Summer Module in English 9

SOUTHVILLE INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL AND COLLEGES
SUMMER MODULE IN ENGLISH 9

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Southville International School and
Colleges

Summer Module
in English 9

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Topics Time Frame

Poetry

Week 1

Run-on Sentence,
Dangling and Misplaced Modifier

Week 2

Short Story,
Adverb & Adverb Phrase

Week 3

Verbals

Week 4

Essay,
Parallelism

Week 5

Drama

Week 6

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Poetry

Poetry can be defined as 'literature in a metrical form' or 'a
composition forming rhythmic lines. In short, a poem is something that
follows a particular flow of rhythm and meter. Compared to prose, where there is no such restriction,
and the content of the piece flows according to story, a poem may or may not have a story, but
definitely has a structured method of writing.

Kinds of Poetry

Acrostic - the first letter of each line spells a word, usually using the same words as in the title.

Ballad - A poem that tells a story similar to a folktale or legend which often has a repeated refrain.
Cinquain - Poetry with five lines. Line 1 has one word (the title). Line 2 has two words that describe the
title. Line 3 has three words that tell the action. Line 4 has four words that express the feeling, and line
5 has one word which recalls the title.

Couplet- A couplet has rhyming stanzas made up of two lines.

Elegy - A sad and thoughtful poem about the death of an individual.

Epic - An epic is a long narrative poem celebrating the adventures and achievements of a hero...epics
deal with the traditions, mythical or historical, of a nation.

Free Verse - Free Verse is an irregular form of poetry in which the content free of traditional rules of
versification, (freedom from fixed meter or rhyme).

Ghazal Ghazal is a form of poetry in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Azerbaijan, Urdu and Bengali poetry. In
classic form, the ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain at the end of the
second line. This refrain may be of one or several syllables, and is preceded by a rhyme. Each line has
an identical meter. The ghazal often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity.

Haiku - Haiku (also called nature or seasonal haiku) is an unrhymed Japanese verse consisting of three
unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five syllables (5, 7, 5) or 17 syllables in all. Haiku is usually written in
the present tense and focuses on nature (seasons).

Limerick - A Limerick is a rhymed humorous or nonsense poem of five lines which originated in
Limerick, Ireland.

Lyric - Lyric poems typically express personal or emotional feelings. They have specific rhyming
schemes and are often, but not always, set to music or a beat.

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Narrative - A poem that tells a story written in metered verse.

Ode - An ode is a poem praising and glorifying a person, place or thing.

Quatrain - A quatrain is a poem consisting of four lines of verse with a specific rhyming scheme.

Sestina - A poem consisting of six six-line stanzas and a three-line envoy. The end words of the first
stanza are repeated in varied order as end words in the other stanzas and also recur in the envoy.

Shape - Poetry written in the shape or form of an object. This is a type of concrete poetry.
Sonnet - A lyric poem that consists of 14 lines which usually have one or more conventional rhyme
schemes.

Tanka - A Japanese poem of five lines, the first and third composed of five syllables and the other
seven.

Villanelle - A Villanelle is a nineteen-line poem consisting of a very specific rhyming scheme: aba aba
aba aba aba abaa.

Elements of Poetry

Persona
This refers to the narrator or speaker of the poem, not to be confused with the author - a
narrative voice other than the poet tells the entire poem. The expression derives from the Greek word
"persona" meaning mask. When the poet creates a character to be the speaker, that character is called
the persona and the poet imagines what it is like to enter someone else's personality.

Rhythm
This is the music made by the statements of the poem, which includes the syllables in the lines.
The best method of understanding this is to read the poem aloud, and understand the stressed and
unstressed syllables. Listen for the sounds and the music made when we hear the lines spoken aloud.
How do the words resonate with each other? How do the words flow when they are linked with one
another? Does sound right? Do the words fit with each other? These are the things you consider while
studying the rhythm of the poem.

Meter
This is the basic structural make-up of the poem. Do the syllables match with each other? Every
line in the poem must adhere to this structure. A poem is made up of blocks of lines, which convey a
single strand of thought. Within those blocks, a structure of syllables which follow the rhythm has to be
included. This is the meter or the metrical form of poetry.

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Nobility
By Alice Cary

True worth is in being, not seeming,-
In doing, each day that goes by,
Some little good-not in dreaming
Of great things to do by and by.

For whatever men say in their blindness,
And spite of the fancies of youth,
Theres nothing so kingly as kindness,
And nothing so royal as truth.

We get back our meet as we measure-
We cannot do wrong and feel right,
Nor can we give pain and gain pleasure,
For justice avenges each slight.
The air for the wing of the sparrow,
The bush for the robin and wren,
But always the path that is narrow
And straight, for the children of men.
Tis not in the pages of story
The heart of its ills to beguile,
Though he who makes courtship to glory
Gives all that he hath for her smile.

For when from her heights he has won her,
Alas it is only to prove
That nothings so sacred as honor,
And nothing so loyal as love!

We cannot make bargains for blisses,
Nor catch them like fishes in nets;
And sometimes the thing our life misses
Helps more than the thing which it gets.

For good lieth not in pursuing,
Nor gaining of great or small,
But just in the doing, and doing
As we should be done by, is all.

Through envy, through malice, through
hating,
Against the world , early and late,
no jot of our courage abating-
Our part is to work and wait.

And slight is the sting of his trouble
Whose winnings are less than his worth;
For he who is honest and noble,
Whatever his fortunes or birth.

Stanza
Stanza in poetry is defined as a smaller unit or group
of lines or a paragraph in a poem. A particular stanza has a
specific meter, rhyme scheme, etc. Based on the number of
lines, stanzas are named as couplet (2 lines), Tercet (3 lines),
Quatrain (4 lines), Cinquain (5 lines), Sestet (6 lines), Septet
(7lines),Octave(8lines).

Rhyme
A poem may or may not have a rhyme. When you
write poetry that has rhyme, it means that the last words or
sounds of the lines match with each other in some form.
Rhyme is basically similar sounding words like 'cat' and 'hat',
'close' and 'shows', 'house' and 'mouse', etc. Free verse
poetry though, does not follow this system.

Rhyme Scheme
As a continuation of rhyme, the rhyme scheme is also
one of the basic elements of poetry. In simple words, it is
defined as the pattern of rhyme. Either the last words of the
first and second lines rhyme with each other, or the first and
the third, second and the fourth and so on. It is denoted by
alphabets like aabb (1st line rhyming with 2nd, 3rd with 4th);
abab (1st with 3rd, 2nd with 4th); abba (1st with 4th, 2nd
with 3rd), etc.

Theme
This is what the poem is all about. The theme of the
poem is the central idea that the poet wants to convey. It can
be a story, or a thought, or a description of something or
someone; anything that the poem is about.

Symbolism
Often poems will convey ideas and thoughts using
symbols. A symbol can stand for many things at one time and
leads the reader out of a systematic and structured method
of looking at things. Often a symbol used in the poem will be
used to create such an effect.

Imagery
Imagery is also one of the important elements of a
poem. This device is used by the poet for readers to create an
image in their imagination. Imagery appeals to all the five
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senses. For e.g., when the poet describes, 'the flower is bright red', an image of a red flower is
immediately created in the readers mind.
Repetition
Repetition occurs when a word or phrase used more than once. Repetition can create a pattern.

Idiom
It is a phrase where the words together have a meaning that is different from the dictionary
definitions of the individual words.

Example: Break a leg Good luck
Its raining cats and dogs Raining hard

Read the poem Nobility and answer the questions that follow.

Who is the persona in the poem?
___________________________________________

Are there rhyming words in the poem? Give some examples.
_______________________________________________

What is the rhyme scheme of the poem?
_______________________________________________

What is the theme of the poem?
_______________________________________________

How does the author view nobility?
_______________________________________________

Are there some symbolisms in the poem? Give some examples.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

Figurative Language

Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual
meanings of the component words. It compares two things in such a way that you find the comparison
interesting or even a bit surprising.

Simile is a direct comparison between two objects or ideas that uses the words like or as.
Ex: She is as sweet as candy.
She swims like a fish.

Note: Using like or as doesnt make a simile. A comparison must be made.

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Not a Simile: I like pizza.

Simile: The moon is like a pizza.

A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison between objects or
situations.
Ex: Life is one long scary roller coaster.
She is a shining star in her class.

Personification: It is a representation of abstract ideas or inanimate objects as having human
attributes or qualities.
Ex: The sun greeted me this morning.
The trees were dancing with the wind.

Hyperbole: It is an exaggeration, used often to ridicule, create humor or any drastic emotional
appeal.
Ex: She wept and wept until there was a sea of tears.
The waves rose as high as the mountains.

Onomatopoeia: It is a sound expression where the word is similar to the sound made.
Ex: 'Crackling sound' 'hissing away'
'screeching noise' 'Boo-hoo'

Alliteration: Words or sentences that begin with similar-sounding words are said to employ
alliteration.
Ex: She sells sea shells by the seashore.
We were wide-eyed and wondering while we wait for others to waken.

Assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds to create
internal rhyming within phrases or sentences.
Ex: That cat sat back.
The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plains.

