NOUNS

I. KINDS OF NOUNS
1. Concrete Nouns are names of something or someone that we experience
through our senses, sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste.
Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all concrete nouns.
A. Common and Proper Nouns
Common noun is a word that names people, places, things, or ideas. They are not
the names of a single person, place or thing.
common noun begins with a lowercase letter unless it is at the beginning of a
sentence.
People:-
man, girl, boy, mother, father, child, person, teacher, student
Animals:-
cat, dog, !sh, ant, sna"e
Thins:-
boo", table, chair, phone
Places:-
school, city, building, shop
Ideas:-
lo#e, hate, idea, pride
Proper nouns $ also called proper names% are the words which name speci!c
people, organisations or places. They always start with a capital letter.
!ach part o" a person#s name is a proper noun:-
&ynne 'and ( )li*abeth 'elen +uth ,ones ...
The names o" companies$ oranisations or trade mar%s:-
-icrosoft ( +olls +oyce ( the +ound Table ( ...
&i'en or pet names o" animals:-
&assie Trigger Sam
The names o" cities and countries and (ords deri'ed "rom those proper
nouns:-
/aris ( &ondon ( New 0or" ( )ngland ( )nglish
&eoraphical and Celestial Names:-
the +ed Sea ( lpha Centauri ( -ars
)onuments$ *uildins$ meetin rooms:-
The Ta1 -ahal ( The )i2el Tower ( +oom 333
+istorical e'ents$ documents$ la(s$ and periods:-
the Ci#il .ar ( the 4ndustrial +e#olution ( .orld .ar 4
,. Collecti'e Nouns
collecti#e noun is a noun that can be singular in form whilst referring to a group of
people or things. Collecti#e nouns are sometimes confused with mass nouns.
&roups o" people ( army, audience, band, choir, class, committee, crew, family,
gang, 1ury, orchestra, police, sta2, team, trio
&roups o" animals ( colony, 5oc", herd, pac", pod, school, swarm
&roups o" thins ( bunch, bundle, clump, pair, set, stac"
The use of "of"
.e often say a group of things, such as a bunch of 5owers, or a host of golden
da2odils.
Some collecti#e nouns can stand alone, such as 67ritain has an army6, but if the
collecti#e noun 6army6 is used to mean something other than an organi*ed military
force, you can say things li"e 6an army of women6 or 6an army of ants6, and e#en
6an army of one6.
Plural or singular?
.hen a group is considered as a single unit, the collecti#e noun is used with a
singular #erb and singular pronoun.
8or example ( The committee has reached its decision.
.hen the focus is on the indi#idual parts of the group, 7ritish )nglish sometimes
uses a plural #erb and plural pronouns.
8or example ( "The committee have been arguing all morning.6 This is the same as
saying 6The people in the committe have been ....6
'owe#er, if you are tal"ing about more than one committee, then you use the plural
form.
8or example ( 6Many committees have been formed over the years.6
determiner in front of a singular collecti#e noun is always singular9 this committee
, ne#er these committee $but of course when the collecti#e noun is plurali*ed, it
ta"es a plural determiner9 these committees %.
C. Compound Nouns
Compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. -ost compound
nouns in )nglish are formed by nouns modi!ed by other nouns or ad1ecti#es.
8or example9
The words tooth and paste are each nouns in their own right, but if you 1oin them
together they form a new word ( toothpaste.
The word black is an ad1ecti#e and board is a noun, but if you 1oin them together
they form a new word ( blackboard.
4n both these example the !rst word modi!es or describes the second word, telling
us what "ind of ob1ect or person it is, or what its purpose is. nd the second part
identi!es the ob1ect or person in :uestion.
Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words9(
Noun - Noun toothpaste
d1ecti#e - Noun monthly tic"et
;erb - Noun swimming pool
/repositio
n
- Noun underground
Noun - ;erb haircut
Noun -
/repositio
n
hanger on
d1ecti#e - ;erb dry(cleaning
/repositio
n
- ;erb output
The two parts may be written in a number of ways9(
1. Sometimes the two words are 1oined together.
)xample9 tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom
3. Sometimes they are 1oined using a hyphen.
)xample9 check-in
<. Sometimes they appear as two separate words.
)xample9 full moon
D. Count and )ass Nouns
Count nouns can be 6counted6, they ha#e a singular and plural form.
8or example9
boo", two boo"s, three boo"s .....
n apple, two apples, three apples ....
Uncounta*le Nouns or )ass nouns cannot be counted, they are not separate
ob1ects. This means you cannot ma"e them plural by adding (s, because they only
ha#e a singular form. 4t also means that they do not ta"e a=an or a number in front
of them.
8or example9
.ater
.or"
4nformation
Co2ee
Sand
Count Nouns
.use a/an or a num*er in
"ront o" counta*le nouns0
)ass Nouns
.there is no a/an or num*er (ith uncounta*le
nouns0
n pple = 1 pple +ice
I eat an apple every day. I eat rice every day. $not 4 eat a rice e#ery day.%
Add .s0 to ma%e a counta*le
noun plural
There is no plural "orm "or an uncounta*le
noun
apples rice
I eat an apple every day.
Apples are good for you.
I eat rice every day. Rice is good for you.
computer> Computers are
fun.
To ma"e uncountable nouns countable add a
counting word, such as a unit of measurement, or
the general word piece. .e use the form 6a .......
of .......6
n elephant>Elephants are
large.
+ice>a grain of rice
.ater>a glass of water
+ain>a drop of rain
-usic>a piece of music
1ou can use some and an2
(ith counta*le nouns.
Some dogs can be dangerous.
I don't use any computers at
wor.
1ou can use some and an2 (ith uncounta*le
nouns.
I usually drin some wine with my meal.
I don't usually drin any water with my wine.
1ou onl2 use man2 and "e(
(ith plural counta*le nouns.
So many elephants have been
hunted that they are an
endangered species.
There are few elephants in
1ou onl2 use much and little (ith uncounta*le
nouns.
I don't usually drin much co!ee.
"ittle wine is undrinable though.
England.
1ou can use a lot o" and no
(ith plural counta*le nouns.
#o computers were bought last
wee.
$ lot of computers were
reported broen the wee
before.
1ou can use a lot o" and no (ith uncounta*le
nouns.
$ lot of wine is drun in %rance.
#o wine is drun in Iran.
Some mass nouns refer to groups of speci!c things.
8or example9(
Tables, chairs, cupboards etc. are grouped under the mass noun furniture.
/lates, saucers, cups and bowls are grouped under the mass noun crockery.
?ni#es, for"s, spoons etc. are grouped under the collecti#e noun cutlery.
.hen you are tra#elling suitcases, bags etc. are grouped under the mass noun
luggage & baggage.
aking uncountable nouns countable
0ou can ma"e most uncountable noun countable by putting a countable expression
in front of the noun.
8or example9(
piece of information.
3 lasses of water.
1@ litres of co2ee.
Three rains of sand.
pane of glass.
Sources of confusion with countable and uncountable nouns
The notion of countable and uncountable can be confusing.
Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending on their meaning. Usually
a noun is uncountable when used in a general, abstract meaning $when you donAt
thin" of it as a separate ob1ect% and countable when used in a particular meaning
$when you can thin" of it as a separate ob1ect%.
8or example9(
glass ( Two glasses of water. $Countable% B window made of glass. $Uncountable% B
glasses ( 4 wear glasses. $lways plural%
Some supposedly uncountable nouns can beha#e li"e countable nouns if we thin" of
them as being in containers, or one of se#eral types.
This is because AcontainersA and AtypesA can be counted.
7elie#e it or not each of these sentences is correct9(
'octors recommend limiting consumption to two co!ees a day.
$'ere co2ees refers to the number of cups of co2ee%
0ou could writeC 6'octors recommend limiting consumption to two cups of co!ee a
day.6
The co!ees I prefer are $rabica and (ra)ilian.
$'ere co2ees refers to di2erent types of co2ee%
0ou could writeC 6The types of co!ee I prefer are $rabica and (ra)ilian.6
3. A*stract Nouns
abstract noun is a noun that you cannot sense, it is the name we gi#e to an
emotion, ideal or idea. They ha#e no physical existence, you canAt see, hear, touch,
smell or taste them. The opposite of an abstract noun is a concrete noun.
%or e*ample+,
,usticeC an idea, bra#ery and happiness are all abstract nouns.
'ere is an a(* list of some common abstract nouns9(
adoration artistry
belief bra#ery
calm charity childhood comfort
compassio
n

