The earths
gravity field ranges from about 983,000 mGal at the poles to about 978,000 mGal at the equator, so the
generally desired accuracy of 1 mGal represents about 1 part per milliona challenging requirement for
mechanical instruments. Precise gravimeters today are designed for microgal (mGal) accuracy.
Global observations of the gravitational potential field are made by tracking the orbits of individual
satellites, or carefully measuring the relative separation of pairs of satellites flying in formation.[3] Once
the global potential of gravity (the geopotential) is modeled or computed, any gravity field quantity, (e.g.,
gravity anomaly, gravity gradients, deflection of the vertical, or geoid height) can be computed and mapped
(at accuracies and resolution subject to the original measurements). For example, the model EGM 2008[4]
MCTL-16-19

MCTL-16-20
was developed as the latest improvement to the WGS 84 geopotential. Global gravity maps are important
for ballistic missile and inertial navigation accuracy; however, this section focuses on the more local-scale
measurements made by gravimeters and gradiometers.
In its simplest form, a gradiometer is a set of gravimeters separated by a fixed distance, where the
gradient is the difference in field values sensed by the gravimeters. The derivative of g is the gradient of
gravity. The partial spatial derivatives of the gravity vector yield the gravity gradient tensor, consisting of
nine elements. The gravity vector has three spatial components (x, y, and z), and derivatives are taken with
respect to each of the spatial directions (x, y, and z) to yield the nine components of the tensor. The gravity
gradient tensor (T) is symmetric about its diagonal, so six of the nine terms (Txx, Tyy, Tzz, Txy, Txz, Tyz)
contain all the useful information.

1. Chapin, D., 1998, Gravity instruments: Past, present, future, The Leading Edge, January 1998,
pp. 100112.
2. Cheinet et al., http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=01567407 (AND/OR any
reference from Stanford/Kasevich?) e.g., Stanford Cold Atom Interferometer Gravity
Gradiometer, McGuirk et al., 2001: http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/physics/pdf/0105/0105088v1.pdf.
3. http://www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/
4. http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/gravitymod/egm2008/index.html

16.2 GRAVITY METERS AND GRAVITY GRADIOMETERS
Gravity Meters
16.2-1 Gravity Meters (Gravimeters) for Ground Use
16.2-2 Gravity Meters (Gravimeters) for Mobile Use
Gravity Gradiometers
16.2-3 Gravity Gradiometers for Ground Use
16.2-4 Gravity Gradiometers for Mobile Use
CHANGES FROM LAST MCTL
Additions: None
Deletions: None
Changes: None
MCTL-16-21

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.2-1. GRAVITY METERS (GRAVIMETERS) FOR
GROUND USE
Gravity meters used in a static base to measure the magnitude of the acceleration of gravity.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any gravity meter (gravimeter) designed or modified for ground use having any of the
following:
1. Having a static accuracy of less (better) than 0.1 mGal; or
2. Having any accelerometer or gyroscope that is militarily critical.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Equipment to produce, align and calibrate land-based gravity meters with a static accuracy
of better than 0.1 mGal.
Unique Software Software specially designed to correct motional influences of gravity meters or gravity
gradiometers.
Major Commercial
Applications
Geodetic mapping, resource exploration, and mass detection.
Affordability Issues Highly specialized sensor system with few, but critical applications.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 6.A.7.a; MTCR 12.a.3; CCL Cat 6A007.a.
BACKGROUND
An absolute measurement of gravity can be made using accurate timing of a falling weight or a
swinging pendulum in a controlled environment. Relative gravity measurements may be made in various
ways. Three types of relative gravity instrumentsthe torsion balance, the pendulum, and the gravity meter
(or gravimeter)have been used. Today, the spring-based technologies are preferred.[1]
Gravity meters can be used in a static or dynamic (moving) base to measure the magnitude of the
acceleration of gravity. In a static environment, a gravity meter is capable of measuring Earths gravity to a
greater degree of accuracy (microgal rather than milligal precisiongood enough to observe tides).
However, dynamic (moving) gravity meter applications suffer from acceleration noise due to motion, and
accuracy attainable now is on the order of a few to ten milligals. For mobile measurements, more
electronics, software, and gyro stabilization is required to compensate for the motion effects on measured
gravity.

1. Chapin, D., 1998, Gravity instruments: Past, present, future, The Leading Edge, January 1998,
pp. 100112.
MCTL-16-23

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.2-2. GRAVITY METERS (GRAVIMETERS) FOR
MOBILE USE
Gravity meters used in a mobile platform to measure the magnitude of the acceleration of gravity.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any gravity meter (gravimeter) designed for mobile platforms, having any of the following:
1. Having an accuracy of less (better) than 10 mGal; or
2. Having any accelerometer or gyroscope that is militarily critical.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
gradiometers.
Major Commercial
Applications
Geologic mapping and resource exploration.
Affordability Issues Cost is proportional to usage. This is not a high-volume production technology, but rather a
highly specialized sensor system with only a few, but critical, applications.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 6.A.7.b; MTCR 12.a.3; CCL Cat 6A007.b.
BACKGROUND
Absolute measurements of gravity cannot be made quickly enough to be done on a moving platform
(except perhaps ultimately by improvements to the cold atom interferometry technique). Spring-mass or
vibrating-string relative gravity meters have been used on moving vehicles, including ships, submarines,
and aircraft. Gravity measurements from ships became useful in the 1960s, but airborne gravity did not
become accurate enough until the late 1980s and early 1990s when kinematic GPS allowed aircraft
positions and accelerations to be rapidly and precisely determined.
Measurements of gravity on a moving and vibrating platform are of course much more difficult and
less accurate than fixed ground-based measurements. For mobile-use measurements, compensation
techniques must be used to remove the noise caused by the motion (acceleration) of the system and the
noise of the mass of the compensation instrumentation. This generally requires a stable reference that can
be obtained using gyros. The accuracy or noise level of the system is a function of the stability of the
system and the complexity of the mechanical, electronic, and software-compensation systems. Along-track
filtering or smoothing of the measurements removes some of the noise, but at the penalty of not resolving
short wavelengths of the gravity field.
MCTL-16-24