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Name: ______________________________________ Date:__________________

Guided Exercise:

I. Read the sentences. Write the first letter of the type of figurative language used in each
sentence.
Simile Metaphor Hyperbole Personification

_____ 1. The wind whistled through the trees.
_____ 2. I am so hungry I could eat a horse.
_____ 3. She was as quiet as a mouse.
_____ 4. I have told you a million times.
_____ 5. His face was an open book.
_____ 6. He is as strong as an ox.
_____ 7. The stars looked down from the sky.
_____ 8. Her smile is a ray of bright sunshine.
_____ 9. His bedroom is a pigs sty.
_____10. She was pretty as a picture in her new dress.
_____11. He was a tornado, blasting his way through the opposing team.
_____12. As the wind was blowing, the tree branch was gently brushing my hair.
_____13. I jumped so high I touched the sky.
_____14. The young boy was a skyscraper next to his friend.
_____15. The sun smiled down on the emerald-green fields.
_____16. Joshua played his music so loud that Ms. Lambs ears fell off.
_____17. My bike is a rocket speeding down the street.
_____18. The fog of sleep wraps around me
_____19. He threw the football so far it went into space!
_____20. The flowers were crying for my attention.

II. Writing. Construct two sentences for each figurative language.

Simile
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Metaphor

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Personification
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Hyperbole
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

III. Read the sentences. Write the first letter of the type of figurative language used in each
sentence.
Onomatopoeia Alliteration Assonance

_____1. Silent silky strings, soundless, song less.
_____2. Plop, plop, fizz, fizz, oh what a relief it is.
_____3. On a proud round cloud in a white high night.
_____4. The cow says moo all day long.
_____5. I lie down by the side for my bride. Fleet feet sweep by sleeping geese.
_____6. Three grey geese in a green field grazing.
_____7. When you awaken, be sure to record the remnants of your dream on your Purple Pages of
Passion, Persuasion, and Poetry with your Purple Plume of Poetic Penmanship.
_____8. If I bleat when I speak it's because I just got . . . fleeced.
_____9. The slimy snake slithered slowly sideways.
_____10. He clattered and clanged as he washed the dishes.
_____11. It beats . . . as it sweeps . . . as it cleans!
_____12. Careless cars cutting corners create confusion.
_____13. I'm getting married in the morning! Ding dong! The bells are gonna chime.
_____14. Many merry moms made milkshakes and Mississippi Mudpies for dessert.
_____15. Dead in the middle of little Italy, little did we know that we riddled two middle men
who didn't do diddily.
_____16. Chug, chug, chug. Puff, puff, puff. Ding-dong, ding-dong. The little train rumbled over
the tracks.
_____17. Hear the lark and harden to the barking of the dark fox gone to ground.
_____18. Brrrrrrriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinng! An alarm clock clanged in the dark and silent room.
_____19. The sibilant sermons of the snake as she discoursed upon the disposition of my
sinner's soul seemed ceaseless.
_____20. It went zip when it moved and bop when it stopped, And whirr when it stood still. I
never knew just what it was and I guess I never will.

IV. Writing. Construct two sentences for each figurative language.

Onomatopoeia
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Alliteration
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Assonance
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Run-on Sentence

A run-on is two or more complete thoughts that are run together with no appropriate
punctuation mark to break between them.
As a result of the run-on, the reader is confused and unsure of where one thought ends and the
next one begins.

Two Common Kinds of Run-on:
1. Fused Sentence has no punctuation to mark the break between the thoughts.

Ex: Roxanne decided to stop eating hamburgers she didnt want to risk high cholesterol.

2. Comma Splice has a comma at the dividing point between complete thoughts.

Ex: Roxanne decided to stop eating hamburgers, she didnt want to risk high cholesterol.

Correcting run-ons
1. Use a period and a capital letter to separate the two complete thoughts.
Run-on: Roxanne decided to stop eating hamburgers she didnt want to risk high
cholesterol.
Correct: Roxanne decided to stop eating hamburgers. She didnt want to risk high
cholesterol.

2. Use a comma plus a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to connect the two
complete thoughts.
Run-on: Roxanne decided to stop eating hamburgers, she didnt want to risk high
cholesterol.
Correct: Roxanne decided to stop eating hamburgers, for she didnt want to risk high
cholesterol.

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3. Use a semicolon to connect the two complete thoughts.
cholesterol.
Correct: Roxanne decided to stop eating hamburgers; she didnt want to risk high
cholesterol.

Note: Semicolons are often misused. Take care to use them correctly when correcting
fragments.

4. Use subordination.
cholesterol.
Correct: Roxanne decided to stop eating hamburgers because she didnt want to risk
high cholesterol.

Name: ______________________________________ Date:__________________

Guided Exercise:

I. Identify if the sentence is a run on or a complete one. Write R before the number if its a run on and
C it is complete.

____1. Despite the long flight, arriving in Greece is always a good feeling.
____2. I received a VS on my last quiz I am very happy.
____3. Greece is a wonderful country there are a lot of amazing places to go to.
____4. The chest contained large amounts of gold, rubies, sapphires and other precious stones.
____5. She always recycles her bottles they are collected once a month.
____6. The meal was a huge success despite his lack of skill in the kitchen.
____7. She ran out of the room the shadows in the corner had scared her.
____8. Tom loves jelly strawberry is his favorite.
____.9 Carrie decided to stop eating burgers she didnt want to risk high cholesterol.
____10. Shrimp eggs can survive for over one year in the desert sands, rainwater brings them to life.

II. Correct each run-on sentence. If the sentence is correct, write C on the blank before each number.

1. The English system of measurement is used in the United States it is not widely used elsewhere.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Most countries use the metric system all scientists use it to record experiments.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Scientists need a uniform system of measurement this system enables them to communicate easily
with one another.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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4. American students are gradually being taught the metric system, then in a few years it will be adopted
officially.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

5. Although learning two systems may seem confusing at first, it is necessary.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

6. We are used to measuring in quarts, pounds, and feet, therefore we think this familiar system is
easier.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

7. Units of the metric system can be divided by ten, this is what makes the system so easy to use.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

8. A meter is equal to about 39 inches, therefore it is a little longer than a yard.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

9. A meter can be divided into 100 equal parts, each one is called a centimeter.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

10. If you compare an inch and a centimeter, you will see that an inch is equal to about two and a half
centimeters.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

11. The English system measures weight in ounces and pound, the metric system measures it in grams
and kilograms.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

12. The prefix kilo-- comes from the Greek word chilioi, which means thousand.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

13. When scientists measure the volume of a liquid, they use the liter, not the quart, as the unit of
measurement.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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14. A liter can be divided into 1,000 equal parts, each part is a milliliter.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

15. Someday you will learn about these measurements then they will all make sense.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Dangling and
Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is simply a word or phrase describing something but
not placed near enough the word it is supposed to modify.
Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward,
ridiculous, or confusing. Furthermore, they can be downright illogical.

Example:
(a gold man owns a watch.)

Misplaced modifiers can usually be corrected by moving the modifier to a more sensible place in the
sentence, generally next to the word it modifies.
Corrected:
(Now it is the watch that is gold.)

Other examples:
Incorrect: I had to take down the shutters painting the house yesterday.
It sounds like the shutters painted the house! Place the modifying phrase painting the house near or
next to the word it is meant to modify.
Correct: Painting the house yesterday, I had to take down the shutters.

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INCORRECT: By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in the eye.
CORRECT: By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his finger.

INCORRECT: Every Friday, the cafeteria serves pizza to students on paper plates.
CORRECT: Every Friday, the cafeteria serves students pizza on paper plates.

INCORRECT: The baby crawled on the floor with blue overalls.
CORRECT: A: The baby with blue overalls crawled on the floor.

INCORRECT: The policemen finally stopped the criminal using pepper spray and handcuffs.
CORRECT: Using pepper spray and handcuffs, the policeman finally stopped the criminal.

Many single-word modifiers are often misplaced; these include only, almost, just, even, merely, hardly,
and nearly.

Consider how the meaning of the following sentence changes, depending on where you place the
word only:
Only Susie gave $20 at the fundraiser. (No one else but Susie gave $20.)
Susie only gave $20 at the fundraiser. (The only thing Susie did was give $20.)
Susie gave only $20 at the fundraiser. (Susie didnt give any more than $20.)
Susie gave $20 at the only fundraiser. (Susie gave $20 at the only available fundraiser.)
Susie gave $20 at the fundraiser only. (Susie didnt give $20 anywhere else.)

Correcting a Misplaced Modifier
Correct a misplaced modifier by moving the phrase or clause closer to the word it should logically
modify.

1. Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost always distort the
intended meaning.
Example 1:

Correct the error by placing the adjective next to the noun it modifies.
Correct:

Example 2:

Correct:
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2. Placement of adverbs can also c
hange meaning in sentences.
For example, the sentences below illustrate how the placement of just can change the sentence's meaning.
Just means only John was picked, no one else:
Just means that John was picked now:
Just means that John hosted only the program,
nothing else:

Each of these sentences says something logical but quite different, and its correctness depends upon what
the writer has in mind.
Often, misplacing an adverb not only alters the intended meaning, but also creates a sentence whose
meaning is highly unlikely or completely ridiculous.
This sentence, for example, suggests that we
brought a lunch slowly:

To repair the meaning, move the adverb
slowly so that it is near ate.

Watch out for adverbs such as only, just, nearly, merely, and almost. They are often misplaced and cause
an unintended meaning.
This sentence, for example, means
that I only contributed the money:

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Repaired, however, the sentence
means that I contributed only $10.00.