dexterity
ego
failure faith feelings friendship
happiness hate honesty hope
idea impression infatuation
1oy
law liberty lo#e loyalty
maturity memory
omen
peace pride principle power
redemptio
n
romance
sadness sensiti#ity s"ill sleep success sympathy
talent thrill truth
wit
II. NU),!4 OF NOUNS
noun is either singular or plural, that is, generally, a word which denotes
one thing is singular and a word which denotes more than one is plural.
5. )ost nouns "orm their plurals *2 addin an 6s to the sinular.
7oy D boys boo" D boo"s fence ( fences
Set D sets papaya D papayas statue D statues
3. Nouns endin in s$ ch$ sh$ 7 or 8 "orm their plurals *2 addin an 6es.
Church D churches sash D sashes box D boxes
9. Proper nouns or "ormal names o" people$ places or thins "orm their
plural in the same manner as common nouns do. Add an- s or 6es to the
sinular "orm.
,oya( ,oyas +eyes D +eyeses ,ulie D,ulies
:. Usuall2$ sinular nouns endin in " or "e are plurali8ed *2 chanin the "
or "e into ' and addin es.
.ife Dwi#es loaf(loa#es elf D el#es thief(thie#es
The following are some exceptions9
7elief D beliefs relief D reliefs chief D chiefs proof D
proofs
;. Nouns endin in 2 and preceded *2 a consonant "orm their plurals *2
chanin the 2 into I and addin 6es.
7aby D babies city( cities lady D ladies mystery D mysteries
4f the y is preceded by a #owel, add an Ds to the word.
ttorney D attorneys "ey D"eys alley(alleys
<. Some nouns endin in o and preceded *2 a consonant ta%e the endin 6
es.
'ero D heroes tomato D tomatoes potato D potatoes
Some exceptions are9
/iano D pianos solo D solos
=. A "e( sinular nouns do not "orm their plural *2 addin an 6s or 6es.
Some add 6en to "orm the plural> some chane the mid-'o(el or 'o(els>
some remain unchaned in the plural.
Child D children ox D oxen woman(women deer(deer
sheep(sheep
.ood(wood mouse(mice goose(geese
?. Nouns o" "orein oriin retain their "orein plural
lumnus D alumni phenomenon(phenomena agendum(agenda
lumna D alumnae datum(data basis D bases
@. Some "orein nouns$ ho(e'er$ also use the reular 6s or 6es endin.
-emorandum D memorandums Dmemoranda index(indexes ( indices
8ormula D formulas D formulae stimulus D stimuluses D stimuli
5A. Compound nouns "orm their plurals in "our diBerent (a2s
a. $dd s to the endings of unhyphenated words
headwaiter D headwaiters handful(handfuls teahouse(teahouses
b. $dd s or es to hyphenated words without a noun word in it.
7rea"(up D brea"(ups smash(up ( smash(ups
c. $dd s or es to the principal noun word in two or three word compound
nouns.
+unner(up D runner(ups chief(of(police D chiefs Dof(polices editor(in(chief D
editors(in(chief
d. $dd s or es to the noun being modi-ed in compound nouns spelled as two
words.
'igh school D high schools notary public( notaries public
55. Num*ers and letters "orm their plurals *2 addin apostrophe .C0 and s
1Es 1@Es Es aEs
53. Follo(in are some nouns (hich are al(a2s plural in "orm and
meanin.
Scissors clothes shorts riches goods
than"s eyeglasses
59. Follo(in are some nouns (hich are al(a2s sinular in "orm and
meanin.
7aggage news Chinese !sh politics mathematics
ethics
/+ONOUNS
word that replaces a noun in a sentence
4. ?4NFS O8 /+ONOUNS
1. /ersonal /ronouns D They refer to persons spea"ing $!rst person%, the
persons spo"en to $second person%, and the persons spo"en about $third person%.
&i"e nouns, they ha#e singular and plural forms, cases and gender.
/)+SON S4NGU&+ /&U+&
84+ST /)+SON
Nominati#e 4 .e
Ob1ecti#e -e Us
/ossessi#e -y, mine Our, ours
S)CONF /)+SON
Nominati#e 0ou 0ou
Ob1ecti#e 0ou 0ou
/ossessi#e 0our, yours 0our, yours
T'4+F /)+SON
Nominati#e -asculine 'e
8eminine She They
neuter 4t
Ob1ecti#e -asculine 'im
8eminine 'er Them
Neuter 4t
/ossessi#e -asculine 'is
8eminine 'er. 'ers Their, Theirs
neuter 4ts
Uses o" Personal Pronouns
a. Nominati'e Case: pronouns are used as a:
H Sub1ect 9 +e is a genius.
H s a sub1ecti#e compliment 9 4t was he who planned the Christmas party.
*. O*Decti'e Case: are used as a:
H Firect Ob1ect 9 +yan lo#es her.
H s 4ndirect Ob1ect 9 The class ga#e him a tic"et.
H s Ob1ect of /reposition 9 -arie told the whole truth to him.
c. Possessi'e Case: denotes o(nership or possession.
+is new car is a Corolla.
This car is hers.
3. 4nde!nite /ronouns
Usin IndeEnite Pronouns
IndeEnite pronouns are words which replace nouns without specifying which noun
they replace.
Singular9 another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, e#erybody, e#eryone,
e#erything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody,
someone, something
/lural9 both, few, many, others, se#eral
Singular or /lural9 all, any, more, most, none, some
Singular inde!nite pronouns ta"e singular #erbs or singular personal pronouns.
Correct9 )ach of the members has one #ote.
$The sub1ect, each, is singular. Use has.%
4ncorrect9 One of the girls ga#e up their seat.
Correct9 One of the girls ga#e up her seat.
$+er refers to one, which is singular.%
/lural inde!nite pronouns ta"e plural #erbs or plural personal pronouns.
Correct9 few of the 1ustices were #oicing their opposition.
$Fe( is plural, so are (ere and their.%
8or inde!nite pronouns that can be singular or plural, it depends on what the
inde!nite pronoun refers to.
Correct9 ll of the people clapped their hands.
$All refers to people, which is plural.%
Correct9 ll of the newspaper was soa"ed.
$'ere all refers to ne(spaper, which is singular.%
A &ender-Sensiti'e Case
The pronouns ending with -*od2 or -one such as an2*od2$ some*od2$ no one$
or an2one are singular. So are pronouns li"e each and e'er2. .ords li"e all or
some may be singular. That means that a possessi#e pronoun referring to these
singular words must also be singular. 4n standard written )nglish the possessi#e
pronoun his is used to refer to a singular inde!nite pronoun unless the group
referred to is "nown to be all female.
4ncorrect9 4s e#eryone happy with their giftI
Correct9 4s e#eryone happy with his giftI
$Is and e'er2one are singular. The possessi#e pronoun must be singular, too%
-ost languages, including )nglish, obser#e the standard of using the masculine
pronoun in situations li"e this. 'owe#er, in some circles today the idea of choosing
the masculine pronoun sounds discriminatory against women. 4f this usage bothers
you, or if you thin" it may bother your audience, there are two possible ways to
wor" around this and still use standard )nglish.
1. Use the phrase his or her. 4t is a little aw"ward, but O?.
Correct9 4s e#eryone happy with his or her giftI
3. +ewrite the sentence using a plural pronoun or antecedent. /lural personal
pronouns in )nglish no longer distinguish between masculine and feminine.
Correct9 re all the people happy with their giftsI
9. 4elati'e Pronouns
relati#e pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relati#e clause. 4t is called a
6relati#e6 pronoun because it 6relates6 to the word that its relati#e clause modi!es.
'ere is an example9
The person (ho phoned me last night is my teacher.
4n the abo#e example, 6who69
relates to 6The person6, which 6who phoned me last night6 modi!es
introduces the relati#e clause 6who phoned me last night6
There are !#e relati#e pronouns9 (ho, (hom, (hose, (hich, thatH
Fho $sub1ect% and (hom $ob1ect% are generally only for people. Fhose is for
possession. Fhich is for things. That can be used for things and people only in
de-ning relati#e clauses $clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not
simply add extra information%HH.
+elati#e pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no di2erence between
male and female.
&oo" at these examples showing de!ning and non(de!ning relati#e clauses9

example sentences
S>sub1ect, O>ob1ect, />possessi#e
notes
deEnin
relati'e
clauses
S
( The person (ho phoned me
last night is my teacher.
( The person that phoned me
last night is my teacher.
That is preferable
( The car (hich hit me was
yellow.
( The car that hit me was
yellow.
That is preferable
O ( The person (hom 4 phoned
last night is my teacher.
( The people (ho 4 phoned last
night are my teachers.
( The person that 4 phoned last
night is my teacher.
( The person 4 phoned last
night is my teacher.
Fhom is correct but formal.
The relati#e pronoun is
optional.
( The car (hich 4 dri#e is old. That is preferable to (hich.
( The car that 4 dri#e is old.
( The car 4 dri#e is old.
The relati#e pronoun is
optional.
/
( The student (hose phone
1ust rang should stand up.
( Students (hose parents are
wealthy pay extra.