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.2-3. GRAVITY GRADIOMETERS FOR GROUND USE
A gradiometer can be thought of as an assemblage of gravity meters with spatial separation. The
difference between readings reflects the rate of change of gravity along the direction in which the meters
are separated. Gravity gradiometers for ground (static) use are used for determining verticality for sensor
stabilization.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any gravity gradiometer for ground use that meets any of the following;
1. Capable of operation on a static platform with a noise level of less (better)
than 1.0 Etvs squared per radian per second; or
2. Contains militarily critical accelerometers or gyroscopes.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
gradiometers.
Major Commercial
Applications
Geologic mapping and resource exploration; cargo detection and weight in motion; oil
production enhancement; and tunnel detection.
Affordability Issues Cost is proportional to usage. This is not a high-volume production technology, but a highly
specialized sensor system with only a few, but critical, applications.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 6.A.7.c; MTCR 12.a.3; CCL Cat 6A007.c.
BACKGROUND
A gradiometer can be thought of as an assemblage of gravity meters with some spatial separation. The
are separated. A single gravity meter alternately placed at two positions on a tower would measure the
vertical component of the vertical gravity field. Similar measurements can be achieved for the horizontal
gradients of gravity. In 1886, Baron von Etvs announced an instrument in which two weights were
suspended from a torsion fiber at unequal heights. Because the weights were separated both vertically and
horizontally, they experienced different forces due to both spatial separations. Modern gravity gradiometers
have been implemented in various ways, for example: pairs of accelerometers on spinning platters (Bell
Aerospace, Lockheed), superconducting sensors (Univ. of MarylandH. J. Paik), and Cold Atom
Interferometry (CAIStanford University and AOSense).
The gradients, the second partial derivatives of the gravity potential, W, constitute the elements of
Etvs tensor (or gravity gradient tensor). The derivative of g is the gradient of gravity. In its simplest
form, a gradiometer is a set of gravimeters separated by a fixed distance, where the gradient is the
difference in field values sensed by the gravimeters. The partial spatial derivatives of the gravity vector
yield the gravity gradient tensor, which consists of nine elements. The gravity vector has three spatial
components (x, y, and z), and derivatives are taken with respect to each of the spatial directions (x, y, and z)
to yield the nine components of the tensor. The gravity gradient tensor (T) is symmetric about its diagonal,
so only six of the nine terms (Txx, Tyy, Tzz, Txy, Txz, Tyz) have to be specified. The more costly static
gradiometer is used in lieu of a gravity meter because of its greater resolution, ability to measure multiple
gravity vector components (Txx, Tyy, Tzz, Txy, Txz, Tyz), and better signal-to-noise ratio (at relatively
short spatial wavelengths). Some gradiometer instruments measure the full gradient tensor, while others
sense only an individual component or linear combinations of a few components.
MCTL-16-25

MCTL-16-26
MCTL DATA SHEET 16.2-4. GRAVITY GRADIOMETERS FOR MOBILE USE
Mobile gradiometers are gradiometers that measure acceleration, velocity, and verticality
compensation on a moving platform for sensor stabilization.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any gravity gradiometer for mobile use that meets any of the following:
1. Capable of operation on a moving platform with a noise level of less (better)
than 300 Etvs squared per radian per second; or
2. Contains militarily critical accelerometers or gyroscopes.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
gradiometers.
Major Commercial
Applications
Geologic mapping and resource exploration. Mass detection, cargo detection, tunnel
detection, and weigh in motion.
Affordability Issues This is a highly specialized sensor system, produced in low volume, and as a result,
expensive. The size of the market does not justify modification of the technology to reduce
cost. If low-cost accelerometer accuracy can be dramatically improved, the military utility of
gravity gradiometer arrays will increase.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 6.A.7.c; MTCR 12.a.3; CCL Cat 6A007.c.
BACKGROUND
A gradiometer can be thought of as an assemblage of gravity meters with some spatial separation. The
are separated. In order to make mobile measurements of gravity gradients, specialized gradiometers had to
be developed. The first mobile measurements using a gravity gradiometer were made by the U.S. Air Force
GGSS system[1] in the 1980s.
The gradients, the second partial derivatives of the gravity potential W , constitute the elements of
Etvs tensor (or gravity gradient tensor). The derivative of g is the gradient of gravity. The partial spatial
derivatives of the gravity vector yield the gravity gradient tensor consisting of nine elements. The gravity
vector has three spatial components (x, y, and z) and derivatives are taken with respect to each of the spatial
directions (x, y, and z) to yield the nine components of the tensor. The gravity gradient tensor (T) is
symmetric about its diagonal, so only six of the nine terms (Txx, Tyy, Tzz, Txy, Txz, Tyz) have to be
specified. Some gradiometer instruments measure the full gradient tensor, while others sense only an
individual component or linear combinations of a few components.
For moving-base measurements, compensation techniques must be used to remove the systematic
errors caused by the motion (acceleration) of the system and the mass of the compensation instrumentation.
This generally requires a stable reference that can be obtained using gyros. The accuracy or noise level of
the system is a function of the stability of the system and the complexity of the mechanical, electronic, and
software-compensation systems.

1. Jekeli, C., 1988, The Gravity Gradiometer Survey System (GGSS), EOS, 69, 105, pp. 116117.

16.3 RADIO, ACOUSTIC AND DATA-BASED REFERENCED NAVIGATION
(DBRN) SYSTEMS
Highlights
GNSS commercial and military growth and dependence on GNSS for position and precise
time will increase as GNSS receivers decrease in cost, weight, and power.
Improved GPS anti-jam techniques will provide capability to protect against local jamming.
Underwater sonar navigation systems and passive acoustic positioning systems are a
significant military concern as they provide an alternative to GNSS.
Underwater DBRN systems (bathymetric, magnetic and gravity) can provide a port-to-port
capability for manned and unmanned submersibles, particularly when integrated with an INS.
LPI/LPD radar altimeters and fathometers provide near covert capability for DBRN
navigation systems for tactical use.
OVERVIEW
Data-Based Referenced Navigation (DBRN) Systems are systems which use various sources of
previously measured geo-mapping data integrated to provide accurate navigation information under
dynamic conditions. Data sources include bathymetric maps, stellar maps, gravity maps, magnetic maps or
3-D digital terrain maps. This section of PNT covers a limited category of militarily critical GNSS
receivers, underwater acoustic positioning and navigation systems and DBRN technologies having a wide
range of dual-use applications.
BACKGROUND
GPS is the current worldwide standard for Positioning, Navigation, and Time (PNT) dissemination.
Included in this section are those limited technologies that would provide a significant capability for
potential adversaries against the U.S. forces and its allies.