Like adjectives, adverbs are commonly misplaced in everyday speech, and may not cause listeners
difficulty. However, such sentences are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have NO place in your
writing.
3. Misplaced phrases may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not
make sense.
The problem sentences below contain misplaced phrases that modify the wrong nouns.
To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the phrases next to the noun they are supposed to modify.

Example 1 :
(a buyer with leather seats?)

Corrected:

Example 2:
(a corner smoking pipes?)

Corrected:

Example 3:
(a house made of barbed wire?)

Corrected:
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4. Misplaced clauses may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not
make sense.
The problem sentences below contain misplaced clauses that modify the wrong nouns.
To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to the noun they are supposed to modify.

Example 1:
( a buttered woman?)

Corrected:

Example 2:
(a hamper that Ralph wore?)

Corrected:

Be careful! In correcting a misplaced modifier, don't create a sentence with two possible meanings.

Example:

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Problem: Did the teacher say this on Monday or will she return the essays on Monday?)
Correction #1
(meaning the essays will be
returned on Monday)

Correction #2
(meaning that the teacher
spoke on Monday)

A dangling modifier appears to modify either the wrong word or no word at all because the word it
should logically modify is missing. It is a phrase or clause that is not clearly and logically related to the word
or words it modifies (i.e. is placed next to).
Two notes about dangling modifiers:
Unlike a misplaced modifier, a dangling modifier cannot be corrected by simply moving it to a
different place in a sentence.
In most cases, the dangling modifier appears at the beginning of the sentence, although it can also
come at the end.

Example:
INCORRECT: Pausing to congratulate Barbara, the conversation continued.
CORRECT: Pausing to congratulate Barbara, we continued the conversation.

INCORRECT: Giving a party, several balloons were blown up.
CORRECT: Giving a party, they blew up several balloons.

Sometimes the dangling modifier error occurs because the sentence fails to specify anything to which the
modifier can refer.
Example 1:

This sentence does not specify who is looking toward the west. In fact, there is nothing at all in the
sentence to which the modifying phrase looking toward the west can logically refer. Since the
modifier, looking toward the west, is sitting next to the funnel shaped cloud, the sentence suggests that
the cloud is doing the looking.
Example 2:
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This sentence means that my mother enrolled in medical when she was nine years old!
At other times the dangling modifier is placed next to the wrong noun or noun substitute.
Example 1:
Because of the placement of walking to the movies, this sentence suggests that
the cloudburst is walking to the movies even though a possible walker - Jim - is mentioned later.

Example 2:

Since having been fixed the night before is placed next to Priscilla, the sentence means that Priscilla was
fixed the night before.
As the above examples show, dangling modifiers result in inaccurate and sometimes ludicrous statements.

Correcting a Dangling Modifier
Dangling modifiers may be corrected in two general ways.
Correction Method #1
1. Leave the modifier as it is.
2. Change the main part of the sentence so that it begins with the term actually modified.
3. This change will put the modifier next to the term it modifies.
Thus, this dangling modifier

may be corrected to

Now the sentence means that I was looking toward the west.

Using the same method,
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this dangling modifier

may be corrected to

Now the sentence means that Jim was drenched by the cloudburst.
Correction Method #2
1. Change the dangling modifier phrase to a subordinate clause, creating a subject and verb.
2. Leave the rest of the sentence as it is.

Thus, the dangling modifier

may be corrected to

Now the sentence means that I (not my mother!) was nine years old when my mother enrolled in medical
school.

Using the same method,
the dangling modifier

may be corrected to

Now the sentence means that the car (not Priscilla!) was fixed.

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Name: ______________________________________ Date:__________________

Guided Exercise:

I. Identifying Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
Directions: On the blank beside each sentence, indicate whether that sentence contains a dangling
modifier (DM) or a misplaced modifier (MM).

Examples:
DM a. At the age of six, my mother sang hymns to me.
Correction: When I was six, my mother sang hymns to me.

MM b. We were told at midnight the concert would begin.
Correction: We were told the concert would begin at midnight.

_____ 1. The car on the bridge which is green is mine.
_____ 2. Expecting confusion, our plans were made.
_____ 3. Feeling hot, sweaters were taken off.
_____ 4. I showed my dog to the veterinarian with the fleas.
_____ 5. Larry told me he was getting married that afternoon at night.
_____ 6. This typewriter is used by a secretary with a wide carriage.
_____ 7. Swimming out into the sea, the current grew stronger.
_____ 8. Walking along the bridge, a ship suddenly appeared.
_____ 9. The Honda was stalled on the road out of oil.
_____ 10. He kept a black book of all the girls he had dated in his desk.
_____ 11. On entering the room, the messages are easily seen.
_____ 12. While at the park, the sun shone brightly on the sunbathers.
_____ 13. Mary should jump at whatever is demanded quickly.
_____ 14. He kept all his medicine in the medicine cabinet that had been prescribed for him.
_____ 15. When only a baby, Mom took me scuba diving.

II. Correcting Misplaced Modifiers
MISPLACED MODIFIERS
Write "C" before the number if the modifier is correctly placed. Write "MM" if it is misplaced. Then, in
the "MM" sentences, circle the modifier and draw an arrow to show where it should go.

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_____ 1. The man was stopped for speeding in the blue sweater.
_____ 2. I almost saw the whole movie, but I fell asleep around midnight.
_____ 3. Joe promised to mow the lawn running out the door.
_____ 4. The initials were those of the lovers carved on the tree.
_____ 5. There are only two parking spaces left in the lot.
_____ 6. Every four hours the doctor told him to take a pill.
_____ 7. Sitting on the porch, I smoked my last cigarette.
_____ 8. The woman walked toward us wearing the feather hat.
_____ 9. The jet crashed into a cliff carrying 155 passengers.
_____ 10. I hardly ate any breakfast.
_____ 11. I watched the mechanic fix the car with admiration.
_____ 12. I earn fifty dollars a week scarcely.
_____ 13. Reaching into the cupboard, I found the bag of cookies.
_____ 14. We borrowed a mower from a neighbor that was broken.
_____ 15. Climbing up the telephone pole, we saw a squirrel.
_____ 16. Mel, running rapidly, disappeared around the bend.
_____ 17. The cat was rescued after the building had been set on fire by a fireman.
_____ 18. We've almost found all the pieces to the puzzle.
_____ 19. She vowed on her birthday to go on a diet.
_____ 20. We need gas badly.
DANGLING MODIFIERS
Underline the dangling modifier in each of the following sentences. Then, rewrite each sentence to
correct the dangling modifier.

1. Driving in heavy traffic, my head started to ache.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Fishing for trout, our boat tipped over.
23

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Crossing the border, my bags were searched.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Searching my wallet, my driver's license was found.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. A shovel was used, building the sand castle.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Feeling nervous, nails were bitten.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Laughing hysterically, the joke was repeated.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Waiting for my friend, the weather turned bad.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. Taking out the garbage, snow started to fall.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. Fooling around, the lamps got broken.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

24

Short Story

Short Story is a fictional prose tale of no specified length, but too
short to be published as a volume on its own, as novellas sometimes and
novels usually are. A short story will normally concentrate on a single
event with only one or two characters, more economically than a novel's
sustained exploration of social background.

ELEMENTS OF A SHORT STORY

CHARACTER -- There are two meanings for the word character:
1) The person in a work of fiction.
2) The characteristics of a person.
Persons in a work of fiction - Antagonist and Protagonist
Short stories use few characters. One character is clearly central to the story with all major events
having some importance to this character - he/she is the PROTAGONIST. The opposer of the main
character is called the ANTAGONIST.
The Characteristics of a Person -
In order for a story to seem real to the reader its characters must seem real. Characterization is the
information the author gives the reader about the characters themselves. The author may reveal a
character in several ways:
a) his/her physical appearance
b) what he/she says, thinks, feels and dreams
Character Point of View
Setting Theme
Plot
25

c) what he/she does or does not do
d) what others say about him/her and how others react to him/her
Characters are convincing if they are: consistent, motivated, and life-like (resemble real people)
Characters are...
Dynamic - A dynamic character is a person who changes over time, usually as a result of
resolving a central conflict or facing a major crisis. Most dynamic characters tend to be central
rather than peripheral characters, because resolving the conflict is the major role of central
characters.
Static - A static character is someone who does not change over time; his or her personality
does not transform or evolve.
Round - A rounded character is anyone who has a complex personality; he or she is often
portrayed as a conflicted and contradictory person.
Flat - A flat character is the opposite of a round character. This literary personality is notable
for one kind of personality trait or characteristic.
SETTING -- The time and location in which a story takes place is called the setting. For some stories the
setting is very important, while for others it is not. There are several aspects of a story's setting to
consider when examining how setting contributes to a story (some, or all, may be present in a story):

a) place - geographical location. Where is the action of the story taking place?
b) time - When is the story taking place? (historical period, time of day, year, etc)
c) weather conditions - Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc?
d) social conditions - What is the daily life of the characters like? Does the story contain local colour
(writing that focuses on the speech, dress, mannerisms, customs, etc. of a particular place)?
e) mood or atmosphere - What feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Is it bright and cheerful
or dark and frightening?

PLOT -- The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic idea; It is the sequence of
events in a story or play. The plot is a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and
end. The short story usually has one plot so it can be read in one sitting. There are five essential parts
of plot.