( The police are loo"ing for the
car (hose dri#er was mas"ed.
( The police are loo"ing for the
car o" (hich the dri#er was
mas"ed.
Fhose can be used with
things. O" (hich is also
possible.
non-
deEnin
relati'e
clauses
S
( -rs /ratt, (ho is #ery "ind, is
my teacher.

( The car, (hich was a taxi,
exploded.
( The cars, (hich were taxis,
exploded.

O
( -rs /ratt, (hom 4 li"e #ery
much, is my teacher.
( -rs /ratt, (ho 4 li"e #ery
much, is my teacher.
Fhom is correct but formal.
Fho is common in spo"en
)nglish and informal written
)nglish.
( The car, (hich 4 was dri#ing
at the time, suddenly caught
!re.

/
( -y brother, (hose phone
you 1ust heard, is a doctor.

( The car, (hose dri#er
1umped out 1ust before the
accident, was completely
destroyed.
( The car, the dri#er o" (hich
1umped out 1ust before the
accident, was completely
destroyed.
Fhose can be used with
things. O" (hich is also
possible.
HNot all grammar sources count 6that6 as a relati#e pronoun.
HHSome people claim that we cannot use 6that6 for people but must use
6who=whom6. There is no good reason for such a claimC there is a long history of
6that6 for people in de!ning relati#e clauses from Chaucer, Sha"espeare and the
uthori*ed ;ersion of The (ible to %owler's and Churchill.
:. Interroati'e Pronouns
.e use interrogati#e pronouns to as" :uestions. The interrogati#e pronoun
represents the thing that we donAt "now $what we are as"ing the :uestion about%.
There are four main interrogati#e pronouns9 (ho, (hom, (hat, (hich
Notice that the possessi#e pronoun (hose can also be an interrogati#e pronoun $an
interrogati#e possessi#e pronoun%.

sub1e
ct
ob1ec
t

person (ho
(ho
m

thing Fhat
person=thi
ng
(hich
person (hose
$possessi
#e%
Notice that (hom is the correct form when the pronoun is the ob1ect of the #erb, as
in 6Fhom did you seeI6 $64 saw Gohn.6% 'owe#er, in normal, spo"en )nglish we
rarely use (hom. -ost nati#e spea"ers would say $or e#en write%9 6Fho did you
seeI6
&oo" at these example :uestions. 4n the sample answers, the noun phrase that the
interrogati#e pronoun represents is shown in *old.
:uestion answer
Fho told youI Gohn told me.
sub1e
ct
Fhom did you tellI 4 told )ar2. ob1ect
FhatAs happenedI An accidentAs happened.
sub1e
ct
Fhat do you wantI 4 want coBee. ob1ect
Fhich came !rstI The Porsche @55 came !rst.
sub1e
ct
Fhich will the doctor see !rstI
The doctor will see the patient
in *lue !rst.
ob1ect
ThereAs one car missing. Fhose hasnAt
arri#edI
Gohn#s .car0 hasnAt arri#ed.
sub1e
ct
.eA#e found e#eryoneAs "eys. Fhose
did you !ndI
4 found Gohn#s .%e2s0. ob1ect
Note that we sometimes use the suJx 6(e#er6 to ma"e compounds from some of
these pronouns $mainly (hoe'er, (hate'er, (hiche'er%. .hen we add 6(e#er6,
we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. &oo" at these examples9
Fhoe'er would want to do such a nasty thingI
Fhate'er did he say to ma"e her cry li"e thatI
TheyAre all fantasticK Fhiche'er will you chooseI
;. Demonstrati'e Pronouns
demonstrati#e pronoun represents a thing or things9
near in distance or time $this, these%
far in distance or time $that, those%
near far
singul
ar
this that
plural
the
se
thos
e
'ere are some examples with demonstrati#e pronouns, followed by an illustration9
This tastes good.
'a#e you seen thisI
These are bad times.
Fo you li"e theseI
That is beautiful.
&oo" at thatK
Those were the daysK
Can you see thoseI
This is hea#ier than that.
These are bigger than those.
Fo not confuse demonstrati#e pronouns with demonstrati#e ad1ecti#es. They are
identical, but a demonstrati#e pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrati#e
ad1ecti#e :uali!es a noun.
That smells. $demonstrati#e pronoun%
That *oo% is good. $demonstrati#e ad1ecti#e L noun%
Normally we use demonstrati#e pronouns for things only. 7ut we can use them for
people when the person is identi!ed. &oo" at these examples9
This is ,osef spea"ing. 4s that -aryI
That sounds li"e ,ohn.
<. Intensi'e and 4eHe7i'e Pronouns
+e5exi#e and intensi#e pronouns are the words myself. yourself. himself. herself.
itself. ourselves. yourselves. themselves. These words are classi!ed or grouped
as re5exi#e depending on how they are used in sentences. 4n the examples
below the re5exi#e and intensi#e pronouns are in italics.

+e5exi#e pronouns refer bac" to the sub1ect of a sentence9
4 ga#e myself plenty of time to get to wor".
0ou should let yourself into the house.
,im bought himself a shirt.
,ill read to herself.
The dog scratched itself.
.e treated ourselves to pi**a.
0ou can ma"e yourselves at home.
The children are able to dress themselves.

4ntensi#e pronouns are the same words used to smphasi*e the sub1ect of the
sentence. 4ntensi#e pronouns usually appear right near the sub1ect of the
sentence.

4 myself am sic" of the heat.