MCTL-16-27

16.3 RADIO, ACOUSTIC AND DATA-BASED REFERENCED NAVIGATION
(DBRN) SYSTEMS
Radio Navigation Systems
16.3-1 Global Navigation Satellite System Receivers (Including GPS Receiver on a Chip)
Acoustic Navigation Systems
16.3-2 Underwater Doppler (Radar and Sonar) Navigation Systems
16.3-3 Underwater Passive Acoustic Positioning Systems
Data-Based Referenced Navigation
16.3-4 Underwater Data-Based Referenced Navigation (DBRN) Technology
16.3-5 LPI/LPD Radar Altimeters and Fathometers
Additions: None
Deletions: None
Changes: None
MCTL-16-29

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.3-1. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
RECEIVERS (INCLUDING GPS RECEIVER ON A CHIP)
Satellite-based radio navigation receiving equipment.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any GNSS receiver equipment that has the following characteristics:
Employing decryption;
Designed to provide adaptive interference suppression prior to correlation
processing;
Designed to provide navigation information at speeds in excess of 600 m/s
(1,165 miles/hour); or
Electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) or interference resistance
receivers.
Note 1: The following definitions apply to (b) above:
1. Adaptive interference suppression is mitigation of the interference signal by
use of signal filtering or signal processing adjustments, based on an
interference signals power spectrum, spatial correlation, or amplitude
characteristics.
2. Correlation processing is the receiver functions to perform dispreading or
bandwidth collapsing of the satellite spread spectrum signal.
Note 2: The anti-jam parameter does not include automatic gain control (AGC) used as a
basic receiver process in many commercial GPS receivers, if employing only this capability
in the receiver.
Critical Materials Tamper-resistant thermal-spray technology to protect components containing sensitive U.S.
cryptographic logic.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Systems that simulate or generate the specialized radio frequency signal and data
message structure and require the use of U.S. cryptography.
Equipment that generates an antispoofing signal with less (better) than 28 ns measurement
capability.
Unique Software Algorithms that contain U.S. cryptographic logic and other signal-protection and signal-
prevention techniques. Controls for input/output ports that transfer classified national-
security information.
Major Commercial
Applications
Ground-vehicle navigation, aircraft navigation, space-vehicle navigation, and surveying.
DoD controls access to corrected U.S. GPS pseudorange, delta range, and ephemeris
data.
Affordability Issues Accuracy and autonomy are the key drivers. Reduced processor costs and memory will
significantly reduce costs.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.3.b; MTCR 11.A.3; USML XV(c); CCL Cat 7A003.b and
7A105.
BACKGROUND
GNSS are satellite-based radio navigation systems that enable an unlimited number of users to do all-
weather 3-D positioning, velocity measuring, and timing anywhere in the world or near-Earth space.
Currently, the only two GNSS are the U.S. GPS and Russias GLONASS. For more information on
GLONASS refer to http://www.spacetoday.org/Satellites/GLONASS.html.
A new U.S. space-based positioning, navigation, and timing policy was authorized by President Bush
on 8 December 2004. http://pnt.gov/policy/
For more on information on GNSS refer to Section 19, Space Systems Technology.
MCTL-16-31

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.3-2. UNDERWATER DOPPLER (RADAR AND
SONAR) NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Underwater radar or sonar navigation system using Doppler velocity or correlation velocity logs
integrated with a heading source.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any Underwater sonar navigation system, using Doppler velocity or correlation velocity logs
integrated with a heading source, having the following characteristic:
1. Having a positioning accuracy of equal to or less (better) than 3% of distance
traveled CEP.
(See Data Sheet 16.3-5, for component to such systems.)
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
Unique Software Software or source code to improve performance to achieve the militarily critical parameter,
or integrated with INS, GNSS or DBRN systems.
Major Commercial
Applications
None identified for LPI/LPD technology, but basic Doppler navigation systems have wide
applications in commercial aviation, space, land, and sea vehicles, including weather
tracking.
Affordability Issues Military-unique LPI software requirement may drive up cost, unless hardware maximizes
commercial technology.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.8; USML XV(c); CCL Cat 8A002.b.
BACKGROUND
Doppler (radar or sonar) navigation is dead reckoning in that it tracks changes in position from a
known starting point. The Doppler velocity sensor determines velocity and drift angle by measuring the
Doppler frequency shift (Doppler effect) from narrow radar or sonar beams transmitted at oblique angles
from the vehicle toward the ground.
A Sonar Navigation System can be either a Sonar Doppler Velocity Navigation System (DVNS) or a
Sonar Correlation Velocity Navigation System (CVNS). Both systems consist of two components: a
velocity source and a heading source.
1. A Sonar Doppler Velocity Navigation System (SDVNS) consists of a Doppler Velocity (DV)
source and a heading source. Velocity is derived from a Doppler velocity sonar array capable of
either locking onto a particular matter in the water column, as with an Acoustic Doppler Current
Profiler (ADCP), or using Bottom Lock Doppler Sonar to track the ocean bottom. The former
would give ships speed through water similar to the EM Log, while the latter would give speed
over ground. Knowledge of the ships velocity is part of the navigation solution. Velocities are
derived relative to the ship. To be translated to the geographic reference frame, the ships
orientation in the geographic reference frame must be known, i.e., heading. Heading can be
derived from a magnetic fluxgate compass or an inertial source such as a gyrocompass, an inertial
measurement unit (IMU) or a full INS. Knowing velocity, direction and time traveled, the change
in position can be computed.
2. A Sonar Correlation Velocity Navigation System (SCVNS) consists of a Correlation Velocity
(CV) source (related to a Pitometer) and a heading source. The CV sensor offers accurate velocity
relative to the seabed, at low speeds, making it attractive for use in AUVs. The CV is similar to
the DV in that it uses sonar echoes from the seabed but it is different in operation. Two pulses are
emitted in close succession and the echoes from the seabed are measured and compared by the
MCTL-16-32

receiver array. The movement of the pattern of sonar returns, with respect to the receiver, is used
to calculate the velocity. Distance traveled (and direction relative to the axis of the ship) is
computed by distance from the reference on the first pulse and the receiver with the highest
correlation of the signal. Time between pulses is known. With time and distance, velocity is
computed. The SCVNS then integrates the CV sensor and heading sensor, basically similar to the
SDVNS.
MCTL-16-33

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.3-3. UNDERWATER PASSIVE ACOUSTIC
POSITIONING SYSTEMS
Passive underwater acoustic positioning system that provides a surface ship or submarine (manned or
unmanned) with a relative position that was achieved with transducers on the vessel (acoustic listening
devices) and a network of acoustic transponders (transmitters) external to the vessel that provides
coordinates of an acoustic grid.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any non-active acoustic positioning system that determines the position of surface or
underwater vehicles having an accuracy less than 10 m (CEP) at ranges greater than 1,000
m.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
Unique Software Software or source code to improve performance to achieve militarily critical parameter, or
integrated with INS, GNSS or DBRN systems.
Major Commercial
Applications
Ship docking and navigation.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.8; USML XV(c); CCL Cat 8A002.b.
BACKGROUND
This technology can provide an underwater passive acoustic navigation system similar to GPS, by pre-
surveying the geodetic location of each transponder and either being deployed (1) as an active GPS buoy on
the surface of the water and pinging signals underwater, or (2) anchored to the seabed (see Figure 16.3-1.)