26

a) Exposition - The beginning of the story where the characters and the setting is revealed.
b) Rising Action - This is where the events in the story become complicated and the conflict in the story
is revealed (events between the introduction and climax).
c) Climax - This is the highest point of interest and the turning point of the story. The reader wonders
what will happen next; will the conflict be resolved or not?
d) Falling action - The events and complications begin to resolve themselves. The reader knows what
has happened next and if the conflict was resolved or not (events between climax and denouement).
e) Resolution/Denouement - This is the final outcome or untangling of events in the story.

It is helpful to consider climax as a three-fold phenomenon: 1) the main character receives new
information 2) accepts this information (realizes it but does not necessarily agree with it) 3) acts on
this information (makes a choice that will determine whether or not he/she gains his objective).
CONFLICT-- Conflict is essential to plot. Without conflict there is no plot. It is the opposition of forces
which ties one incident to another and makes the plot move. Conflict is not merely limited to open
arguments, rather it is any form of opposition that faces the main character. Within a short story there
may be only one central struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle with many minor ones.
There are two types of conflict:

1) External - A struggle with a force outside one's self.
2) Internal - A struggle within one's self; a person must make some decision, overcome pain, quiet their
temper, resist an urge, etc.

There are four kinds of conflict:

1) Man vs. Man "Man against man" conflict involves stories where characters are against each
other. This is an external conflict. The conflict may be direct opposition, as in a gunfight or a robbery, or
it may be a more subtle conflict between the desires of two or more characters, as in a romance or a
family epic.
2) Man vs. Nature - "Man against nature" conflict is an external struggle positioning the hero against an
animal or a force of nature, such as a storm.
3) Man vs. Society - Where man stands against a man-made institution (such as slavery or bullying),
"man against man" conflict may shade into "man against society. In such stories, characters are forced
to make moral choices or frustrated by social rules in meeting their own goals.
4) Man vs. Himself - With "man against self" conflict, the struggle is internal.

A character must
overcome his own nature or make a choice between two or more paths - good and evil; logic and
emotion.
27

POINT OF VIEW
Point of view, or p.o.v., is defined as the angle from which the story is told.
First Person - The story is told by the protagonist or one of the characters who interacts closely
with the protagonist or other characters (using pronouns I, me, we, etc). The reader sees the
story through this person's eyes as he/she experiences it and only knows what he/she knows or
feels.
Third person Omniscient- The author can narrate the story using the omniscient point of view.
He can move from character to character, event to event, having free access to the thoughts,
feelings and motivations of his characters and he introduces information where and when he
chooses. There are two main types of omniscient point of view:
Third Person Limited - The author tells the story in third person (using pronouns they, she, he, it,
etc). We know only what the character knows and what the author allows him/her to tell us.
We can see the thoughts and feelings of characters if the author chooses to reveal them to us.
Third Person Objective The author tells the story in the third person. It appears as though a
camera is following the characters, going anywhere, and recording only what is seen and heard.
There is no comment on the characters or their thoughts. No interpretations are offered. The
reader is placed in the position of spectator without the author there to explain. The reader has
to interpret events on his own.
THEME -- The theme in a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its central insight. It is the author's
underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey. The theme may be the author's thoughts
about a topic or view of human nature. The title of the short story usually points to what the writer is
saying and he may use various figures of speech to emphasize his theme, such as: symbol, allusion,
simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony.
Some simple examples of common themes from literature, TV, and film are:
- things are not always as they appear to be
- Love is blind
- Believe in yourself
- People are afraid of change
- Don't judge a book by its cover
28

Name: ______________________________________ Date:__________________

A COUNTRY BOY QUITS SCHOOL
By Lao Hsiang
Translated by Chi-Chen Wang

A boy in the country gets to be at least
half as useful as a grownup by the time he is
eight or nine years old. He can weed in the
spring or tie up harvest bundles in summer: he
is able to pass bricks when a house is built or
open and shut the furrows to the irrigation
ditches. That being the case, who'd want to
send him to school? But an official proclamation
had been issued in the city to the effect that
unless a boy over six years of age is sent to
school, some adult in the family will go to jail.
This was how it happened that the country boy
of our story went to school.

On his first day at school the boy came
back with eight books. His grandparents and his
father and mother all gathered around him and
marveled at the pictures in the book.
Grandfather said, The Four Books and the Five
Classics
1
never had any pictures like these.

The people in the pictures are not
Chinese! Father suddenly exclaimed. Look
carefully and youll see that none of them wear
the kind of clothes we wear. See, these are
leather shoes; this is what is called a dog stick.
They remind me of the old missionary who
preaches at the cross street in the city.

This woman at the spinning wheel is
also a foreigner, Grandmother said, we use
the right hand to spin but she uses her left.

If that makes her a foreigner, then this
driver is not Chinese either. Look, have you ever
seen a Chinese driver sit on that side of a cart?
commented Grandfather.

The teacher said that the books cost a
dollar and twenty cents. the boy suddenly said,
taking courage in their absorption of the books.
The statement stunned everyone like a sudden
clap of thunder.

Grandmother was the first to speak.
They certainly have the nerve to make us pay
for the books after we give up the boy for them!
Hes hardly gone to school for a day and it has
cost us over a dollar already. Who can afford
such schools? We cant save that much money
if we go without light for half a year, and well
have to sell at least eight bushels of corn to
raise that much money.

I think one book ought to be enough to
start with. They can get another after they
finished that. Grandfather said.

Moreover, why should it cost so much
when there are only three or four characters on
a page? Grandmother continued, The
almanac has both large and small characters
and is closely printed and it costs only five
coppers. How can these be worth more than a
dollar?

The books which they had suddenly
marveled at a few minutes before had suddenly
become a cause of depression. The family
discussed the matter at supper and all through
the rest of the evening and finally decided that
they would accept this calamity and pay the
amount required, since it was the first time. In
order to make up the sum, the boys mother
had to contribute the proceeds from two pairs
of earrings that she had recently sold. His father
gave him a solemn lecture, saying, You are
now nine, no longer so young. Were sparing
you from work and sending you to school,
though we cant afford it in our circumstances.
Youll be very ungrateful if you dont study hard
and learn something.

The boy took his father's instructions to
heart and set out for school the next day at
dawn. When he got there, however, the porter
said to him in a low voice, "Classes don't start
till nine. It's now only five thirty. You are too
early. The teacher is asleep and the classroom
isn't unlocked. You had better go home now."
The boy looked around the yard and found that
he was indeed the only student there; he
listened outside the teacher's window and
heard him snoring; he walked around the
lecture room and found no open door. There
was nothing for him to do but run back home.
Grandfather was sweeping the yard when he
suddenly caught sight of the boy. He threw
down his broom and said. "What is the use of
trying to make a scholar of a boy whom Heaven
29

and Earth intended for the hoe? Look at him.
Its only the second day and he is playing truant
already!" The boy was just about to explain
when his mother gave him two resounding
slaps and made him tend the fire for breakfast.
Needless to say, the price of the books that they
had to buy had a great deal to do with their
temper.

When the boy went to school again after
breakfast, the teacher was already on the
platform and was holding forth on the subject
of being late to school. To illustrate his point, he
told a story about a little fairy that waited by
the wayside with a bag of gold to reward the
earliest boy. Our boy was enchanted with the
story and the words "fairy" and gold" but he
could not figure out just what was
meant by "earliest."

In the afternoon, our young hero came
back from school at three thirty, just as his
father was going back to work after his midday
nap. Luckily his father happened to see the
other boys also coming home from school and
the teacher taking a stroll with his dog stick,"
and concluded that his son was not playing
truant. He kept wondering, however, about the
strange ways of these foreign schools.

The first six days of school were taken up
with the first lesson in the reader, with the text
This is Mama." It couldn't be said that the boy
was not diligent. He reviewed his lesson every
day after school, reading over and over again
"This is Mama," until dusk. With his left hand
holding the book open and his right following
the characters, he read on faithfully and
conscientiously if afraid that the characters
would fly away if he did not fix his entire
attention on them.

But every time he reads "This is Mama,"
his mother's heart would jump. On the sixth day
of school she could stand it no longer. She
snatched the book from him and said, Let me
see who your mama is!" Thinking that his
mother was really eager to learn, the boy
pointed to the accompanying picture and said,
This is Mama- the lady with leather shoes,
bobbed hair, and long dress." One glance at the
picture and Mother burst out crying.
Grandfather, Grandmother, and Father were
frightened, thinking that she might have
become possessed by some evil spirits. At first,
she only cried and would not say anything when
they asked her what the matter was, but when
they persisted, she said. Where
did the boy get that vampire-like mama?"

When they found the cause of her
distress, Father said, "We'll have the boy ask his
teacher whose mama this really is. Maybe it is
the teacher's mama."

The next morning before dawn, Mother
woke up her son and made him go to
school and ask the teacher for a solution to the
problem that had bothered her all night.
Arriving at school, the boy found that it was
Sunday and that there would be no school.
Moreover, the teacher had drunk more wine
than was good for him the night before and was
still sound asleep. The boy told Mother the
circumstances, which made her curse the
institution of Sunday.

At general assembly on Monday, the
teacher said gently to his charges, "One who
wants to learn must not be afraid to ask
questions. Anyone who has any question should
raise it at once, to his teacher at school, or to
his parents at home." Thereupon our hero
stood up and asked, The reader says This is
Mama. Whose is she, really? The teacher
answered even more gently than before. "It is
the mama of anyone who happens to read the
book, do you understand now?"