0ou yourself are responsible for this messK
The president himself appeared at the rally.
The actress herself wrote those lines.
The cat itself caught the mouse.
.e ourselves made the meal.
0ou yourselves can win this game.
The troops themsel#es helped the people escape the burning building.
=. 4eciprocal Pronouns
.e use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more sub1ects is acting in the same
way towards the other. 8or example, is tal"ing to 7, and 7 is tal"ing to . So we
say9
and 7 are tal"ing to each other.
The action is 6reciprocated6. ,ohn tal"s to -ary and -ary tal"s to ,ohn. 4 gi#e you a
present and you gi#e me a present. The dog bites the cat and the cat bites the dog.
There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words9
each other
one another
.hen we use these reciprocal pronouns9
there must be t(o or more people, things or groups in#ol#ed $so we cannot
use reciprocal pronouns with 4, you MsingularN, he=she=it%, and
they must be doin the same thin
&oo" at these examples9
,ohn and -ary lo#e each other.
/eter and Fa#id hate each other.
The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.
7oth teams played hard against each other.
.e ga#e each other gifts.
.hy donAt you belie#e each otherI
They canAt see each other.
The gangsters were !ghting one another.
4ules on the Usae o" Pronouns
Rule "# Sub1ect pronouns are used when the pronoun is the sub1ect of the sentence.
0ou can remember sub1ect pronouns easily by !lling in the blan" sub1ect space for a
simple sentence.
$%ample& /// did the 0ob.
I. he. she. we. they. who. whoever. etc., all :ualify and are, therefore, sub1ect
pronouns.
Rule '# Sub1ect pronouns are also used if they rename the sub1ect. They will follow
to be #erbs, such as is. are. was. were. am. will be. had been. etc.
$%amples&
It is he.
This is she speaing.
It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsi)e.
NOT!
4n informal )nglish, most people tend to follow to be #erbs with ob1ect pronouns li"e
me. her. them. -any )nglish scholars tolerate this distinction between formal and
casual )nglish.
$%ample& It could have been them.
Technically correct& It could have been they#
$%ample& It is 0ust me at the door.
Technically correct& It is 0ust ( at the door.
Rule )# This rule surprises e#en language watchers9 when who refers to a personal
pronoun $I. you. he. she. we. they%, it ta"es the #erb that agrees with that pronoun.
*orrect& It is I who am sorry. 1I am2
(ncorrect& It is I who is sorry.
*orrect& It is you who are mistaen. 1you are2
(ncorrect& It is you who's mistaen.
Rule +# 3b0ect pronouns are used everywhere else beyond 4ules 5 and 6 1direct
ob,ect- indirect ob,ect- ob,ect of a preposition2. 3b0ect pronouns include me.
him. herself. us. them. themselves. etc.
$%amples&
7ean saw him#
8im is the direct ob0ect.
9ive her the boo.
8er is the indirect ob0ect. The direct ob0ect is boo.
$re you taling to me?
Me is the ob0ect of the preposition to.
Rule .# The pronouns who. that. and which become singular or plural depending on
the sub0ect. If the sub0ect is singular. use a singular verb. If it is plural. use a plural
verb.
$%ample& 8e is the only one of those men who is always on time.
The word who refers to one. Therefore. use the singular verb is.
Sometimes we must loo more closely to -nd a verb's true sub0ect+
$%ample& 8e is one of those men who are always on time.
The word who refers to men. Therefore. use the plural verb are.
In sentences lie this last e*ample. many would mistaenly insist that one is the
sub0ect. re:uiring is always on time. (ut loo at it this way+ 3f those men who are
always on time. he is one.
Rule /# ;ronouns that are singular 1I. he. she. everyone. everybody. anyone.
anybody. no one. nobody. someone. somebody. each. either. neither. etc.2 re:uire
singular verbs. This rule is fre:uently overlooed when using the pronouns each.
either. and neither. followed by of. Those three pronouns always tae singular
verbs. 'o not be misled by what follows of.
$%amples&
Each of the girls sings well.
Either of us is capable of doing the 0ob.
#either of them is available to spea right now.
E*ception+ <hen each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences. even
e*perienced writers sometimes get tripped up+
(ncorrect& The women each gave her approval.
*orrect& The women each gave their approval.
(ncorrect& The words are and there each ends with a silent vowel.
*orrect& The words are and there each end with a silent vowel.
These e*amples do not contradict 4ule =. because each is not the sub0ect. but
rather an ad,unct describing the true sub0ect.
Rule 0# To decide whether to use the sub0ect or ob0ect pronoun after the words
than or as. mentally complete the sentence.
$%amples&
Tranh is as smart as she&her.
If we mentally complete the sentence. we would say Tranh is as smart as she is.
Therefore. she is the correct answer.
>oe is taller than I&me.
Mentally completing the sentence. we have >oe is taller than I am.
'aniel would rather tal to her than I&me.
<e can interpret this sentence in two ways+ 'aniel would rather tal to her than to
me. 1R 'aniel would rather tal to her than I would. $ sentence's meaning can
change considerably. depending on the pronoun you choose.
Rule 2# The possessive pronouns yours. his. hers. its. ours. theirs. and whose never
need apostrophes. $void mistaes lie her's and your's.
Rule 3# The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it
has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when it means who is or who has.
There is no apostrophe in oneself. $void "one's self." a common error.
$%amples&
It's been a cold morning.
The thermometer reached its highest reading.
8e's the one who's always on time.
8e's the one whose wife is always on time.
?eeping oneself ready is important.
Rule "4# ;ronouns that end in ,self or ,selves are called re5e%i6e pronouns.
There are nine re@e*ive pronouns+ myself. yourself. himself. herself. itself. oneself.
ourselves. yourselves. and themselves.
4e@e*ive pronouns are used when both the sub0ect and the ob0ect of a verb are the
same person or thing.
$%ample& 7oe helped himself.
If the ob0ect of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun. use a re@e*ive
pronoun+
$%ample& 7oe bought it for himself.
4e@e*ive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. <ithout them. we might be
stuc with sentences lie 7oe helped 7oe.
*orrect& I wored myself to the bone.
The ob0ect myself is the same person as the sub0ect I. performing the act of
woring.
(ncorrect& My brother and myself did it.
*orrect& My brother and I did it.
'on't use myself unless the pronoun I or me precedes it in the sentence.
(ncorrect& ;lease give it to 7ohn or myself.
*orrect& ;lease give it to 7ohn or me.
*orrect& Aou saw me being myself.
Myself refers bac to me in the act of being.
$ sentence lie 8elp yourself loos lie an e*ception to the rule until we reali)e it's
shorthand for 7ou may help yourself.
In certain cases. a re@e*ive pronoun may come -rst.
$%ample& 'oubting himself. the man proceeded cautiously.
4e@e*ive pronouns are also used for emphasis.
$%ample& 8e himself -nished the whole 0ob.
Rule ""a# $void they and their with singular pronouns.
(ncorrect& Someone brought their lunch.
*orrect& Someone brought her lunch.
1R
Someone brought his lunch.
If the gender is undetermined. you could say Someone brought his or her lunch
1more on this option in 4ule 55b2.
Rule ""b# Singular pronouns must stay singular throughout the sentence.
(ncorrect& Someone has to do itBand they have to do it well.
The problem is that someone is singular. but they is plural. If we change they to he
or she. we get a rather clumsy sentence. even if it is technically correct.
Technically correct& Someone has to do itBand he or she has to do it well.
4eplacing an ungrammatical sentence with a poorly written correction is a bad
bargain. The better option is to rewrite.
Re8ritten& Someone has to do itBand has to do it well.
Many writers abhor the he or she solution. %ollowing are more e*amples of why
rewriting is a better idea than using he or she or him or her to mae sentences
grammatical.
(ncorrect& #o one reali)es when their time is up.
*orrect but a8k8ard& #o one reali)es when his or her time is up.
Re8ritten& #one reali)e when their time is up.
(ncorrect& If you see anyone on the trail. tell them to be careful.
*orrect but a8k8ard& If you see anyone on the trail. tell him or her to be careful.
Re8ritten& Tell anyone you see on the trail to be careful.
Rule "'# <hen a pronoun is lined with a noun by and. mentally remove the and C
noun phrase to avoid trouble.
(ncorrect& 8er and her friend came over.
If we remove and her friend. we're left with the ungrammatical 8er came over.
*orrect& 9he and her friend came over.
(ncorrect& I invited he and his wife.
If we remove and his wife. we're left with the ungrammatical I invited he.
*orrect& I invited him and his wife.
(ncorrect& (ill ased my sister and I.
If we remove my sister and. we're left with the ungrammatical (ill ased I.
*orrect& (ill ased my sister and me.
F,)CT4;)S
d1ecti#es are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the
sentence. The Articles O a. an, and the O are ad1ecti#es.
the tall professor
the lugubrious lieutenant
a solid commitment
a monthAs pay
a six(year(old child
the unhappiest, richest man
I. POSITIONS OF ADG!CTII!
-ost ad1ecti#es can occur both before and after a noun9
the blue sea P the sea is blue
the old man P the man is old
happy
children
P the children are
happy
Attri*uti'e AdDecti'e
the blue sea
d1ecti#es in the !rst position ( before the noun.
Predicati'e AdDecti'e
the sea is blue
Those in the second position ( after the noun. Notice that predicati#e ad1ecti#es do
not occur immediately after the noun. 4nstead, they follow a #erb.
Postpositi'e AdDecti'e
Sometimes an ad1ecti#e does occur immediately after a noun, especially in certain
institutionalised expressions9
the Go#ernor 9eneral
the /rincess 4oyal
times past
/ostposition is obligatory when the ad1ecti#e modi!es a pronoun9
something useful
e#eryone present
those responsible
/ostpositi#e ad1ecti#es are commonly found together with superlati#e, attributi#e
ad1ecti#es9
the shortest route possible
the worst conditions imaginable
the best hotel available
II. T1P!S OF ADG!CTII!
There are di2erent types of ad1ecti#es based upon their e2ect on a noun and
what do they tell about the noun. There are !#e categories of ad1ecti#es
5. AdDecti'es o" Jualit2 .Descripti'e AdDecti'es0 ( These ad1ecti#es are used to
describe the nature of a noun. They gi#e an idea about the characteristics of the
noun by answering the :uestion Qwhat "indE.
'onest, ?ind, &arge, 7ul"y, 7eautiful, Ugly etc.
New Felhi is a lare city with many historical monuments.
Sheila is a *eauti"ul woman.
3. AdDecti'es o" Juantit2 ( These ad1ecti#es help to show the amount or the
approximate amount of the noun or pronoun. These ad1ecti#es do not pro#ide exact
numbersC rather they tell us the amount of the noun in relati#e or whole terms.
ll, 'alf, -any, 8ew, &ittle, No, )nough, Great etc.
They ha#e !nished most of the rice.
)an2 people came to #isit the fair.
9. AdDecti'es o" Num*er ( These ad1ecti#es are used to show the number of
nouns and their place in an order. There are three di2erent sections within
ad1ecti#es of numberC they are (
Fe!nite Numeral d1ecti#e ( Those which clearly denote an exact number of nouns
or the order of the noun.
One, Two, Twenty, Thirty(Three etc. also "nown as Cardinals.
8irst, Second, Third, Se#enth etc. also "nown as Ordinals.
4nde!nite Numeral d1ecti#e ( Those ad1ecti#es that do not gi#e an exact numerical
amount but 1ust gi#e a general idea of the amount.
Some, -any, 8ew, ny, Se#eral, ll etc.
).g.9 There were man2 people present at the meeting.
Fistributi#e Numeral d1ecti#e (Those ad1ecti#es that are used to refer to indi#idual
nouns within the whole amount.
)ither, Neither, )ach, nother, Other etc.
Taxes ha#e to be paid by e'er2 employed citi*en.
:. Demonstrati'e AdDecti'es ( These ad1ecti#es are used to point out or indicate
a particular noun or pronoun using the ad1ecti#es ( This, That, These and Those.
That bag belongs to Neil.
Try using this paintbrush in art class.
4 really li"e those shoes.
These 5owers are lo#ely.
;. Interroati'e AdDecti'es ( These ad1ecti#es are used to as" :uestions about
nouns or in relation to nouns, they are ( Fhere, Fhat, Fhich and Fhose.
Fhere did he say he was goingI
Fhat assignment did 4 miss out onI
Fhich is your fa#orite authorI
Fhose pen is thisI
4n some instances, we !nd that we need to use more than one ad1ecti#e to describe
a noun in a satisfactory manner. 4n these cases, commas are used to separate the
ad1ecti#es but some series of ad1ecti#es do not re:uire a comma. Therefore, we
need to "now the di2erence between Coordinate and Non(coordinate d1ecti#es (
Coordinate AdDecti'es ( re those words which can be re(arranged in the series
easily and are still grammatically sound. This "ind of series ma"es use of commas.
This series can also insert QandE between them and still be correct.
She was a "ind, generous, lo#ing human being.
She was a generous, lo#ing, "ind human being.
She was a lo#ing, "ind and generous human being.
'ere we can see that all three sentences are grammatically correct. 4n this case, the
ad1ecti#es only need to be separated by commas.
Non-coordinate AdDecti'es ( These are those ad1ecti#es which cannot be
rearranged in the series. These do not use commas to separate the ad1ecti#es. lso,
this "ind of series do not ma"e sense if we insert QandE between them.
She has two energetic playful dogs.
She has playful two energetic dogs.
She has energetic and playful and two dogs.
'ere we see that only the !rst sentence ma"es sense and is grammatically correct.
The second and third ones are incorrect. 'ence, the sentence uses non(coordinate
ad1ecti#es and does not need commas.
SeKuence o" AdDecti'es
There are certain rules regarding the placement of di2erent "inds of ad1ecti#es in a
sentence. The general order followed is (
1.Determiners D These are the #arious articles $the, a, an%, demonstrati#es $this,
that, these, those%, possessi#es $my, mine, your, yours, (Qs%, :uanti!ers $all, many
etc.%, numerals $one, twenty, thirty(se#en etc.% and distributi#es $each, e#ery,
neither, either%
3.O*ser'ations/Juantit2 and Opinion ( Then come the ad1ecti#es that gi#e a
:uantity $also "nown as post(determiners% and sub1ecti#e opinion to the noun,
telling Qhow muchE and Qhow wasE the noun.
8ew, -ost, One, Three= 7eautiful, Ugly, FiJcult etc.
The beautiful house.
<.Si8e ( The position after Obser#ations is for the ad1ecti#es that tell about the si*e
of the noun, they can be used for an ob1ect as well as li#ing thing.
'uge, &ittle, 7ul"y, Thin, ;ast, Tiny, &ean etc
The beautiful little house.
R.Ae (Then is the turn of the d1ecti#es that tell about the age of a noun either by
itself or in relation to another noun.
0oung, Old, Teenage, -ature, +ecent, 7ygone etc.
The beautiful little old house.
S.Shape ( Next are the ad1ecti#es that tell about the shape or appearance of the
noun.
Circular, Croo"ed, Triangular, O#al, .a#y, Straights etc.
The beautiful little old s:uare house.
T.Colour ( fter that are the ad1ecti#es that tell the shade and hue of a noun.
/astel, +ed, 7lue, -etallic, Colourless, Translucent etc.
The beautiful s:uare blue coloured house.
U.Oriin ( Next are the ad1ecti#es that show the di2erent geographical locations
associated with a noun.
Southern, Northern, &unar, -exican, 8rench etc.
The beautiful blue coloured -exican house.
V. )aterial ( Next are the ad1ecti#es that tal" about the raw material or texture of
the ob1ects or the beha#iour of the li#ing nouns.
.ooden, /lastic, Steely, -etallic, Cottony etc.
The beautiful -exican limestone house.
W.JualiEer D &astly, the :uali!er or the grammatical modi!er comes, which is an
additional word or phrase pro#ided to change the meaning of the noun in a
sentence.
/in" L eye, +oyal L treatment, 'ot L fudge etc.
The beautiful -exican limestone doll house.
F;)+7S
d#erbs are used to modify a #erb, an ad1ecti#e, or another ad#erb9
M1N -ary sings beautifully
M3N Fa#id is e*tremely cle#er
M<N This car goes incredibly fast
4n M1N, the ad#erb beautifully tells us how -ary sings.
4n M3N, e*tremely tells us the degree to which Fa#id is cle#er.
8inally, in M<N, the ad#erb incredibly tells us how fast the car goes.