Figure 16.3-1. Underwater Navigation Using Acoustic Transponders Anchored to Seafloor
(Source: http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/tools/sonar.html
and http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/tools/navigation.html)
The fundamental concept of passive acoustics navigation is basically the same as satellite navigation.
Both are based in Cartesian navigation. In place of satellites, transducers or pingers transmit acoustic
signals at different frequencies. These transponders are placed in a known array pattern and can either (1)
MCTL-16-34

be continuously active, or (2) remain passive until queried by a vessel. The latter requires the vessel to
actively transmit. Most commercial surface vessels currently use this type. The receiver is a microphone
interrogator that transmits an acoustic signal and measures the time to receive a reply. The time difference
is a function of distance from the transponder. More than one transponder is required to establish a position
fix. Better performance can be obtained by increasing the number of transponders. There are two common
types of acoustic navigation: (1) short or ultra-short baseline; and (2) long-baseline.
For additional information go to: http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/36835
MCTL-16-35

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.3-4. UNDERWATER DATA-BASED REFERENCED
NAVIGATION (DBRN) TECHNOLOGY
Underwater navigation system using acoustic, magnetic or gravity sensors with an a priori data
source or maps.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any DBRN technology designed to navigate underwater using bathymetric, magnetic, or
gravity databases that provide a positioning accuracy equal to or less (better) than 0.4 nmi.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
Unique Software Software or source code which improves the operational performance or reduces the
navigational error of systems specified as militarily critical by continuously combining
heading data with DBRN systems.
Major Commercial
Applications
Ship navigation, underwater-vehicle navigation, mining, farming, and surveying.
Affordability Issues Mapping data source, worldwide coverage, and accuracy are the key cost drivers.
Export Control
References
WA ML 11.a (Note: g); WA Cat 7.A.3.b, 7.D.3.b.3 and 7.E.4.a.7; USML XV(c); CCL Cat
7A003.b and 7D003.b.
BACKGROUND
Underwater Data-Based Referenced Navigation (DBRN) Systems[1] when combined with a priori data
sources or maps provide a means of obtaining position and direction when the platform is moving (refer to
Figure 16.3-2). There are three types of underwater DBRN Systems.
1. A bathymetric-acoustic DBRN system uses an acoustic sensor (active or passive), laser or
Fathometer and a pressure sensor for underwater vehicles to determine overall depth to the seabed.
This system compares the along track position information (swath profile data) using low
probability of intercept techniques with the pre-stored database.
2. A magnetic DBRN system uses a magnetometer, or preferably, a magnetic gradiometer (refer to
Section 16.4) to sense the crustal magnetic signature. As the platform moves, the magnetic profile
is correlated with the pre-stored database. Only after movement of the platform over magnetic
profile differences (contours) and compiling the profile data can a correlation be made with the
pre-stored database to determine the platforms position. Continuous determination of position
over time will provide direction from which, with time, will provide navigation information, such
as velocity and distance traveled. Areas where the crustal magnetic field has large spatial
variability are where this type system operates best.
3. A gravity DBRN system uses a gravimeter sensor (refer to Section 16.2) to read the gravity value,
or compute the gravity value from other sensors, i.e., subtracting acceleration data from inertial
navigation systems from acceleration from GPS data. As the platform moves, the gravity profile
[(milligals), latitude, and longitude] is correlated with the pre-stored database to determine the
platforms position. Continuous determination of position over time will provide direction from
which, with time, will provide other navigation information, such as velocity and distance
traveled.

MCTL-16-36

Figure 16.3-2. Conceptual Description of a DBRN System (Source: ARL, Penn State)
In general, DBRN systems use pre-stored or calculated ground and undersea terrain-contour, acoustic,
electromagnetic spectrum, magnetic, gravity, and stellar sensor data. DBRN technology is partially derived
from sensor and Geospatial information and services (GI&S) data. Although GI&S data by itself is not
necessarily militarily critical, the combination of GI&S data from multiple sources (bathymetric, magnetic,
and gravity) leveraged by high-speed computers and retrieval databases provides an autonomous, covert,
and nonjammable positioning and navigation capability that is militarily critical. With the availability of
lower cost inertial reference systems, the Doppler SONAR (refer to Data Sheet 16.3-2), or laser altimeter or
fathometer (refer to Data Sheet 16.3-5) sensor can provide very accurate INS/DBRN system (refer to Data
Sheet 16.1-2) to operate with less detectable noise (low probability of detection) and have better positional
accuracy.

1. The Wassenaar Regime defines Data-Based Referenced Navigation (DBRN) Systems as
systems, which use various sources of previously measured geo-mapping data integrated to
provide accurate navigation information under dynamic conditions. Data sources include
bathymetric maps, star catalog or almanac, gravity maps, magnetic maps or 3-D digital terrain
maps.
MCTL-16-37

MCTL-16-38
MCTL DATA SHEET 16.3-5. LPI/LPD RADAR ALTIMETERS AND
FATHOMETERS
LPI/LPD radar altimeters and fathometers use power management and phase-shift-key modulation to
reduce the emitted power of the radar altimeter (or fathometer), resulting in a decreased detectability and
covert operation, while providing critical-height-above-terrain information.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any radar altimeter or fathometer (also called a depth finder) having the following
characteristics:
1. Power management or use of phase-shift-key modulation techniques; or
2. Any technique that reduces signal detectability, including antenna steering or
beaming technology.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
Unique Software Algorithms and source codes that reduce signal detectability, including antenna cross-
correlation algorithms and verified data.
Major Commercial
Applications
None identified for LPI/LPD technology, but basic radar altimeter and fathometer systems
have wide applications in commercial aviation, space, land, and marine vehicles.
Affordability Issues Military-unique LPI software requirement may drive up cost, unless hardware maximizes
commercial technology.
Export Control
References
WA Cat 7.A.6 and 8.A.2.b; MTCR 11.A.1; USML XV(c); CCL Cat 7A006 and 8A002.b.
BACKGROUND
Radar altimeters provide height-above-terrain, while fathometers provide distance above ocean bottom
terrain.
The use of low probability of intercept (LPI) or low probability of detection (LPD) techniques reduces
the emitting power of these devices.