"No," the boy said. This embarrassed
the teacher a little but he said patiently, "Why
don't you understand?"
"Baldy is also reading this, but his mama
is not like this lady," the boy said.
"Baldy's mother is lame in one arm and
has only one eye," Hsiao Li said.
"And you have no mama at all. She died
a long time ago," Baldy said in self-defense.

"Don't talk among yourselves!" the
teacher said, knocking on the blackboard with
his ruler. "We are going to start the second
lesson today: This is Papa. Look, everyone. This
is Papa, the man with spectacles and parted
hair."

After school, Mother was still worried
about who the woman in the picture was, but
when she heard her son reiterating "this is
Papa," she did not dare to pursue the question,
being afraid that her husband might want to
know when she'd found a new papa for their
son. She was puzzled more than ever and
wondered why the book insisted on presenting
people with papas and mamas when they had
them already.
30

A few days later, the boy learned two
new sentences: "The ox tends the fire; the
horse eats noodles." He read the text over
thousands of times but he could not get over
the feeling that there was something queer
about the assertions. They had an ox and a
horse and he had himself taken them out to
graze in the hills, but he had never once seen a
horse eat noodles and he was sure that their ox
could not tend the fire. But could the book be
wrong? Since he could not answer these
questions, he obeyed his teacher's injunction of
the week before and asked his father about it.
Father said, "I once went to a foreign circus in
the city and saw a horse that could ring a bell
and fire a gun. Perhaps the book is talking about
such horses and oxen."

Grandmother, however, did not agree
with father's explanation. She said, "The ox
must be the Ox-Head Devil King and the horse
must also be a demon. Don't you see that all
wear human clothing? They haven't changed
their heads for human heads yet, but that alone
will take five hundred years." The old lady then
went on to tell stories about demons that could
command the wing and summon rain; the result
was that the boy dreamed that night of being
seized by a winged-wolf demon and woke up
crying.

The following day, the boy asked his
teacher "Is this ox that can tend the fire a
foreign ox?"

The teacher laughed and said, "You are
too literal! The book has only made those things
up. It is not true that oxen can really tend the
fire or those horses really eat noodles."

The explanation cleared up at one stroke
many things in the book that had puzzled the
boy. He had read about such things as bread,
milk, park, ball, and the like, which he had never
seen and which had made him wonder. It
dawned upon him that the book dealt only with
make believe things.

One day, the boy and his schoolmates
decided that they would play tea party as they
had read about it in their reading. They agreed
that each would contribute twenty cents so that
they could send to the city for oranges, apples,
chocolates, and things. Our boy knew, of
course, that he would be only inviting a beating
to ask money for buying sweetmeats.
Grandmother always mumbled that school
would bankrupt them yet, whenever he had to
buy a sheet of writing paper. But he could not
resist the glowing picture that his book gave of
the tea party, and decided to help himself to
the money that his mother had just got from
selling more of her jewels and which she had
set aside for buying cabbage seedlings.

Grandfather had been suffering for a
long time from a chronic cough, and
someone had told him that orange peels would
give him relief. He kept on asking what orange
peels were like and where they could be gotten.
Thinking that this was a chance for him to
ingratiate himself into his grandfather's favor,
the boy said, "We are getting some oranges?"
Grandfather asked. "What are you getting
oranges for?"

We want to hold a tea party," the boy
said.

"What is a tea party?"

"It means to get together and eat things
and drink tea," the boy said. "It is in the book

"What kind of book is this that is either
making animals talk or teaching people to eat
and play? No wonder the boys have become
lazy and choosy about their food since
they went to school" Grandmother said.

"And it is always about foreign food.
There doesn't seem to be any corn stew or bean
curd with onions in it." Grandfather said.

"Remember, son, to bring back some
orange peels for your grandfather's cough," said
Mother.

"Where did you get the money to buy
oranges?" asked Father.

"The teacher - "but before the boy could
finish making up his story, they heard Baldy,
who lives in the next dwelling to the east,
suddenly begin to cry. Then they heard his
father shout, "We can't even afford salt, and yet
you want to buy candy."

This was followed by the voice of Hsiao
Lin's uncle, who lives in the west. "I let you buy
books with my hard-earned money because it is
for your good, but I haven't any money for you
to buy sweetmeats. You can ask whoever you
want to hold tea parties for it."

31

The truth came out. The boy's father
aimed a kick at him, but fortunately the table
intervened. He only upset the table and broke a
few rice bowls. Grandfather was of the opinion
that it might be better to take the boy out of
school, but Grandmother did not want her son
to go to jail. After long arguments, it was
decided that they would let him try school for a
few more days.

After this humiliation, our young scholar
vowed to study harder and to recover his lost
prestige in the family. Every day after school, he
read without stopping until it was dark. He did
not realize that the source of his troubles lay in
the textbook itself.

Grandmother had been feeling that her
son was no longer as close to her as before his
marriage and that her position in the family had
been gradually slipping. Now as she
listened to the boy reading aloud his latest
lessons, she heard him say, "In my family I have
a papa, a mama, a brother, and a sister," but
nothing about Grandfather and Grandmother.
She became very indignant and shouted. "So
this house is now all yours and I have no longer
a share in it!" She was mad with fury. She
picked up a brick and broke their iron pot into
pieces.

Don't be angry anymore!" the boy's
father said. "We won't let him read this kind of
book any longer. I would rather go to jail."

And so the next day, Father discharged a day
laborer and the teacher marked the boy's
absence in the record book at school.

_____________________________________
1
The Four Book the greatest text of the sages Confucius and Mencius, which from 1313-1905 were the basis of all
Chinese education. The Confucian Classics Book of Changes, Book of History, Book of Odes, Book of Rites, and Spring and
Autumn Annals in which Confucian learning was restored.

Vocabulary:
Construct your sentences on the blanks provided.

1. Bushel (n) - A bushel is a unit of volume that is used for measuring agricultural produce such as
corn or beans. A bushel is equivalent in volume to eight gallons.
Line from the story: Well have to sell at least eight bushels of corn to raise that much money.
_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Marvel (v) If you marvel at something, you express your great surprise, wonder, or admiration.
Line from the story: His grandparents and his father and mother all gathered around him and
marveled at the pictures in the book.
______________________________________________________________________________

3. Indignant (adj) If you are indignant, you are shocked and angry, because you think that
something is unjust or unfair.
Line from the story: There was nothing about Grandfather and Grandmother so she became very
indignant and shouted.
______________________________________________________________________________

4. Prestige (n) If a person, a country, or an organization has prestige, they are admired and
respected because of the position they hold or the things they have achieved.
Line from the story: After this humiliation, our young scholar vowed to study harder and to
recover his lost prestige in the family.
______________________________________________________________________________

5. Truant (n) A truant is a pupil who stays away from school without permission.
Line from the story: Its only the second day and he is playing truant already!
______________________________________________________________________________

6. Injunction (n) An injunction to do something is an order or strong request to do it.
Line from the story: Since he could not answer these questions, he obeyed his teacher's
injunction of the week before and asked his father about it.
______________________________________________________________________________
32

Comprehension Check:

1. What made the boys parents agree and decide to send him to school? Do you think any of the
family members had been to school? Support your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. How did the boys family scrutinize the books he brought home?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

3. Was the boys schooling free of charge? How did the family feel about this and how did they
deal with the situation?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

4. Describe what kind of a student the young boy is.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

5. How did the boys family react to what he was learning? Why do you think they reacted that
way?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

6. What was the final decision of the family regarding the boys schooling? Do you agree with their
decision? Support your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

7. If a lot of families reacted the same way, what do you think would be the result on the success
of the mass education program?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

33

Short Story Elements
Graphic Organizer

Name: ______________________________________________ Score:
Section: _____________________ Date: ______________

GENERAL DIRECTIONS: Base your answer on the short story, A Boy Quits School.
Make sure you give evidences to support your answers.

I. Setting

II. Character / Conflict

country boy
(main character)

/50
%

social condition
(2 points)
Time
(2 points)
Place
(2 points)

Setting
(5 points)
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
________________________________
Characterization ( 3 points)
(3 points) type
(round, flat, static, dynamic)
Conflict 1 ( 3 points) ( 3 points ) Conflict 2
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
____________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
____________________
________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
________________________________
________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
________________________________
34

III. Plot (5 points each)

IV. Point of View ( 3 points )

V. Theme, Moral Lesson and Social Issues

Beginning and Rising Action
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_______________________

Climax
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Falling action and
Denouement
________________________
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Point of View
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

35

Social Issues ( 5 points )

____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________

Theme (2 points)

Moral Lesson (2 points)

36

Adverbs and Adverb
Phrases

An adverb is a word or phrase that is used to modify a verb, adjective, or
another adverb. Most (but not all) adverbs end in ly.

Example: The rabbit jumped quickly.

In this example, quickly is an adverb because it is used to modify the verb jumped.

An adverb can describe how an action happens.
Example: Jason quickly read the book.
How did Jason read? Quickly.

An adverb can describe when an action happens.
Example: We went to the store yesterday.
When did we go? Yesterday.

An adverb can describe where an action happens.
Example: He put the paper here.
Where did he put the paper? Here.

Example: Albert Einstein was a very smart mathematician.
In this example, very is an adverb because it is used to modify the adjective smart.

Example: Jonas usually does his homework.
In this example, usually is a (frequency) adverb because it is used to modify the verb does.

Lets try this:

Directions: Underline the adverbs in the following sentences.