8ormal Characteristics of d#erbs
8rom our examples abo#e, you can see that many ad#erbs end in ,ly. -ore
precisely, they are formed by adding ,ly to an ad1ecti#e9
AdDect
i'e
slow :uic soft
sudde
n
gradua
l
Ad'er
*
slow
ly
:uic
ly
soft
ly
sudde
nly
gradua
lly
7y no means all ad#erbs end in ,ly. Note also that some ad1ecti#es also end in ,ly,
including costly. deadly. friendly. indly. liely. lively. manly, and timely.
&i"e ad1ecti#es, many ad#erbs are G+F7&), that is, we can modify them using
very or e*tremely9
softly #ery softly
suddenly
#ery
suddenly
slowly
extremely
slowly
T2pes and Positions o" Ad'er*s in the Sentence
Ad'er* o" )anner
$e.g.9 slowly, carefully, awfully%
These ad#erbs are put behind the direct ob1ect $or behind the #erb if thereAs no
direct ob1ect%.
su*Dect 'er*.s0 direct o*Dect ad'er*
'e dro#e the car carefully.
'e dro#e carefully.
Ad'er*s o" Place
$e.g.9 here, there, behind, abo#e%
&i"e ad#erbs of manner, these ad#erbs are put behind the direct ob1ect or the #erb.
su*Dect 'er*.s0 direct o*Dect ad'er*
4 didnAt see him here.
'e stayed behind.
Ad'er*s o" Time
$e.g.9 recently, now, then, yesterday%
d#erbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence.
su*De'er*. indirect direct time
ct s0 o*Dect o*Dect
4
will
tell
you the story
tomorro
w.
4f you donAt want to put emphasis on the time, you can also put the ad#erb of time
at the beginning of the sentence.
time
su*De
ct
'er*.
s0
indirect
o*Dect
direct
o*Dect
Tomorro
w
4
will
tell
you the story.
Ad'er*s o" FreKuenc2
$e.g.9 always, ne#er, seldom, usually%
d#erbs of fre:uency are put directly before the main #erb. 4f AbeA is the main #erb
and there is no auxiliary #erb, ad#erbs of fre:uency are put behind AbeA. 4s there an
auxiliary #erb, howe#er, ad#erbs of fre:uency are put before AbeA.
su*De
ct
au7iliar2
/*e
ad'e
r*
main
'er*
o*Dect$ place
or time
4 often
go
swimming
in the e#enings.
'e doesnAt
alway
s
play tennis.
.e are
usuall
y
here in summer.
4 ha#e ne#er been abroad.
Ad'er* Is AdDecti'es
Rule "# -any ad#erbs end in ,ly, but many do not. Generally, if a word can ha#e ,ly
added to its ad1ecti#e form, place it there to form an ad#erb.
$%amples&
She thins :uic&:uickly.
'ow does she thin"I Duicly.
She is a :uick&:uicly thiner.
Duic is an ad1ecti#e describing thiner, so no ,ly is attached.
She thins fast&fastly.
%ast answers the :uestion how, so it is an ad#erb. 7ut fast ne#er has ,ly attached to
it.
<e performed bad&badly.
(adly describes how we performed, so ,ly is added.
Rule '# d#erbs that answer the :uestion how sometimes cause grammatical
problems. 4t can be a challenge to determine if ,ly should be attached. #oid the
trap of ,ly with lin"ing #erbs, such as taste. smell. loo. feel. etc., that pertain to the
senses. d#erbs are often misplaced in such sentences, which re:uire ad1ecti#es
instead.
$%amples&
4oses smell s8eet&sweetly.
Fo the roses acti#ely smell with nosesI NoC in this case, smell is a lin"ing #erbO
which re:uires an ad1ecti#e to modify rosesOso no ,ly.
The woman looed angry&angrily to us.
Fid the woman loo" with her eyes, or are we describing her appearanceI .e are
describing her appearance $she appeared angry%, so no ,ly.
The woman looed angry&angrily at the paint splotches.
'ere the woman acti#ely loo"ed $used her eyes%, so the ,ly is added.
She feels bad&badly about the news.
She is not feeling with !ngers, so no ,ly.
Rule )# The word good is an ad1ecti#e, whose ad#erb e:ui#alent is well.
$%amples&
Aou did a good 0ob.
9ood describes the 1ob.
Aou did the 0ob well.
<ell answers how.
Aou smell good today.
9ood describes your fragrance, not how you smell with your nose, so using the
ad1ecti#e is correct.
Aou smell well for someone with a cold.
0ou are acti#ely smelling with your nose here, so use the ad#erb.
Rule +# The word well can be an ad1ecti#e, too. .hen referring to health, we often
use well rather than good.
$%amples&
Aou do not loo well today.
I don't feel well. either.
Rule .# d1ecti#es come in three forms, also called derees. n ad1ecti#e in its
normal or usual form is called a positi'e deree adDecti'e. There are also the
comparati'e and superlati'e degrees, which are used for comparison, as in the
following examples9
Positi'e Comparati'e Superlati'e
sweet sweeter sweetest
bad worse worst
eEcient more eEcient most eEcient
common error in using ad1ecti#es and ad#erbs arises from using the wrong form of
comparison. To compare two things, always use a comparati'e ad1ecti#e9
$%ample& She is the cle6erer of the two women 1never cleverest2
The word cleverest is what is called the superlati'e form of clever. Use it only
when comparing three or more things9
$%ample& She is the cle6erest of them all.
(ncorrect& Chocolate or vanilla+ which do you lie bestF
*orrect& Chocolate or vanilla+ which do you lie better?
Rule /# There are also three derees o" ad'er*s. 4n formal usage, do not drop
the ,ly from an ad#erb when using the comparati#e form.
(ncorrect& She spoe :uicer than he did.
*orrect& She spoe more :uickly than he did.
(ncorrect& Tal :uieter.
*orrect& Tal more :uietly#
Rule 0# .hen this. that. these. and those are followed by a noun, they are
ad1ecti#es. .hen they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.
$%amples&
This house is for sale.
This is an ad1ecti#e.
This is for sale.
This is a pronoun.
/+)/OS4T4ONS
/repositions are short words $on, in, to% that usually stand in front of nouns
$sometimes also in front of gerund #erbs%.
)#en ad#anced learners of )nglish !nd prepositions diJcult, as a 191 translation is
usually not possible. One preposition in your nati#e language might ha#e se#eral
translations depending on the situation.
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to
learn prepositions is loo"ing them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in )nglish
$literature% and learning useful phrases o2 by heart $study tips%.
The following table contains rules for some of the most fre:uently used prepositions
in )nglish9
Prepositions 6 Time
!nlish Usae !7ample
on days of the wee" on -onday
in
months = seasons
time of day
year
after a certain period of
time 1whenF2
in ugust = in winter
in the morning
in 3@@T
in an hour
at
for night
for weeend
a certain point of time
1whenF2
at night
at the wee"end
at half past nine
since
from a certain point of
time $past till now%
since 1WV@
for
o#er a certain period of
time $past till now%
for 3 years
ago a certain time in the past 3 years ago
before
earlier than a certain
point of time
before 3@@R
to telling the time ten to six $S9S@%
past telling the time ten past six $T91@%
to = till =
until
mar"ing the beginning
and end of a period of
time
from -onday to=till 8riday
!nlish Usae !7ample
till =
until
in the sense of how long
something is going to
last
'e is on holiday until
8riday.
by
in the sense of at the
latest
up to a certain time
4 will be bac" by T
oEcloc".
7y 11 oAcloc", 4 had read
!#e pages.
Prepositions 6 Place .Position and Direction0
!nlish Usae !7ample
in
room, building, street,
town, country
boo", paper etc.
car, taxi
picture, world
in the "itchen, in &ondon
in the boo"
in the car, in a taxi
in the picture, in the
world
at
meaning ne*t to. by an
ob0ect
for table
for e#ents
place where you are to
do something typical
$watch a !lm, study,
wor"%
at the door, at the
station
at the table
at a concert, at the party
at the cinema, at school,
at wor"
on
attached
for a place with a ri#er
being on a surface
for a certain side $left,
right%
for a 5oor in a house
for public transport
for television. radio
the picture on the wall
&ondon lies on the
Thames.
on the table
on the left
on the !rst 5oor
on the bus, on a plane
on T;, on the radio
by, next
to, beside
left or right of somebody
or something
,ane is standing by = next
to = beside the car.
under
on the ground, lower
than $or co#ered by%
something else
the bag is under the
table
below
lower than something
else but abo#e ground
the !sh are below the
surface
o#er
co#ered by something
else
meaning more than
getting to the other side
$also across%
o#ercoming an obstacle
put a 1ac"et o#er your
shirt
o#er 1T years of age
wal" o#er the bridge
climb o#er the wall
abo#e
higher than something
else, but not directly
o#er it
a path abo#e the la"e
across getting to the other side wal" across the bridge
!nlish Usae !7ample
$also over%
getting to the other side
swim across the la"e
through
something with limits on
top, bottom and the
sides
dri#e through the tunnel
to
mo#ement to person or
building
mo#ement to a place or
country
for bed
go to the cinema
go to &ondon = 4reland
go to bed
into enter a room = a building
go into the "itchen = the
house
towards
mo#ement in the
direction of something
$but not directly to it%
go S steps towards the
house
onto
mo#ement to the top of
something
1ump onto the table
from
in the sense of where
from
a 5ower from the garden
Other important Prepositions
!nlish Usae !7ample
from who ga#e it a present from ,ane
of
who=what does it belong
to
what does it show
a page of the boo"
the picture of a palace
by who made it a boo" by -ar" Twain
on
wal"ing or riding on
horsebac"
entering a public
transport #ehicle
on foot, on horsebac"
get on the bus
in entering a car = Taxi get in the car
o2
lea#ing a public transport
#ehicle
get o2 the train
out of lea#ing a car = Taxi get out of the taxi
by
rise or fall of something
tra#elling $other than
wal"ing or horseriding%
prices ha#e risen by 1@
percent
by car, by bus
at for age she learned +ussian at RS
about
for topics, meaning what
about
we were tal"ing about
you
preposition sits in front of $is Xpre(positionedY before% its ob1ect.