16.4 MAGNETIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC SENSOR SYSTEMS
Highlights
Magnetic and electromagnetic sensor technology varies greatly with type, application, and
cost.
Magnetic and electromagnetic sensor systems and arrays provide a covert detection and
classification technology.
More use of low-cost, thin-film magnetic resonance (MR) sensors is expected for a number of
applications for which cost, size, and power are driving factors, such as mine detection and
area security.
Newly developed potassium and helium-4 (He-4) optically pumped magnetometers are
demonstrating performance comparable to SQUID magnetometers at lower cost and without
the logistic complication of maintaining superconductive temperatures in a battlespace
environment.
Biomedical research and diagnostics and nondestructive evaluations are major military
funding sources for future usage of SQUID sensors.
Magnetic gradiometers, utilizing either the SQUID or potassium technologies, nearly
eliminate the natural geomagnetic background noise.
High superconducting temperature (T
c
) SQUID technology has matured since its inception in
1987 to the point where nitrogen-cooled superconducting sensors are rivaling their low-T
c

counterparts.
Underwater electric field sensors are evolving with the advent of the potassium
magnetometer, which detects changes in the electric dipole potential (EDP) magnetic field.
This provides another method of detecting underwater objects.
OVERVIEW
This section of PNT covers the technologies relative to magnetic and electromagnetic sensors.
Magnetic sensor systems detect and display the presence of a magnetic field and measure its magnitude, or
direction, or both. Every object has a distinct magnetic signature that is reflected or emitted from the object.
The common problem in magnetometry is how to detect and classify the signature or, in other words, how
to get the signal out of the noise. This unique and enabling technology can be used to detect and locate an
adversary, detect magnetic heading, or determine own position from a database reference. Magnetic sensor
types of special interest include SQUIDs, nuclear precession, optically or laser pumped, flux gate, fiber
optic, MR, and induction coil. Magnetic sensor systems can be configured to detect the spatial variation of
the magnetic field intensity (i.e., the gradient of the magnetic field intensity) from sources external to the
instrument and in this mode are called magnetic gradiometers. This section will discuss synthetic and
intrinsic gradiometers and arrays. Electromagnetic sensors include electric field and active electromagnetic
sensors.
BACKGROUND
Submarine detection during World War II was one of the first applications of fluxgate magnetometers.
The nuclear precession magnetometer was also an outgrowth of the war research of nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR). Magnetic gradiometers can consist of two magnetic sensors or a single intrinsic
magnetic gradient sensor. For a more complete description of magnetometers, magnetic gradiometers, and
magnetic anomalies see Applied Geophysics.[1] For further understanding of geomagnetism see
(http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/) and (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetism).
MCTL-16-39

MCTL-16-40

1. Telford, Gelhart, and Sheriff, Applied Geophysics, 2
nd
ed., Cambridge University Press, 1990.

16.4 MAGNETIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC SENSOR SYSTEMS
Magnetic Sensors
16.4-1 Magnetometers--Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices
16.4-2 Magnetometers -- Optically Pumped/Electron Resonance (Helium-4, Potassium, Rubidium, or
Cesium)
16.4-3 Magnetometers -- Nuclear Precession (Proton/Overhauser/Helium-3)
16.4-4 Magnetometers -- Induction Coil
16.4-5 Magnetometers -- Flux Gate
16.4-6 Magnetometers -- Fiber Optic
16.4-7 Magnetic Gradiometers
Electromagnetic Sensors
16.4-8 Underwater Electric Field Sensors
16.4-9 Compensation Systems for Magnetic and Electric Field Sensors
Additions: None
Deletions: None
Changes: None
MCTL-16-41

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.4-1. MAGNETOMETERS--SUPERCONDUCTING
QUANTUM INTERFERENCE DEVICES
Superconducting magnetometers are a class of devices that uses the properties of superconductors in
conjunction with SQUIDs, which exploit the magnetic field sensitivity of the Josephson effect.[1]
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any SQUID magnetometer having any of the following characteristics:
1. Designed for stationary operation, without specially designed subsystems,
designed to reduce in-motion noise, and having a noise level (sensitivity)
equal to or lower (better) than 50 fT rms/Hz at a frequency of 1 Hz; or
2. Having an in-motion noise level (sensitivity) lower (better) than 20 pT
rms/Hz at a frequency of 1 Hz and specially designed to reduce in-motion
noise.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
Unique Software Software as follows:
1. Designed for magnetic and electric field compensation systems for magnetic
sensors designed to operate on mobile platforms.
2. Designed for magnetic and electric field anomaly detection on mobile
platforms.
Major Commercial
Applications
Resource exploration, nondestructive testing, and medical imaging. Chemical array using
magnetic tagging.
Affordability Issues Medical imaging is funding driver.
Export Control
References
WA ML 20.a; WA Cat 6.A.6.a.1; CCL Cat 6A006.a.1.
BACKGROUND
Vector magnetometers employing DC SQUID technology have performances which can exceed 105
nT. In recent years, SQUID low-frequency magnetic sensors have been evaluated for the detection of the
weak magnetic fields generated by the human body. Their use in clinical diagnostic equipment has raised
considerable interest. Magnetometers and magnetic gradiometer systems containing SQUID low-frequency
magnetic sensing circuits have also been designed for operation outside the laboratory and hospital
environments. One of the primary obstacles to the use of SQUID magnetic sensing systems is the need for a
cryogenic environment. The low-temperature class of superconductors, which was known before 1986,
requires operation at temperatures below about 15 K (258 C). In 1987, a new class of high-temperature
superconducting materials was discovered. These materials can be used in SQUID sensors that operate at
temperatures as high as 80 K (193 Cliquid nitrogen temperatures). These high-temperature
superconducting materials can be operated with liquid-nitrogen cryogenic enclosure systems, which are
much more energy efficient and much less complex than the liquid-helium cryogenic systems required for
operation below 15 K. Thus, from the viewpoint of cryogenics, the use of high-temperature SQUIDs is
more desirable and logistically more convenient. The sensitivity (noise level) of the high-temperature
SQUIDs, which has continually improved over the years, is within an order of magnitude of the best state-
of-the-art low-temperature SQUID sensors.
The technologies for nonmagnetic cryogenic refrigeration systems (both passive cryogenic liquid
containers and closed-cycle cryogenic refrigeration systems) are crucial for superconducting magnetic
sensors. These cryogenic refrigeration systems must have very low magnetic signatures so as not to
degrade the performance of the SQUID sensor being cooled. They must also provide a highly stable
MCTL-16-43

thermal environment as temperature variations as small as 1 milli-Kelvin can significantly degrade SQUID
performance by inducing large jumps in signal resulting from flux jumps or de-tuning of the SQUID as a
result of the temperature dependent penetration depth of the SQUID junction materials. Nonmagnetic
refrigerators (both dewars and closed-cycle mechanical systems) provide cryogenic cooling for
superconducting magnetic field sensors. Closed-cycle refrigerators of interest are characterized by a
magnetic signature measured at 1 m from the refrigerator, which is lower (better) than 0.05 nT/Hz at
frequencies less than 10 Hz. This technology improves the signal-to-noise ratio. These refrigerators can
also provide cryogenic cooling for superconducting intrinsic magnetic gradiometers when characterized by
a magnetic signature at 1 m from the refrigerator, which is lower (better) than 0.015 nT/m/Hz at
frequencies less than 10 Hz.