1) The fire spread rapidly.
2) Astronauts are really cool.
3) He did rather well on the test.
4) He told us to talk quietly in the library.
5) We swam right before the storm.
6) The old man drank the juice slowly.
7) The cat quickly pounced on the mouse.
8) We walked happily through the forest.
9) Jenna is always so late.
10) The race car is extremely fast.
11) He seldom did poorly on tests.
12) He carried the bowl of soup very carefully.
13) It is getting rather late.
14) I am never leaving.
15) When will we finally be done?

Adverb Phrase
A phrase is a group of related words that is used as a single part of speech and that does NOT
contain BOTH a verb and its subject.
A prepositional phrase that functions as an adverb is called an adverb phrase.

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Adverb: Lets meet outside.
Adverb Phrase: Lets meet outside the terminal.

Like adverbs, adverb phrases modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

Modifying a Verb: We will travel with a tour.
Modifying an Adjective: This tour is famous for its careful planning.
Modifying an Adverb: Have you ever traveled far from home?

Also like adverbs, adverb phrases tell how, when, where, why, or to what extent.
The tour will travel by plane. (how)
The plane will leave in the morning. (when)
Our tour will stop in many cities. (where)
Well visit museums for cultural reasons. (why)
Well be traveling for a long time. (to what extent)

Adverb phrases can occur anywhere in a sentence.
The plane was waiting on the runway.
At the gate stood many people.
I checked my luggage at the counter and boarded the plane.

More than one adverb phrase can modify the same word.
After a few minutes, we stepped onto the plane.
In the evening we walked to the movies.

Try this:

A. Encircle the word which the underlined adverb phrase modifies. Then, identify if it is a verb,
and adjective, or an adverb.

1. We arrived in Paris early in April; the city is beautiful in the spring.

2. We strolled by the river and spent days in museums, the shops, the art galleries, and the
cathedrals.

3. After a few days, we drove through the spectacularly scenic Pyrenees mountains to Spain.

4. We went to the shore, spent hours walking along the beach, collected colorful stones and shells,
and ate seafood at a seafood caf.

5. The whole family was hungry after that long drive.

B. Underline the adverb phrase/s in each sentence and encircle the word it modifies.

6. Our travels then took us to Germany for an unusual country-music festival.

7. In June we passed through Cologne during an extremely severe heat wave.

8. Nevertheless, the cathedral was full of visitors for a much anticipated organ concert.

9. Late in the month, ready for a change, we flew to Sweden on a chartered aircraft.

10. Famous for its food and fine buildings, Stockholm charmed us with its friendliness.

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Verbal

Verbals are formed from verbs but act as adjectives,
adverbs or nouns. They are classified as participles, gerunds, or
infinitives. Verbals are frequently accompanied by other, related
words in what is called a verbal phrase.

1. Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that functions as a noun.
Like an ordinary single-word noun, a gerund may be used as a:

SUBJECT
The person or element that is
performing the action of the verb is
called the subject.

DIRECT OBJECT

Subject Object of a Preposition
Direct Object Subjective Complement (Predicate Noun)
Indirect Object Appositive

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SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

APPOSITIVE

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NOTE: Do not confuse gerunds with verbs (predicates) in the progressive tense.
GERUND

PREDICATE VERB

Even though is cooking and was scratching end in -ing, they are not gerunds because they are used as
predicate verbs, not as nouns.

2. Participles
A participle is a verbal that functions as an adjective.
Two kinds of participles:
A. Present participles, always ending in -ing, are created from the form of a verb used with the verb to
be ( am, is, are, was, were, been) as an auxiliary verb (progressive tense). Removing the auxiliary verb
and using the -ing form of the main verb as an adjective produces a present participle.

41

B. Past participles, usually ending in -ed or -en, are created from the form of a verb used with the
verb to be as an auxiliary verb (passive voice).

Removing the auxiliary verb and using the -en form of the main verb as an adjective produces a past
participle.

42

Past participles may also be part of a participial phrase.

Participles and participial phrases should be placed near the nouns they modify. They may either
precede or follow a noun.

43

3. Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal formed by placing to in front of the simple present form of a verb.
Examples:
to swim to think to read to be to cut to turn
Infinitives may function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
A. Nominal infinitives
Like a single-word noun, a nominal infinitive may function as a
SUBJECT

DIRECT OBJECT

SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT

APPOSITIVE

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B. Adjectival infinitives
Just like a single-word adjective, an infinitive used as an adjective always describes a noun.
An adjectival infinitive always follows the noun it describes.
EXAMPLE

Like gerunds and participles, infinitives may incorporate other words as part of their phrase.
EXAMPLE

C. Adverbial infinitives
Just like a single-word adverb, an infinitive used as an adverb always describes a verb.
An adverbial infinitive usually occurs at the beginning or at the end of a sentence and does not need to
be near the verb it describes.
EXAMPLE: Adverbial infinitive at sentence beginning

45

EXAMPLE: Adverbial infinitive at sentence end

HINT: You can always identify an adverbial infinitive by inserting the test words in order in front of
infinitive. If the words in order make sense, the infinitive is adverbial.

PUNCTUATION NOTE:
1. Use a comma after the adverbial infinitive when it starts a sentence.
2. Do not separate the adverbial infinitive from the rest of the sentence if the infinitive ends the
sentence.

46

Name: ______________________________________ Date:__________________

Underline the verbal in each sentence and indicate whether it is a gerund (G), a participle (P) or an
infinitive (I).

_____1. Jennifers goal was to graduate from the University of Houston-Victoria.
_____2. Johns favorite outdoor activity is skiing.
_____3. Going on a cruise and climbing Mt. Rushmore were Rachels summer vacation plans.
_____4. Dancing with the famous instructor, Dillon felt like a star.
_____5. Animals dumped in the streets often become a menace.
_____6. The girls love to swim at Julies house.
_____7. Watching the birds is one of Mr. Martins hobbies.
_____8. Janice, baking 10 cakes for the festival, accidentally burned one of them.
_____9. Working out daily should be an essential part of American life.
_____10. I have a book to return to the library.
_____11. The childrens singing and laughing woke me up.
_____12. Mary likes to dance in the rain.
_____13. There are many ways of breaking a heart.
_____14. A broken heart will mend over time.
_____15. Happiness is having a large, loving, caring, close-knit family in another city.

Gerunds

Underline the gerunds or gerund phrases in the following sentences and label how they function in the
sentence (subject, direct object, predicate noun, object of preposition, appositive).
__________1. Swimming keeps me in shape.
__________2. Swimming in your pool is always fun.
__________3. The Moreno family loves cooking for relatives.
__________4. Telling your father was a mistake.
__________5. The college recommends sending applications early.
__________6. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
__________7. Her most important achievement was winning the national championship.
__________8. Going to work today took all my energy. [subject]
__________9. My passion, painting has given me happiness all my life.
__________10. Joseph hoped to obtain a job by learning the welding trade.

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Participles

Underline the participial phrase(s) in each of the following sentences, and encircle the noun or pronoun
modified.

1. Getting up at five, we got an early start.

2. Facing college standards, the students realized that they hadn't worked hard enough in high
school.

3. Statistics reported by the National Education Association revealed that seventy percent of
American colleges offer remedial English classes emphasizing composition.

4. The overloaded car gathered speed slowly.

5. Gathering my courage, I asked for a temporary loan.

6. The frozen fish was an easy meal for Jim to cook.

7. The woman wearing a blue sweater is Ians mother.

8. The car, damaged by the hailstorm, was taken to the body shop.

9. Staring at the items on the sales rack, Jill could not make a quick decision.

10. The student left in charge of the class was unable to keep order.

Infinitives
Underline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in the sentence.

Example: I want to go. [noun/direct object]

__________1. Clay goes to his grandmothers house to eat homemade sweets.

__________2. The purpose of the class was to teach children how to swim.

__________3. The hostess asked Jill to refill the punch bowl.

__________4. To clean the house seemed like an impossible task.

__________5. Doris was asked to host the baby shower.

__________6. She has the money to buy it.

__________7. We demonstrated to attract attention.

__________8. To see is to believe.

__________9. The dogs were taught to stand, to sit, and to bark on command.

__________10. She is he woman to see if you have queries.

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Essay

An essay is a short literary composition on a single subject, usually
presenting the personal view of the author.
Types of Essays
1. Narrative
Narration is telling a story from a certain viewpoint, and there is usually a reason for the telling.
All narrative essays will have characters, setting, climax, and most importantly, a plot. The plot is the
focus of the story and is usually revealed chronologically, but there are sometimes flash forwards and
flash backs.
In writing a narrative essay, remember to:
Include sensory and emotional details, so the reader will experience the story, not just read
about it
Have the story support the point you are making, and make reference to that point in the first
sentence.
Write in the first or third person

2. Descriptive

Descriptive essays have text which describes traits and characteristics of people, objects, events,
feelings, etc in intricate detail.

Whatever is being described will be thoroughly examined. For example, if you were describing roses,
you would explain:
Where they come from
What they look like
What colors they are
How they grow and smell

When you write a descriptive essay, you want to involve the readers senses and emotions. For
example, you could say, I got sleepy or describe it like this, "As I was waiting for Santa, my eyelids
began to get heavy, the lights on the tree began to blur with the green branches, and my head started to
drop." The second sentence gives vivid details to make the reader feel like he is there.