4t is useful to locate prepositional phrases in sentences since any noun or pronoun
within the prepositional phrase must be the prepositionEs ob1ect and, therefore,
cannot be misidenti!ed as a #erbEs direct ob1ect.
To the store is a prepositional phrase.
9tore is the ob1ect of the preposition to, not the direct ob1ect of the #erb dro6e.

*ar is the direct ob1ect of the #erb dro6e.
To the grocery store is a prepositional phrase.

NOT!:
word that loo"s li"e a preposition but is actually part of a #erb is called a particle.
;eld up is a #erb meaning Xto rob.Y
Therefore, up is not a preposition, and bank is not the ob1ect of a preposition.
4nstead, bank is the direct ob1ect of the #erb held up#

To a#oid confusing prepositions with particles, test by mo#ing the word $up% and
words following it to the front of the sentence9
<p the bank four armed men held.
4f the resulting sentence does not ma"e sense, then the word belongs with the #erb
and is a particle, not a preposition.
Note the di2erence9
The resulting sentence ma"es sense. Therefore, up is a preposition.
The resulting sentence does not ma"e sense. Therefore, up is a particle in this
sentence.

The following examples illustrate the di2erence between prepositions and particles9

Some other examples of particles9
give in turn in pull through wore out broe up
go in for put in for bring up found out blow up
loo up mae up loo over