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetometers.
MCTL-16-44

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.4-2. MAGNETOMETERS -- OPTICALLY
PUMPED/ELECTRON RESONANCE (HELIUM-4, POTASSIUM, RUBIDIUM,
OR CESIUM)
Resonance (Optically pumped/Electron resonance) magnetometers are a class of magnetometers that
use the shift in the frequency of electron resonance or nuclear resonance to measure external magnetic
fields.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any optically pumped (also includes laser-pumped) magnetometer having a noise level
(sensitivity) lower (better) than 20 pT rms/Hz.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
platforms.
Major Commercial
Applications
Resource exploration and UXO detection.
Export Control
References
WA Cat 6.A.6.a.2; CCL Cat 6A006.a.2.
BACKGROUND
In general, resonance devices measure only the amplitude (modulus) of the external vector field and
are relatively insensitive to orientation. For this reason they are often favored for use on moving platforms.
Electron-resonance magnetometers are sometimes called electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)
magnetometers or, more commonly, optically pumped magnetometers. Outside the United States, they are
often called quantum magnetometers. Electron-resonance magnetometers work on the principle of
optically monitoring the absorption and re-radiation of electron energy levels of atoms in the gaseous state.
According to the Zeeman effect, an external field can split electron energy levels into sublevels. The energy
difference between the sublevels corresponds to a radio frequency according to Plancks Law, which is
proportional to the external magnetic field. If radio-frequency energy is introduced by means of a coil, at
the proper frequency, transitions can be induced between the sublevels. This population change in
substrates results in the optical pump doing some work to restore equilibrium. By noting the frequency at
which absorption of the pump beam occurs, we can determine the amplitude of the external magnetic field.
Atomic gases of He-4, potassium, rubidium, or cesium are commonly used in optically pumped
magnetometers. (In an Earth field of 50,000 nT, a potassium magnetometer would operate at a radio-
frequency resonance of 350 KHz, while a helium magnetometer would operate at 1.4 MHz.) Electron
resonance magnetometers have achieved noise levels of 10
3
nT per root Hz at a frequency of 0.1 Hz. The
narrow-line potassium magnetometer seems to have the greatest potential for low-noise operationunder
laboratory conditions it has been operated at a noise level of 10
5
nT (0.01 picotesla). Because of their
relatively high resonance frequencies, electron resonance magnetometers are much less affected by
rotation-rate errors than nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) devices. This, coupled with their intrinsic
relative insensitivity to orientation, makes them good candidates for operation on moving platforms. For
various reasons, electron resonance magnetometers are relatively power hungry, most requiring 10 W or
more. This is normally not a problem for usual applications (except, possibly for applications in ocean-
bottom arrays).
MCTL-16-45

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.4-3. MAGNETOMETERS -- NUCLEAR PRECESSION
(PROTON/OVERHAUSER/HELIUM-3)
Nuclear precession magnetometers are a class of magnetometers that use the shift in the frequency of
nuclear resonance or electron resonance to measure external magnetic fields.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any nuclear precession (proton/Overhauser) magnetometer having a noise level
(sensitivity) lower (better) than 20 pT rms/Hz.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
platforms.
Major Commercial
Applications
Resource exploration.
Export Control
References
BACKGROUND
As in other resonance devices, nuclear precession magnetometers measure only the amplitude
(modulus) of the external vector field and are relatively insensitive to orientation. For this reason, they are
also favored for use on moving platforms.
Magnetometers utilizing nuclear resonance are commonly known as nuclear-precession
magnetometers or NMR magnetometers. Principal NMR devices are the proton-precession magnetometer,
the Overhauser proton magnetometer, and the He-3 magnetometer. In all three devices, the nuclear
magnetic moments are first polarized and then allowed to precess around the external field vector. The
precession frequencies are atomic standards proportional to the amplitude of the external field. The
precession frequency is picked up by coils and counted to obtain a measure of field amplitude. In Earth
field (approximately 50,000 nT), the proton-precession magnetometer and Overhauser devices have
precession frequencies of about 2,000 Hz, the He-3 device about 1,700 Hz. In the proton-precession
magnetometer and Overhauser magnetometers, the precessing nuclei are usually in hydrocarbon fluids. In
the case of the He-3, the nuclei are in a gas-filled cell. The proton-precession magnetometer is polarized by
a DC field for a period of 2001,000 milliseconds during each operating cycle. Field measurements are
normally obtained no more often than every 2.0 seconds. Practical proton-precession magnetometer noise
levels are about 10
1
nT per root Hertz at a frequency of 0.1 Hz. Typical average power consumption is 2.0
W or more at maximum cycle rates. In the Overhauser proton magnetometer, the protons are polarized by a
radio frequency pump (approximately 80 MHz) acting through a buffer solution. This device can be
operated continuously, unlike the proton-precession magnetometer. Practical noise levels of Overhauser
magnetometers are 10
2
nT per root Hz at frequencies of 0.1 Hz and 1.0 Hz. Power consumption can be 1.0
W or less. In the He-3 magnetometer, polarization is achieved by an optical pump. It can be operated
continuously and has potential for low noise (10
3
nT per root Hz at a frequency of 0.1 Hz). This
magnetometer can be operated at power levels of 0.5 W or lower. Because of their low resonance
frequencies, NMR magnetometers have large rotation-rate errors; thus, they should be stabilized when
operated on a moving platform.
MCTL-16-46