"Looking back on a childhood filled with events and memories, I find it rather difficult to
pick on that leaves me with the fabled "warm and fuzzy feelings." As the daughter of an
Air Force Major, I had the pleasure of traveling across America in many moving trips. I
have visited the monstrous trees of the Sequoia National Forest, stood on the edge of the
Grande Canyon and have jumped on the beds at Caesars Palace in Lake Tahoe."

Source: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/essay-examples.html

"When entering the door at Lous, two things are immediately noticeable: the place is
rarely empty and seems to consist of a maze of rooms. The first room, through the door,
is the main part of the restaurant. There is another, rarely used, dining room off to the
right. It was added during the oil well boom of the seventies. Through the main dining
room is yet another room; it guards the door leading into the kitchen. This room contains
the most coveted table in the place. The highest tribute Lou can bestow on anyone is to
allow them access to seats at this table. This table is the family table; it is reserved for
Lous, and her daughter Karens, immediate family and treasured friends."


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3. Exposition
Expository essays can compare, explore and discuss problems, or tell a story. An exposition
essay gives information about various topics to the reader. It:
Informs
Describes
Explains
In writing an exposition, the text needs to:
Be concise and easy to understand
Give different views on a subject or report on a situation or event
Explain something that may be difficult to understand as you write your essay.
Remember that your purpose is to explain.

4. Argumentative
In an argumentative essay the writer is trying to convince the reader by demonstrating the truth
or falsity of a topic. The writers position will be backed up with certain kinds of evidence, like statistics
or opinions of experts.
The writer is not just giving an opinion, but making an argument for or against something and
supporting that argument with data.
To know how to write an essay in an argumentative way, you have to research and backup what
you say in the text.

5. The Persuasive Essay
If you have to persuade your reader about something, your essay becomes a persuasive one.
With this type of writing you will need not only to prove your point, but will also have to persuade your
opposition that your viewpoint is logical and well founded, and thus better. In this case, you are no
longer merely showing what you know; you are convincing the reader that you are correct in your
viewpoint. In order to write this kind of essay it is important to prepare in advance by choosing a side,
making a case for it, anticipating alternative arguments and finding ways how to refute them. You must
"This family was a victim of a problem they could have avoided-a problem that, according
to Florida park rangers, hundreds of visitors suffer each year." Several times a month,"
ranger Rod Torres of O'Leno State Park said, "people get scared and leave the park in the
middle of the night." Those people picked the wrong kind of park to visit. Not that there
was anything wrong with the park: The hikers camped next to them loved the wild
isolation of it. But it just wasn't the kind of place the couple from New Jersey had in mind
when they decided to camp out on this trip through Florida."
"Gun control has been a controversial issue for years. A vast majority of citizens believe
that if gun control is strictly enforced it would quickly reduce the threat of crime. Many
innocent people feel they have the right to bear arms for protection, or even for the
pleasure of hunting. These people are penalized for protecting their lives, or even for
enjoying a common, innocent sport. To enforce gun control throughout the nation means
violating a persons Constitutional rights. Although some people feel that the issue of gun
control will limit crime, the issue should not exist due to the fact that guns are necessary
for self defense against crime, and by enforcing gun control is violating a citizens second
amendment right to bear arms."

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be aware of other sides of the argument and be fair to them; dismissing them completely will weaken
your own argument. It is always best to take a side that you believe in, preferably with the most
supporting evidence. It can often be educational to adopt a different position from what you might
normally choose (debating requires this kind of flexibility).

The Five Paragraph Essay
A good way to approach an essay is to envision it as a Five Part project. An essay is made up of
the Introduction, Three main points (the body), and the Conclusion. So it looks like this:
I. Introduction
II. Point One
III. Point Two Body
IV. Point Three
V. Conclusion
Of course depending on the length and breadth of your paper you may have more than three
main points. However by using this structure it will make envisioning your paper easier.
The Introduction
An Introduction should answer three questions
1. What am I talking about in this paper?

By answering this question you let the reader know what the subject of the paper is. For example, if
your paper were about a particular book, your answer to this question would give a title, author, and
any other necessary information.

2. How am I going to talk about it?

This is where you let the reader know how your paper is organized. Here you very briefly introduce your
main points or the evidence that will prove your point.

Drinking water is important because our bodies need water to work well. Soda pop is very
popular, but it is not equal to water. Pop has water but it also has chemicals. Water is the
best choice. First, water does not have any calories. Soda pop usually does. Calories can make
us gain weight. Ms. Jones said that soda pop has empty calories which means it doesnt give
our bodies anything good to grow on. She also said that kids are heavier than ever before, so
why drink empty calories and get even heavier? Yet some people then will just drink diet
soda. That brings me to the second reason to choose water. Diet soda has chemicals, like fake
sugars. Some people believe that fake sugars can cause serious problems. Last, water is a good
choice because it doesnt have an ingredient called a diuretic. In health class, I learned that
some things make your body ush out water and make you go pee more. These things are
diuretics. Caffeine is a diuretic and is in a lot of dark soda pops. If you drink pop with caffeine
and then it all ushes out, that probably just puts your water count back to zero! Finally, Ms.
Jones said that most doctors still say that water is better than pop. Choose water over pop!

Source: http://www.webblue.havre.k12.mt.us/Teacher/writing/3-6/tools/tools/Section%2010/10-17-6.pdf
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3. What am I going to prove in this paper?

This is the dreaded THESIS STATEMENT. The thesis is usually the last sentence in the first paragraph and
it clearly states the argument or point you are making in your paper.
The Body
The Body consists of everything between your introduction and conclusion and it is where you
discuss your three main points. A good starting place is to envision that each point is a separate
paragraph. In each paragraph you:
Introduce your point
Explain your point
Give supporting evidence
Explain how the point and evidence relate to your thesis

The whole point of each paragraph is to relate your point to your thesis, but it helps to spell it out
clearly in at least one sentence of the paragraph.
The Conclusion
Basically, the conclusion restates the introduction. So just reiterate questions 1, 2, and 3. It is
also helpful to trace your argument as you made it within the essay. A good way to do this is to create a
proof that might look something like this:
POINT ONE+POINT TWO+POINT THREE=THESIS
OR
POINT ONE leads to POINT TWO which leads to POINT THREE therefore THESIS is true!
So, when planning your essay consider this format:
I. Introduction
A. Subject
B. Main Points
C. THESIS
II. Point One
A. Intro and explanation of point
B. Evidence
C. How point relates to thesis
III. Point Two
B. Evidence
IV. Point Three
B. Evidence
V. Conclusion
A. Restate subject
B. Summarize Main Points
C. Restate THESIS
(B and C can be combined into the proof)
Organization in a paper is important not only because it makes the paper easier to write, it also
guides the reader through the paper. A clearly organized paper will better hold the reader's interest and
convince them that your thesis is valid!

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: __________________

If you were asked to make a fair evaluation of your teachers, what criteria would you use for the
evaluation? Discuss.
Pretend that you have just been inaugurated as president. Write the speech that you would give
to the nation.
Should students textbooks be replaced by notebook computers?
Explain how extra-curricular activities help or harm students in improving their personalities.

Essay Rubric:

1 2 3 4 Score
Focus Fails to establish focus on
the prompt
Some focus establish
but has major lapses
as the paper
progresses
Focus generally
established with
some lapses or weak
points
Focus maintained
throughout the
entire essay

Organization essay wanders and
observations are
disconnected or unrelated
organization is present
but weak or
insufficient
organization is
present but points
may fail to flow with
clear relationship to
each other
organization is
obvious with points
clearly related to
each other

Support and
Elaboration
little elaboration which is
very general
some elaboration; may
be list-like in its form
elaboration present
with minor lapses
apparent
elaboration present
throughout the essay
provides abundant
support for student
assertions

Style language use and sentence
structure are elementary
or extremely simple
some attempt at using
precise language and
more varied sentence
structure
language choice is
generally specific
with some lapses;
sentence structure
reflects some variety
specific language
appropriate to the
prompt; student uses
sentence structure
purposefully to
express ideas

Writing
Conventions
Displays over five errors in
spelling, punctuation,
grammar, and sentence
structure.
Displays three to five
errors in spelling,
punctuation, grammar,
and sentence
structure.
Displays one to three
errors in spelling,
punctuation,
grammar, and
sentence structure.
Displays no errors in
spelling, punctuation,
grammar, and
sentence structure.

Total---->

After writing your drafts, copy your final essay on the lines below.

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Parallelism

Parallelism or parallel structure adds clarity to your writing.
When you use parallelism, you increase the readability of your writing
by creating word patterns readers can follow easily. Parallelism is an
important element in English writing, especially when you are listing
and comparing and contrasting items or ideas.

Understanding Parallelism
Parallelism is the repetition of the same grammatical form within a sentence. By making each
compared item or idea in your sentences follow the same grammatical pattern, you create a parallel
construction.

Example:
Not Parallel: My English class is made up of Koreans, Japanese, and some are from China.
Parallel: My English class is made up of Koreans, Japanese, and Chinese.

Using Parallel Structures
With Coordinating Conjunctions
When you connect words, phrases, and clauses with a coordinating conjunction (for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so) use parallel structure
Not Parallel: Of all the sports Ive played, I prefer soccer, tennis, and playing golf.
Parallel: Of all the sports Ive played, I prefer soccer, tennis, and golf.

With Correlative Conjunctions
When you connect words, phrases, or clauses with a correlative conjunction (not
only..but also, either..or, neither..nor, etc)
Not Parallel: The teacher not only wants his students to keep quiet but also to do the task.
Parallel: The teacher wants his students not only to keep quiet but also to do the task.