CON,UNCT4ONS
A conDunction is a Doiner$ a (ord that connects .conDoins0 parts o" a
sentence.
Coordinatin ConDunctions
The simple, little con1unctions are called coordinatin conDunctions $you can clic"
on the words to see speci!c descriptions of each one%9
Coordinatin ConDunctions
and *ut or 2et "or nor so
$4t may help you remember these con1unctions by recalling that they all ha#e fewer
than four letters. lso, remember the acronym FAN,O1S9 8or(nd(Nor(7ut(Or(0et(
So. %
.hen a coordinating con1unction connects two independent clauses, it is often
$but not always% accompanied by a comma9
Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble meeting the
academic re:uirements.
.hen the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating con1unction are
nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma9
Ulysses has a great 1ump shot but he isnAt :uic" on his feet.
The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses
connected by a coordinating con1unction.
comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list,
although many writers $especially in newspapers% will omit that !nal comma9
Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading
comprehension.
.hen a coordinating con1unction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a
comma is not used9
/resbyterians and -ethodists and 7aptists are the pre#alent /rotestant
congregations in O"lahoma.
comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast9
This is a useful rule, but diJcult to remember.
4n most of their other roles as 1oiners $other than 1oining independent clauses, that
is%, coordinating con1unctions can 1oin two sentence elements without the help of a
comma.
'emingway and 8it*gerald are among the merican expatriates of the
between(the(wars era.
'emingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into merican
notions of male identity.
4t is hard to say whether 'emingway or 8it*gerald is the more interesting
cultural icon of his day.
lthough 'emingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal of
women and for his glori!cation of machismo, we nonetheless !nd some
sympathetic, e#en heroic, female !gures in his no#els and short stories.
,einnin a Sentence (ith And or =ut
fre:uently as"ed :uestion about con1unctions is whether and or but
can be used at the beginning of a sentence. This is what +... 7urch!eld
has to say about this use of and9
There is a persistent belief that it is improper to begin a sentence with
$nd, but this prohibition has been cheerfully ignored by standard
authors from nglo(Saxon times onwards. n initial $nd is a useful aid
to writers as the narrati#e continues.
from The #ew %owler's Modern English Gsage
edited by +... 7urch!eld. Clarendon /ress9 Oxford, )ngland. 1WWT.
Used with the permission of Oxford Uni#ersity /ress.
The same is true with the con1unction but. sentence beginning with
and or but will tend to draw attention to itself and its transitional
function. .riters should examine such sentences with two :uestions in
mind9 $1% would the sentence and paragraph function 1ust as well
without the initial con1unctionI $3% should the sentence in :uestion be
connected to the pre#ious sentenceI 4f the initial con1unction still seems
appropriate, use it.
The Case o" Then and Than
4n some parts of the United States, we are told, then
and than not only loo" ali"e, they sound ali"e. &i"e a
teacher with twins in her classroom, you need to be
able to distinguish between these two wordsC
otherwise, theyAll become mischie#ous. They are
often used and they should be used for the right
purposes.
Than is used to ma"e comparisons. 4n the sentence
6/iggy would rather be rescued then stay on the island,6 we ha#e
employed the wrong word because a comparison is being made
between /iggyAs two choicesC we need than instead. 4n the sentence,
6Other than ;incher Martin, Golding did not write another popular
no#el,6 the ad#erbial construction 6other than6 helps us ma"e an
implied comparisonC this usage is perfectly acceptable in the United
States but careful writers in the U? try to a#oid it $7urch!eld%.
Generally, the only :uestion about than arises when we ha#e to decide
whether the word is being used as a con1unction or as a preposition. 4f
itAs a preposition $and -erriam(.ebsterAs dictionary pro#ides for this
usage%, then the word that follows it should be in the ob1ect form.
'eAs taller and somewhat more handsome than me.
,ust because you loo" li"e him doesnAt mean you can play better
than him.
-ost careful writers, howe#er, will insist that than be used as a
con1unctionC itAs as if part of the clause introduced by than has been left
out9
'eAs taller and somewhat more handsome than 4 Mam handsomeN.
0ou can play better than he Mcan playN.
4n formal, academic text, you should probably use than as a con1unction
and follow it with the sub1ect form of a pronoun $where a pronoun is
appropriate%.
Then is a con1unction, but it is not one of the little con1unctions listed at
the top of this page. .e can use the FAN,O1S con1unctions to connect
two independent clausesC usually, they will be accompanied $preceded%
by a comma. Too many students thin" that then wor"s the same way9
6Caesar in#aded Gaul, then he turned his attention to )ngland.6 0ou can
tell the di2erence between then and a coordinating con1unction by
trying to mo#e the word around in the sentence. .e can write 6he then
turned his attention to )ngland6C 6he turned his attention, then, to
)ngland6C he turned his attention to )ngland then.6 The word can mo#e
around within the clause. Try that with a con1unction, and you will
:uic"ly see that the con1unction cannot mo#e around. 6Caesar in#aded
Gaul, and then he turned his attention to )ngland.6 The word and is
stuc" exactly there and cannot mo#e li"e then, which is more li"e an
ad#erbial con1unction $or con1uncti#e ad#erb O see below% than a
coordinating con1unction. Our original sentence in this paragraph O
6Caesar in#aded Gaul, then he turned his attention to )ngland6 O is a
comma splice, a faulty sentence construction in which a comma tries
to hold together two independent clauses all by itself9 the comma needs
a coordinating con1unction to help out, and the word then simply
doesnAt wor" that way.
Su*ordinatin ConDunctions
Su*ordinatin ConDunction $sometimes called a dependent word or
subordinator% comes at the beginning of a Su*ordinate .or Dependent0 Clause
and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the
sentence. 4t also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the
sentence for its meaning.
'e too" to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his
life.
7ecause he lo#ed acting, he refused to gi#e up his dream of being in the
mo#ies.
Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating con1unctions in the table below O after,
before, since O are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to
introduce a clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent
element in the sentence.
Common Su*ordinatin ConDunctions
after
although
as
as if
as long as
as though
because
before
e#en if
e#en though
if
if only
in order that
now that
once
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
till
unless
until
when
whene#er
where
whereas
where#er
while

The Case o" >ike and As
Strictly spea"ing, the word lie is a preposition, not a con1unction. 4t
can, therefore, be used to introduce a prepositional phrase $6-y brother
is tall li"e my father6%, but it should not be used to introduce a clause
$6-y brother canAt play the piano li"e as he did before the accident6 or
64t loo"s li"e as if bas"etball is :uic"ly o#erta"ing baseball as mericaAs
national sport.6%. To introduce a clause, itAs a good idea to use as, as
though, or as if, instead.
&i"e s 4 told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
4t loo"s li"e as if itAs going to snow this afternoon.
,ohnson "ept loo"ing out the window li"e as though he had
someone waiting for him.
4n formal, academic text, itAs a good idea to reser#e the use of lie for
situations in which similarities are being pointed out9
This community college is li"e a two(year liberal arts college.
'owe#er, when you are listing things that ha#e similarities, such as is
probably more suitable9
The college has se#eral highly regarded neighbors, li"e such as
the -ar" Twain 'ouse, St. 8rancis 'ospital, the Connecticut
'istorical Society, and the UConn &aw School.

Omittin That
The word that is used as a con1unction to connect a subordinate clause
to a preceding #erb. 4n this construction that is sometimes called the
6expleti#e that." 4ndeed, the word is often omitted to good e2ect, but
the #ery fact of easy omission causes some editors to ta"e out the red
pen and stri"e out the con1unction that where#er it appears. 4n the
following sentences, we can happily omit the that $or "eep it, depending
on how the sentence sounds to us%9
4sabel "new MthatN she was about to be !red.
She de!nitely felt MthatN her fellow employees hadnAt supported
her.
4 hope MthatN she doesnAt blame me.
Sometimes omitting the that creates a brea" in the 5ow of a sentence, a
brea" that can be ade:uately bridged with the use of a comma9
The problem is, that production in her department has dropped.
+emember, that we didnAt ha#e these problems before she
started wor"ing here.
s a general rule, if the sentence feels 1ust as good without the that. if
no ambiguity results from its omission, if the sentence is more eJcient
or elegant without it, then we can safely omit the that. Theodore
7ernstein lists three conditions in which we should maintain the
con1unction that9
.hen a time element inter#enes between the #erb and the
clause9 6The boss said yesterday that production in this
department was down !fty percent.6 $Notice the position of
6yesterday.6%
.hen the #erb of the clause is long delayed9 6Our annual report
re#ealed that some losses sustained by this department in the
third :uarter of last year were worse than pre#iously thought.6
$Notice the distance between the sub1ect 6losses6 and its #erb,
6were.6%
.hen a second that can clear up who said or did what9 6The C)O
said that 4sabelAs department was slac"ing o2 and that
production dropped precipitously in the fourth :uarter.6 $Fid the
C)O say that production dropped or was the drop a result of what
he said about 4sabelAs departmentI The second that ma"es the
sentence clear.%
uthority for this section9 'os. 'on'ts H Maybes of English Gsage by
Theodore 7ernstein. Gramercy 7oo"s9 New 0or". 1WWW. p. 31U. )xamples
our own.