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.4-4. MAGNETOMETERS -- INDUCTION COIL
Induction-coil magnetometers are a class of devices that contain a conventional wire coil, often
surrounding a permeable core, that measures the time rate of change of magnetic field intensity in a
direction parallel to the coil axis (Faraday induction).
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any induction-coil magnetometer having a noise level (sensitivity) lower (better) than any of
the following:
1. 0.05 nT rms/Hz at frequencies of less than 1 Hz;
2. 1 10
3
nT ms/Hz at frequencies of 1 Hz or more but not exceeding 10 Hz;
or
3. 1 10
4
nT rms/Hz at frequencies exceeding 10 Hz. that has a noise level
of less (better) than 0.05 nT rms/Hz at frequencies of less (better) than 10
Hz or of 1 10
4
nT rms/Hz at frequencies exceeding 10 Hz.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
platforms.
Major Commercial
Applications
Resource exploration.
Export Control
References
BACKGROUND
The sensitivity of each sensor of an induction coil magnetometer is determined by the effective area
and the number of turns of the detection coil and by the magnetic flux density threading the coil. The high-
permeability metal core enhances the magnetic flux density. Induction-coil magnetometers are useful for
sensing AC magnetic fields or the relative motion of magnetic objects. Performance degrades rapidly at
frequencies below 1 Hz, but may approach 10
5
nT/Hz at frequencies above 1 kHz.
MCTL-16-47

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.4-5. MAGNETOMETERS -- FLUX GATE
Flux-gate magnetometers are a class of devices that consist of windings on a ferromagnetic core, the
magnetic saturation of which is a function of magnetic-field strength.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any flux-gate magnetometer having a noise level (sensitivity) lower (better) than 20 pT
rms/Hz.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
platforms.
Major Commercial
Applications
Aircraft, land vehicles, and ships for magnetic compass system input. Resource exploration
and UXO protection.
Export Control
References
BACKGROUND
In a flux-gate magnetometer an applied magnetic field in combination with the drive field produces
even harmonics of the drive frequency that are proportional to the strength of the external magnetic field
along the core axis. Oriented flux-gate magnetometers have three mutually orthogonal flux-gate sensors
that are continuously oriented, so that two of the axes maintain zero field, and the third is oriented parallel
to the ambient field direction. Flux-gate sensing elements are typically in the shape of cylinders or rings
with lengths or diameter about 24 cm. Modern three-component flux-gate magnetometers have an
operating power of 1.0 W or less. The ability to precisely measure DC and time-varying magnetic fields is
a major advantage of flux-gate magnetometers over induction-coil sensors. The lowest practical noise level
is now about 10
2
nT per square root Hz at a frequency of 0.1 Hz.
MCTL-16-48

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.4-6. MAGNETOMETERS -- FIBER OPTIC
Fiber-optic magnetometers are a class of devices that measure magnetic fields by exploiting the
difference in optical path length between an optical fiber that is mounted on a magnetostrictive material and
an unclad fiber-optic cable.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any fiber-optic magnetometer having a noise level (sensitivity) lower (better) than 1.0 nT
rms/Hz.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
platforms.
Major Commercial
Applications
Aircraft, land vehicles, and ships for magnetic compass system input. Resource exploration
and UXO protection.
Export Control
References
BACKGROUND
Fiber-optic magnetometers operate in a frequency range from DC to 60 kHz. The sensor size depends
on the sensitivity required. Fiber-optic magnetometers and fiber-optic intrinsic magnetic gradiometers are
used to implement unobtrusive and remotely operable magnetic intrusion sensors for military and civilian
secure-facility protection and for detection of the presence of metal objects such as weapons in the vicinity
of designated security zones.
MCTL-16-49

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.4-7. MAGNETIC GRADIOMETERS
Magnetic gradiometers measure the rate of change of the spatial magnetic gradient.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Magnetic gradiometers, as follows:
1. Using multiple militarily critical magnetometers, refer to Data Sheets 16.4-1
through 16.4-7.
2. Fiber optic intrinsic magnetic gradiometers having a magnetic gradient field
noise level (sensitivity) lower (better) than o.3 nT/meter rms/Hz.
3. Intrinsic magnetic gradiometers, using technology other than fiber-optic
technology, having a magnetic radiant field noise level (sensitivity) lower
(better) than 0.015 nT/meter rms/Hz.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
platforms.
Major Commercial
Applications
Detection of UXO, buried drums, tanks, etc., SQUID gradiometer arrays for medical-
biological research.
Export Control
References
WA Cat 6.A.6.c; CCL Cat 6A006.c.
BACKGROUND
Magnetic gradiometers usually contain a pair of magnetometers placed a specific distance apart. They
can be either single axis or multiple axis, depending on sensor orientation and packaging. The three-axis
gradiometer is designed for location of buried pipe and cable location.
MCTL-16-50

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.4-8. UNDERWATER ELECTRIC FIELD SENSORS
Electric field sensors designed to detect and make remote measurements of electric fields.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any underwater electric field sensor having a noise level (sensitivity) lower (better) than 8
nanovolt/meter/Hz when measured at 1 Hz.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
platforms.
Major Commercial
Applications
Resource exploration: biological and medical sciences.
Export Control
References
WA Cat 6.A.6.d; CCL Cat 6A006.d.
BACKGROUND
Electric field sensors have been designed to detect remote measurements of electric fields. Such
sensors can be used to safely measure high voltages and to monitor the performance of electrical equipment
without having to make a hard electrical contact.
MCTL-16-51

MCTL-16-52
MCTL DATA SHEET 16.4-9. COMPENSATION SYSTEMS FOR MAGNETIC
AND ELECTRIC FIELD SENSORS
Compensation systems for magnetic and electric sensors are an array of sensors that can be either
stationary or moving that improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the individual sensors.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any magnetic and electric field sensor array that has:
1. A resultant system noise level of less (better) than 0.05 nT rms/Hz;
2. The noise level of any individual magnetometers is less (better) than 0.01 nT
rms/Hz; or
3. The noise level of any electric field sensor of less (better) than 0.002
microvolt per meter at 1 Hz.
Critical Materials Same as underlying magnetometer technology.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Magnetic contamination control area with field gradient of less (better) than 0.1 nT/m. Ability
to control external field amplitude and variations to sensitivity of test magnetometer.
platforms.
Major Commercial
Applications
Resource exploration and bottom current studies.
Export Control
References
WA Cat 6.A.6.d; CCL Cat 6A006.d.
BACKGROUND
An array of magnetic and electric sensors can be either stationary or moving. The array improves the
signal-to-noise ratio of the individual sensors. Refer to the data sheet for the individual sensor for more
information.

