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2.4 Membranes
2.4.1 - Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes

Phospholipid Bilayer - This is arranged with the hydrophilic phosphate heads facing
outwards, and the hydrophobic fatty acid tails (consisting of hydrocarbon chains) facing into
the middle of the bilayer. It is a barrier against all molecules except the smallest, CO and
O. The phospholipids can change position on the horizontal plane, but not the vertical.
Integral Proteins - These usually span from one side of the phospholipid bilayer to the
other. They are usually involved in transporting substances across the membrane.
Peripheral Proteins - These sit on the surfaces. They will slide around the membrane quickly
and collide with each other, but will never flip from one side to the other. The ones on the
inside of the membrane are often involved in maintaining the cell's shape or motility. These
might also be enzymes, catalysing reactions in the cytoplasm.
Glycoproteins - These are usually involved in cell recognition which is part of the immune
system. They can also act as receptors in cell signalling such as with hormones.
Cholesterol - Binds together lipid in the plasma membrane reducing its fluidity as conferring
structural stability.
This is called the fluid mosaic model because it is in a fluid state, and in electron
micrographs of the membrane, the proteins form a mosaic pattern.
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2.4.2 - Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to
maintain the structure of cell membranes
The structure of the phospholipid bilayer is very stable, as the hydrophobic hydrocarbon
tails are attracted to each other, and the hydrophilic phosphate heads are also attracted to
each other. This attraction makes the barrier strong and stable.
The heads are suited to the high water content of the tissue fluid and cytoplasm on either
side of the membrane. The tails repel water, creating a barrier between the internal and
external water environments of the cell and a barrier to movement of charged molecules.
The charges on the phospholipids attract them to each other, making them fairly stable,
though allowing for some movement. The presence of cholesterol molecules increases the
stability of the phospholipid.

2.4.3 - List the functions of membrane proteins
Channel Protein - They span the membrane, allowing movement of large molecules across
it. Within these are passive and active membrane pumps. They only allow specific ions
through.
Receptor Protein - These detect hormones arriving at cells to signal changes in function.
They are also involved in other cell and substance recognition as in the immune system.
Enzymes - Integral proteins in the membrane may be enzymes (i.e. ATP Synthetase,
Maltase)
Electron Carriers - These are a chain of peripheral and integral proteins that allow electrons
to pass across the membrane. Active pumps use ATP to move specific substances across the
membrane.




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2.4.4 - Define diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration.
Diffusion through a cell membrane will occur if the membrane is
fully permeable to the solute. In the case of the phospholipid
bilayer, it is permeable to non-polar substances, such as steroids and
glycerol, as well as oxygen and carbon dioxide. They will diffuse
quickly via this route. It will also occur if the pores in the membrane
are large enough for the solute to enter. Water diffusing through the
plasma membrane passes via the protein-lined pores of the
membrane, and tiny spaces between the phospholipid molecules.
This will occur more easily if the membrane contains phospholipids with unsaturated
hydrocarbon tails, as they are spaced apart more widely. As a result, the membrane is
especially leaky to water.
Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable
membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute
concentration.
The water moves through plasma membrane pores called aquaporin. When a solution is
separated from water by a membrane permeable to water molecule, water molecules tend
to diffuse, while dissolved molecules and their group of water molecules move less.
Osmosis can also be defined as the net movement of water molecules from a region of high
concentration of water molecules to a region of lower concentration of lower concentration
of water molecules, across a selectively permeable membrane.



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2.4.5 - Explain the passive transport across membrane by simple diffusion and facilitated
diffusion
Passive movement means that no energy (ATP) is used for the movement of molecules
from one side of the membrane to the other.
Simple diffusion - The molecules are so small they can simply pass through the phospholipid
molecules of the membrane, as it offers little resistance. Examples include O and CO, as
well as lipid molecules, even though they are large.
Facilitated diffusion - For larger molecules, there are channel proteins to take the through
the membrane. These have complex shapes, which provide a channel through the protein,
or the pore. It acts as a shield against the non-charged regions of the membrane for the
molecule. These channels only allow a specific type of substance through, but there is no
control over the direction of movement.

2.4.6 - Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes
Active transport is necessary as cells may have a higher concentration than
the outside, thus diffusion is not possible. As a result, the particles are
moving against the concentration.
In active transport, ATP is used to provide the energy necessary. It is
hydrolysed into ADP. Protein pumps use this energy to pump molecules
across the cell membrane, moving from a low concentration to a high
concentration. They are called active because they need energy to
function. This energy causes the shape of the protein to change, allowing it
to move the molecule across the membrane. Active transport is also highly
selective, tending to absorb ions that reflect the cells needs.
Sodium-Potassium pump creates an electro-chemical gradient across the
membrane of all cells. The inside of the cell has a negative charge compared
to the outside. In nerve cells, this pump is modified to create
electrochemical phenomena.
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2.4.7 - Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the
rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and the plasma membrane
Cells manufacture molecules to be secreted outside the cell, which are sometimes a
complex combination of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. A gene is coded in the base
protein, and the expression of it starts the process.

A protein that has already been synthesises is present in the rER
As the protein moves through the rER, it is modified
At the end of the rER, a vesicle is formed containing the protein
The vesicle then migrates to the Golgi Apparatus
Vesicle and Golgi membranes fuse, and the protein enters the lumen of the Golgi.
The Golgi further modifies the protein.
Another vesicle is formed from the Golgi membrane and breaks away. It is
transported to the plasma membrane, which fuse together, then secrete the
protein. This is exocytosis.

2.4.8 - Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-
form during endocytosis and exocytosis
Exocytosis - The vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane, and its contents are
secreted. The vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, and its contents are expelled.
Endocytosis - A vesicle is formed when the plasma membrane infolds, then breaks off. Part
of the membrane is pulled inwards, and a droplet of fluid is enclosed when it is pinched off.
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They can then move the contents through the cytoplasm. The continuity of the plasma
membrane is not disrupted.


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