,einnin a Sentence (ith =ecause
Somehow, the notion that one should not begin a sentence with the
subordinating con1unction because retains a mysterious grip on peopleAs
sense of writing proprieties. This might come about because a sentence
that begins with because could well end up a fragment if one is not
careful to follow up the 6because clause6 with an independent clause.
7ecause e(mail now plays such a huge role in our
communications industry.
.hen the 6because clause6 is properly subordinated to another idea
$regardless of the position of the clause in the sentence%, there is
absolutely nothing wrong with it9
7ecause e(mail now plays such a huge role in our
communications industry, the postal ser#ice would #ery much li"e
to see it taxed in some manner.
Correlati'e ConDunctions
Some con1unctions combine with other words to form what are called correlati'e
conDunctions. They always tra#el in pairs, 1oining #arious sentence elements that
should be treated as grammatically e:ual.
She led the team not only in statistics but also by #irtue of her enthusiasm.
/olonius said, 6Neither a borrower nor a lender be.6
.hether you win this race or lose it doesnAt matter as long as you do your
best.
Correlati#e con1unctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. 'ere is a brief
list of common correlati#e con1unctions.
both . . . and
not only . . . but
also
not . . . but
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
whether . . . or
as . . . as
ConDuncti'e Ad'er*s
The conDuncti'e ad'er*s such as however. moreover. nevertheless. conse:uently.
as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas.
;)+7S
;erbs are the most important component of any sentence. These words tal" about
the action or the state of any noun or sub1ect. This means that #erbs show what the
sub1ect is doing or what is the state or situation of the sub1ect.
8or example9
'e ran to the store. ( 8ere the verb ran describes the action of the sub0ect IheJ
She is a creati#e person. ( 8ere there is no action being done. Instead the au*iliary
verb ?is@ shows the state of the sub0ect IsheJ as being IcreativeJ.
T2pes and ClassiEcations o" Ier*s
5. Action Ier*s
( tal" about what the sub1ect is doing in the sentence. To recogni*e them, you
simply ha#e to loo" for the word in the sentence that answers the :uestion QFhat
is the su*Dect doinLE e.g. (
+ose is paintin the "itchen walls.
-y dog is sleepin on the sofa.
3. Transiti'e Ier*s -
(ha#e a de!nite ob1ect on which, or for which the action is being performed.
That means that the action has a de!nite recipient or ob1ect. To identify them you
can as" the :uestion (hat is the/did the su*Dect -'er*-L
+ose is paintin the "itchen walls.
4f we form the :uestion ( (hat is 4ose paintinL The answer
is( The %itchen (alls. Thus, we see that there was a speci!c ob1ect
on which the action of paintin was being done.
'annah a'e him a big hug.
'ere we see that the action Ca'eM is being performed by the
sub1ect 'annah. So the :uestion is (hat did +annah i'eL nd the
answer is ( A *i hu.
'ere, we also ha#e a indirect ob1ect as QhimE. This indirect ob1ect would
be the answer to the :uestion( Fho did the su*Dect $'annah% ( 'er* -
$gi#e% the o*Dect $hug% toL
9. Intransiti'e Ier*s -
(show an action but here there is no speci!c ob1ect on which the action is
being done. To recogni*e these #erbs, we as" the :uestion (hat is the/did the
su*Dect -'er*- L 4f there is no answer present, then the #erb in the sentence is an
4ntransiti#e ;erb.
+ose is paintin right now.
'ere, if we as" the :uestion (hat is 4ose paintinL There is
no answer which means that in this sentence paintin is an
4ntransiti#e ;erb.4t is telling us about the action of the sub1ect
but there is no speci!c ob1ect for the action.
'annah snee8ed repeatedly.
'ere, the #erb is snee8ed. 4f we as" the :uestion (hat did
+annah snee8eL There is no answer present for it ma"ing
snee8ed a intransiti#e #erb.
:. D2namic and Stati'e Ier*s
(deals with the #erb words themsel#esC and whether they indicate an action
or a state of the sub1ect. This category is not concerned with the ob1ect in particular.
D2namic Ier*s
( denote an actual action or expression or process done by the sub1ect.
They mean an action which can be seen or physically felt or the result
of which is seen or physically felt by the ob1ect or an indirect ob1ect.
She *u2s new clothes e#ery wee".
'ere the #erb is *u2s which is an action done by the
sub1ect QsheE, hence it is a dynamic #erb.
'e is s(immin at the beach.
'ere again we ha#e the de!nite action s(immin done
by the sub1ect QheE, ma"ing Cs(imminM a dynamic #erb
in this sentence.
Stati'e Ier*s
(refer to the state of the sub1ect or the situation of the sub1ect. Stati#e
;erbs tell us about the state of mind of the sub1ect, or the relation between
the sub1ect and the ob1ect.
She pre"ers strawberry 1am.
'ere the Stati#e ;erb is Cpre"ersM which shows the
thin"ing of the sub1ect QSheE towards the ob1ect, which is
Q1amE.
The cupboard reKuires a new coat of paint.
'ere the sub1ect is QcupboardE and the stati#e #erb is
CreKuiresM which is telling about the relation between the
sub1ect QcupboardE and the ob1ect QpaintE.
;. Nin%in Ier*s
( connect the sub1ect to a noun or ad1ecti#e that helps in describing or
pro#iding additional information about the sub1ect. Those nouns or
ad1ecti#es are called the sub1ect complements.
&isa is fussy about food.
'ere we see the sub1ect is &isa and the lin"ing #erb is CisM
which is connecting &isa to the sub1ect complement Qfussy
about foodE which is gi#ing additional information about
&isaEs preferences.
They are stubborn children.
'ere the lin"ing #erb is CareM which is combining the
sub1ect They to the
sub1ect complement of QstubbornE which is an ad1ecti#e.
The best to recogni*e lin"ing words in a sentence is to see whether the #erb can be
replaced by Cis$ am or areM. 4f the sentence still sounds logical you "now you ha#e
a lin"ing #erb.
The students "elt relie#ed. ( The students are relie#ed.
)#ery student "elt the relief. ( )#ery student is/am/are the relief.
<. 4eular and Irreular Ier*s
The distinction between regular #erbs and irregular #erbs is a #ery simple one9
4eular Ier*s
Those #erbs that form their past participle with QdE or QedE are regular #erbs. These
#erbs do not undergo substantial changes while changing forms between tenses.
1. 4f the #erb ends with a #owel, only QdE is added. 8or example9
/+)S)NT T)NS) /ST T)NS)
Share Shared
Scare Scared
Fare Fared
3. 4f the #erb ends with a consonant, QedE is added. 8or example9
/+)S)NT T)NS) /ST T)NS)
.ant .anted
Shout Shouted
?ill ?illed
Irreular Ier*s
Those #erbs that undergo substantial changes when changing forms between
tenses are irregular #erbs. The changed forms of these #erbs are often
unrecognisably di2erent from the originals. 8or example9
/+)S)NT T)NS) /ST T)NS)
Go .ent
+un +an
Thin" Thought
Finite and Non-Finite Ier*s
( These are #erbs which can be either the main #erb of a sentence or 1ust
one that is used as an ad1ecti#e or noun as well.
Finite Ier*s
( are those #erbs that ha#e a de!nite relation with the sub1ect or noun.
These #erbs are usually the main #erb of a clause or sentence and can
be changed according to the noun. They are used only in present and
past tense. They can be indicati#e of passi#e or acti#e #oice and also
of number $singular or plural%.
She (al%s home.
'ere we see that the !nite #erb is (al%s and the
pronoun is AsheA.
She (al%ed home.
'ere we can see how the #erb changed=modi!ed to
change the tense of the sentence.
Non-Finite Ier*s
( These #erbs cannot be the main #erb of a clause or sentence as they
do not tal" about the action that is being performed by the sub1ect or
noun. They do not indicate any tense, mood or gender. They are used
as nouns, ad#erbs and ad1ecti#es. They are also used to form non(!nite
clauses which are simply dependent clauses that use non(!nite #erbs.
'e lo#es campin in the woods.
'ere the non(!nite #erb is campin and it is used as a
noun. These "ind of non(!nite #erbs are called Gerunds.
4 need to go to sleep.
'ere the non( !nite #erb phrase is to sleep, it is acting as
a noun. Non(!nite #erbs that use QtoE before them are
called 4n!niti#es.
The sleepin dog caused a delay.
The non!nite #erbs that ha#e Q(ingE or Q(edE as suJxes and
cause the #erb to come an ad1ecti#e are called /articiples.
)odal Ier*s
( These #erbs tell us whether something is probable or about the s"ills of
a noun etc. There are 1@ modal #erbs in total and each ha#e an
important part in sentence formation.
Can
Could
-ay
-ight
.ill
.ould
-ust
Shall
Should
Ought to
Uses of -odal ;erbs9
1. To indicate that something is probable or possible, or not so. 8or example9
4t is sunny todayC it must be warm outside. > 4t is sunny todayC it is probably
warm outside.
'is mobile is not reachableC he may=might=could be tra#elling by metro. > 'is
mobile is not reachableC it is possible that he is tra#elling by metro.
This canEt be our bill. > 4t is not possible that this is our bill.
3. QCanE and QcouldE are used to refer to s"ills and abilities. 8or example9
'e can co#er a hundred metres in under ten seconds.
-y father could see perfectly before the age of !fty.
4 canEt ride a horse.
<. Q-ustE is used to indicate that something is necessary or of extreme
importance, and QshouldE is used to suggest that something is ad#isable. 8or
example9
0ou must do your homewor".
0ou mustnEt s"ip school.
0ou should say sorry.
0ou shouldnEt smo"e.
R. QCanE, QcouldE and QmayE are used to as" for, gi#e and withhold permission. 8or
example9
Can 4 try my hand at itI
Could we disperse early todayI
0ou may not enter the premises.
S. Q.illE and QwouldE are used to refer to habits and inclinations.
.hen 4 was a child, 4 would often climb trees.
4 will ne#er refuse you anything.
'e would ne#er do such a thing.