16.5 PRECISE TIME AND FREQUENCY
Highlights
The worldwide availability of accurate time from GPS has resulted in the combination of
communications, imaging, and navigation functions into multi-hybrid sensor systems.
PT&F are providing a common-grid reference for battlespace data management.
PT&F are required for autonomous operation of satellite network geo-location systems and
enhanced CRYPTO/TRANSEC performance in spread-spectrum communication systems.
The number of U.S. suppliers of space-qualified Atomic Frequency Standards is declining
and may be down to one or two within five years.
Breakthroughs in laser and optical clock technologies may result in possible applications as
frequency references within the next few years.
Low power clocks and oscillators performing at or near the accuracy level of some atomic
clocks can provide a significant capability to potential adversaries against the U.S. forces and
its allies.
OVERVIEW
This section of PNT is divided into two PT&F technology areas: atomic clocks (used in ground
stations and satellites) and low-power clocks and oscillators (used in receivers). The current generation of
cesium atomic clocks is based on microwave technology and has an accuracy of one part in 10
14
equivalent to an error of less than 1 second in 30 million years. This accuracy can be improved by several
orders of magnitude if optical clocks are used.[1] Ion clocks are based on the hyperfine transitions within
ions at higher frequencies and, consequently, have the potential for greater accuracies than microwave
clocks. Current ion clocks are laboratory devices.
Most types of POS/NAV systems are highly dependent on precise time, whereas most people
applicationsare interested in frequency and not absolute time. See Section 16.1 for inertial navigation and
Section 16.3 for GPS in particular.
BACKGROUND
Throughout history, the notion of time has been tied to the variable rotation of Earth. During the 19th
century and for a good part of the 20th, a second was defined as 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. With the
advent of new requirements such as telecommunications, navigation, and aerospace applications, a more
uniform time was needed. In the 1940s, scientists discovered that the regular vibration or resonance
within atoms could provide improved timekeeping. Cesium had properties that make it particularly useful,
and in 1972, the international community redefined the second as 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
In the 1970s, the U.S. military developed GPS (refer to Section 16.3), which advanced the
development of high-stability clocks, time-transfer, and 3-D navigation. Deployed in the 1980s, GPS uses
space qualified frequency standards.
The two existing GNSSs, the U.S. GPS and the Russian GLONASS, are actually PT&F systems. Both
systems employ in the satellites space-qualified atomic clocks that are referenced to international time
standards. A cesium-beam frequency standard is utilized aboard each GLONASS satellite. Both systems
are capable of time transfer to a precision of 10 to 30 nsec.

1. http://www.physicsweb.org/article/news/5/5/16.
MCTL-16-53

16.5 PRECISE TIME AND FREQUENCY
16.5-1 Atomic Clocks
16.5-2 Low-Power Clocks and Oscillators
Additions: None
Deletions: None
Changes: Including all atomic clocks in Low-Power Clocks not just rubidium clocks.

MCTL-16-55

MCTL DATA SHEET 16.5-1. ATOMIC CLOCKS
An atomic clock uses atomic material, such as rubidium or cesium, which is radiated with
electromagnetic radiation that causes the atom to switch its hyperfine state.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any atomic clock that has any of the following characteristics:
1. Long-term stability performance: aging better than 1 10
11
/month; or
2. Being space qualified.
Note: Parameter #1 does not include non-space qualified rubidium clocks.
Critical Materials Magnetic shields, low-noise (10
12
up to less than 100 s) local oscillators, long-life (10
years) mode-locked diode lasers, and optical combs.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
Precision-milling machining, especially in the microwave cavity. Precision phase and
frequency measurement equipment for evaluating and calibrating clocks and associated
equipment.
Unique Software Algorithms and verified data to combine clock outputs to improve stability/accuracy
performance (i.e., ensembling). Algorithms and software for digital control of internal
servo, optimization, and self-diagnostic controls.
Major Commercial
Applications
Satellites, synchronization of communication and navigation systems, power-transmission
management, secure frequency-hopping communication. Geophysical and military
distribution sensor system (arrays). There is a high demand in telecom market for rubidium
standards.
Affordability Issues Requirements are low internationally for large quantities of space-qualified units. The
number of U.S. space-qualified atomic frequency standard suppliers is declining and may
be down to one within five years.
Export Control
References
WA Cat 3.A.2.g; MTCR 11.A.4; CCL Cat 3A002.g.
BACKGROUND
In atomic clocks the frequency of the radiation causing the transition becomes the regular beat that the
clock counts to register time, or 9,192,631,770 oscillations per second in the case of cesium.
The current generation of cesium atomic clocks has an accuracy of one part in 10
14
equivalent to an
error of less than 1 second in 30 million years. This accuracy can be improved by several orders of
magnitude if optical clocks are used.[1].
For more information refer to http://www.factbites.com/topics/Atomic-clock.

1. http://www.physicsweb.org/article/news/5/5/16.
MCTL-16-57

MCTL-16-58
MCTL DATA SHEET 16.5-2. LOW-POWER CLOCKS AND OSCILLATORS
Precise time and frequency (PT&F) are required for autonomous operation of terrestrial and satellite
geolocation systems and enhanced cryptographic (CRYPTO)/transmission using secured (TRANSEC)
performance in spread-spectrum systems.
Critical Technology
Parameter(s)
Any low-power atomic clocks having the following characteristics:
o Long-term stability performance: aging better than 1 10
11

/month;
o designed for power need less than 1 watt; or
o a volume less than 50 cm
3
.
Any oscillator having any of the following characteristics:
o 10 capable of long-term stability performance: aging better
than 1
11
/month; or
o capable of operation at g levels greater than 10,000 g.
Critical Materials Low-powered, stabilized laser diodes; battery technology; and vertical-cavity surface-
emitting diodes (VCSELS) tuned to alkali metal resonances. Long-life, stabilized laser
diodes. High-quality optical fibers, optical components.
Unique Test,
Production,
Inspection
Equipment
None identified.
Unique Software Operating software for control of the clock.
Major Commercial
Applications
Synchronization of communication and navigation systems, power transmission
management, secure- frequency-hopping communication.
Affordability Issues Large volume potential.
Export Control
References
WA Cat 3.A.2.g; MTCR 11.A.4; CCL Cat 3A002.g.
BACKGROUND
Throughout the past 20 or so years, there have been developments in crystal oscillators for frequency
control and timing applications (http://www.rakon.co.nz/generated/1-25/2.html). A crystal oscillator is a
part of a clock, but the clock has additional electronics to assign or make time from the oscillator pulses.
(Figure 16.5-2 shows a basic clock/oscillator diagram.) The term clock is often used interchangeably
with oscillator, but there are differences. Development work is ongoing for non-crystal oscillators that
use as little power as possible so they may be used in battery-powered handheld radios and the like, but
they are often called clocks.

Figure 16.5-2. Basic Clock/Oscillator Description

Sec 16 MCTLG

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