With Phrases or Clauses of Comparison
When you connect two clauses or phrases with a word of comparison, such as than or
as, use parallel structure.
Not Parallel: She is mad about watching TV more than to read a book.
Parallel: She is mad about watching TV more than reading a book.

With Lists
When you are comparing items in a list, use parallel structure.
Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.

There are many types of parallelism and the important point to remember is that both or all
forms must be the same. One part of speech or of a sentence can be balanced only by one (or a series)
of the same kind (ex: verb and verb; noun, noun, and noun; etc)

Example:

Not Parallel: I enjoy biking and to walk around the park.
Parallel: I enjoy biking and walking around the park. (gerund and gerund)

55

Name: ______________________________________ Date: __________________

Rewrite the following sentences in parallel form.

1. The students who do well attend class, they do their homework, and practice speaking in
English.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. If you want to pass the course, you have to study hard, taking good notes, and attendance at
every class.
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. After the toddler threw his bowl of cereal, oatmeal splattered down the walls, the floor, and the
table.
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. If youre looking for the car keys, you should look under the table, the kitchen counter, and
behind the refrigerator.
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5. He is a good choice for manager because he works hard, he keeps calm, and well-liked.
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

6. Credit cards are accepted by department stores, airlines, and they can be used in some gas
stations.
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

7. Many people carry not only credit cards but they also carry cash.
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

8. I would rather go to a movie than spending thousands of pesos on a concert.
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

9. After the conference, the director and I met to assess the program, planning next months
session, and coordinate the schedule.
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

10. The police have a duty to serve the community, safeguard lives and properties, protect the
innocent against deception, and they must respect the constitutional rights of all.
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

56

Drama

Drama is a literary composition involving conflict, action crisis and
atmosphere designed to be acted by players on a stage before an audience.
This definition may be applied to motion picture drama as well as to the
traditional stage.
Elements of Drama
1. Plot - the sequence of events or incidents of which the story is composed.
A. Conflict is a clash of actions, ideas, desires or wills.
a. person against person.
b. person against environment - external force, physical nature, society, or "fate."
c. person against herself/himself - conflict with some element in her/his own nature;
maybe physical, mental, emotional, or moral.

B. Protagonist and Antagonist - the protagonist is the central character, sympathetic or
unsympathetic. The forces working against him, whether persons, things, conventions of
society, or traits of their own charatcer, are the antagonists.

C. Artistic Unity - essential to a good plot; nothing irrelevant; good arrangement.

D. Plot Manipulation - a good plot should not have any unjustified or unexpected turns or twists;
no false leads; no deliberate and misleading information.

2. Character
A. Direct Presentation - author tells us straight out, by exposition or analysis, or through another
character.

B. Indirect Presentation - author shows us the character in action; the reader infers what a
character is like from what she/he thinks, or says, or does. These are also called dramatized
characters and they are generally consistent (in behavior), motivated (convincing), and
plausible (life like).

C. Character Types - a Flat character is known by one or two traits; a Round character is complex
and many-sided; a Stock character is a stereotyped character (a mad scientist, the absent-
minded professor, the cruel mother-in-law); a Static character remains the same from the
beginning of the plot to the end; and a Dynamic (developing) character undergoes
permanent change. This change must be (a.) within the possibilities of the character; (b.)
sufficiently motivated; and (c.) allowed sufficient time for change.
3. Theme - the controlling idea or central insight. It can be 1. a revelation of human character; 2. may be
stated briefly or at great length; and 3. a theme is not the "moral" of the story.
A. A theme must be expressible in the form of a statement - not "motherhood" but
"Motherhood sometimes has more frustration than reward."

B. A theme must be stated as a generalization about life; names of characters or specific
situations in the plot are not to be used when stating a theme.

C. A theme must not be a generalization larger than is justified by the terms of the story.

57

D. A theme is the central and unifying concept of the story. It must adhere to the following
requirements: 1. It must account for all the major details of the story. 2. It must not be
contradicted by any detail of the story. 3. It must not rely on supposed facts - facts not
actually stated or clearly implied by the story.

E. There is no one way of stating the theme of a story.

F. Any statement that reduces a theme to some familiar saying, aphorism, or clich should be
avoided. Do not use "A stitch in time saves nine," "You can't judge a book by its cover, " "Fish
and guests smell in three days," and so on.
4. Points Of View
A. Omniscient - a story told by the author, using the third person; her/his knowledge, control,
and prerogatives are unlimited; authorial subjectivity.

B. Limited Omniscient - a story in which the author associates with a major or minor character;
this character serves as the author's spokesperson or mouthpiece.

C. First Person - the author identifies with or disappears in a major or minor character; the story
is told using the first person "I".

D. Objective or Dramatic - the opposite of the omniscient; displays authorial objectivity;
compared a roving sound camera. Very little of the past or the future is given; the story is set
in the present.
5. Symbol - a literary symbol means more than what it is. It has layers of meanings. Whereas an image
has one meaning, a symbol has many.
A. Names used as symbols. B. Use of objects as symbols. C. Use of actions as symbols.
Note: The ability to recognize and interpret symbols requires experience in literary readings, perception,
and tact. It is easy to "run wild" with symbols - to find symbols everywhere. The ability to interpret
symbols is essential to the full understanding and enjoyment of literature. Given below are helpful
suggestions for identifying literary symbols:
The story itself must furnish a clue that a detail is to be taken symbolically - symbols
nearly always signal their existence by emphasis, repetition, or position.
The meaning of a literary symbol must be established and supported by the entire
context of the story. A symbol has its meaning inside not outside a story.
To be called a symbol, an item must suggest a meaning different in kind from its literal
meaning.
A symbol has a cluster of meanings.
6. Irony - a term with a range of meanings, all of them involving some sort of discrepancy or incongruity.
It should not be confused with sarcasm which is simply language designed to cause pain. Irony is used to
suggest the difference between appearance and reality, between expectation and fulfillment, the
complexity of experience, to furnish indirectly an evaluation of the author's material, and at the same
time to achieve compression.
A. Verbal irony - the opposite is said from what is intended.
B. Dramatic irony - the contrast between what a character says and what the reader knows
to be true.
C. Irony of situation - discrepancy between appearance and reality, or between expectation
and fulfillment, or between what is and what would seem appropriate.

58

Types of Drama

Comedy
When we talk about comedy, we usually refer to plays that are light in tone, and that typically have
happy endings. The intent of a comedic play is to make the audience laugh. In modern theater, there
are many different styles of comedy, ranging from realistic stories, where the humor is derived from
real-life situations, to outrageous slapstick humor.

Tragedy
Tragedy is one of the oldest forms of drama; however, its meaning has changed since the earliest days
of staged plays. In ancient times, a tragedy was often a historical drama featuring the downfall of a great
man. In modern theater, the definition is a bit looser. Tragedy usually involves serious subject matter
and the death of one or more main characters. These plays rarely have a happy ending.

Farce
Farce is a sub-category of comedy, characterized by greatly exaggerated characters and situations.
Characters tend to be one-dimensional and often follow stereotypical behavior. Farces typically involve
mistaken identities, lots of physical comedy and outrageous plot twists.

Melodrama
Melodrama is another type of exaggerated drama. As in farce, the characters tend to be simplified and
one-dimensional. The formulaic storyline of the classic melodrama typically involves a villain a heroine,
and a hero who must rescue the heroine from the villain.

Musical
In musical theater, the story is told not only through dialogue and acting but through music and dance.
Musicals are often comedic, although many do involve serious subject matter. Most involve a large cast
and lavish sets and costumes.

Fantasy
It's a complete fictional work where characters virtually display supernatural skills. It's more appealing to
children as fairies, angels, superheroes, etc are embedded in the plot. Use of magic, pseudo science,
horror and spooky themes through various kinds of technical devices create a perfect world of fantasy.
The modern version of drama incorporates a great deal of special effects.

Satire
Satire is used in many works of literature to show foolishness or vice in humans, organizations,
or even governments - it uses sarcasm, ridicule, or irony. For example, satire is often used to effect
political or social change, or to prevent it. Satire can be used in a part of a work or it can be used
throughout an entire work.

Dramatic Techniques
Monologue an extended speech by one character.
Aside a characters direct address to the audience, which is not heard by the other characters.
Soliloquy an extended speech by one character, alone on stage. Soliloquies are used to
express the private thoughts of one character.
Flashback - In improvised drama this is a replay of important moments or a memory that one of
the characters has of the past. It allows the group to focus on or replay events that are linked
to the actual scene being explored.

59

Sources:

Poetry
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/basic-elements-of-poetry.html
http://www.shadowpoetry.com
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry#Genres
http://learn.lexiconic.net/elementsofpoetry.htm
http://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/literary-devices.html
http://www.poeticterminology.net/79-persona-literary-term.htm

Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/modifiers.htm
http://www.towson.edu/ows/moduledangling.htm

Short Story
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_(narrative)
http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/engramja/elements.html
http://learn.lexiconic.net/characters.htm

Verbal
http://www.towson.edu/ows/verbals.html
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/phrases.htm

Essay
http://www.privatewriting.com/types-of-essays.html
http://examples.yourdictionary.com/essay-examples.html
http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/english/writingcenter/essayformat.htm

Drama
http://examples.yourdictionary.com/satire-examples.html
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-drama.html
http://www.csustan.edu/english/reuben/pal/append/AXH.HTML?AX22297

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