Francesca Namatovu - Journalism Ethics and Peace Building

Master of Arts in Media, Peace and Conflict Studies
Curriculum Development
Francesca Namatovu
Journalism Ethics and Peace Building
July 2012
Abstract
This curriculum addresses how journalism ethics contributes to peace and how a lack of ethics may
impede peace building. Its focus is on peace journalism and those initiatives within peace journalism
that enhance advanced, better and accurate journalism in reporting war and peace. Research on the
ground shows that journalism is losing its ethical face especially in reporting events that manifest
conflicts. This has been a big manifestation in developing countries that still experience a continuum
in the development systems, a shift in the media system and post conflict reconstructions. There has
been enough literature to explain the role that peace journalism has played to address this challenge in
order to advance peace building. In addition, new and non-traditional methods of journalism like
crowd mapping and citizen journalism have been developed to back up peace journalism initiatives
and peace building. To address the above challenge, this curriculum asks: Which theories and models
are there to explain for the role of journalism ethics in peace building especially in conflict-affected
societies like Africa or any other society faced with conflict? Secondly, what can be done for
journalism to acquire a new meaning for peace building? Peace Journalism in this curriculum
contributes to a solution; that journalism that is not conflict sensitive makes violence and conflict part
and parcel of the society. The other solution that may help address the challenge is the idea of
addressing and reporting issues about the whole ordinary community, their needs, and keeping the
grassroots involved in constructive development (from the development media theory).Worth noting
is the fact that new media has contributed to redefining who a journalist is and a change in their role
of gatekeepers of information, by allowing citizen participation in publishing and an encouragement in
the new forms of journalism that are more interactive and urgent. It is here that peace journalism
seeks to challenge conventional journalism by working actively for peace through the media.

This curriculum is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts in Media, Peace and Conflict Studies.

i

DECLARATION OF ACADEMIC HONESTY

ii

Permission for use of the curriculum

iii

Acknowledgments

I owe thanks to God for bringing me thus far.
Thanks to my supervisor, Professor Julia Hoffmann, for her supervision of this second curriculum
and her untiring effort to see me finish it. I will always be thankful professor.
Without Uganda Martyrs University giving me a chance to have this opportunity, I would not have
had this degree. I acknowledge the support of Dr. Ngabirano Maximiano and the Department Staff
for their advice and encouragement.
My utmost thanks go to the Dutch government and all the people of the Netherlands who funded
the Great Lakes Programme, of which I am a beneficiary. It has been a unique experience.
Thanks to the dearest and untiring GLP administration, both UPEACE (Costa Rica) and UPEACE
(Africa) Programmes. You surely made my learning process a success. To my fellow GLP colleagues
with whom I begun the journey, and all my classmates in Media, Peace and Conflict studies
programme, you shared your knowledge and wisdom. I am very thankful. I cant forget the editor
for the job done. Thanks Tara Ruttenberg.

iv

Dedication

I dedicate this curriculum to my dad, Mr. Henry Balibulala Mbogo, the GLP Program and Uganda
Martyrs University.

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION OF ACADEMIC HONESTY ........................................................................................................ i
Permission for use of the curriculum .............................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................................... iii
Dedication .................................................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER ONE (RATIONALE OR FRAMEWORK) ............................................................................................... 1
(i). International: ..................................................................................................................................... 2
(ii). Regional: .......................................................................................................................................... 3
(iii). Country: .......................................................................................................................................... 4
(iv). Local: .............................................................................................................................................. 6
(b). Course description: .............................................................................................................................. 6
(c). Main Goal: ........................................................................................................................................... 7
(i). Significance: ...................................................................................................................................... 7
(ii). Relevance: ........................................................................................................................................ 7
(d). General Objectives: .............................................................................................................................. 7
(e). Intended Learning Outcomes: .............................................................................................................. 8
(f).Contents: ............................................................................................................................................... 9
(g). Methodology: ..................................................................................................................................... 15
(i). Strategies: ........................................................................................................................................ 15
(ii). Resources: ...................................................................................................................................... 16
(h). Evaluation: ......................................................................................................................................... 16
(i). Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 18
CHAPTER TWO (ADMINISTRATIVE) ............................................................................................................. 19
a). Specific Course Title: ........................................................................................................................... 19
(b). Course Code ...................................................................................................................................... 19
(c). Prerequisites: ...................................................................................................................................... 19
(d). Course Strength: ................................................................................................................................ 19
(e). Credits: ............................................................................................................................................... 19
(f). Course meeting times and place: ......................................................................................................... 19
(g). Intended Participants:......................................................................................................................... 19

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(h). Where the course fits within the general programme of studies (at the Department and Programme
levels): ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
(i). Assessment of student performance .................................................................................................... 19
1. Criteria: ............................................................................................................................................ 19
2. Tools: ............................................................................................................................................... 19
(j). Instructors biography: ........................................................................................................................ 20
CHAPTER THREE (TEACHERS MANUAL) ..................................................................................................... 21
Session one: INTRODUCTION OF THE COURSE JOURNALISM ETHICS AND PEACE BUILDING ................. 21
1.1. Learning Objectives ................................................................................................................. 21
1.2. Content: ................................................................................................................................... 21
1.3. Learning outcomes ................................................................................................................... 31
1.4. Session Methodology: ............................................................................................................... 31
1.5. Session Evaluation: .................................................................................................................. 33
1.6. Readings: ....................................................................................................................................... 33
(i). Required: ......................................................................................................................................... 33
(ii). Recommended ............................................................................................................................... 33
Session 2: JOURNALISM AND COVERAGE OF CONFLICT .............................................................................. 34
2.1. Learning Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 34
2.2. Content ............................................................................................................................................. 34
2.4. Expected Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 39
2.5. Session Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 40
2.6. Session Evaluation ............................................................................................................................. 41
2.7. Readings ............................................................................................................................................ 41
(i). Required: ......................................................................................................................................... 41
(ii). Recommended: .............................................................................................................................. 41
Session 3: THE ROLE OF JOURNALISM IN PEACE AND CONFLICTS .............................................................. 42
3.1. Learning Objectives: .......................................................................................................................... 42
3.2. Content: ............................................................................................................................................ 42
3.3. Learning Outcomes: .......................................................................................................................... 47
3.4. Session Methodology: ........................................................................................................................ 47
3.5. Session Evaluation: ............................................................................................................................ 48
3.6. Readings: ........................................................................................................................................... 48

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(i). Required ......................................................................................................................................... 48
(ii). Recommended: .............................................................................................................................. 49
Session 4: IS PEACE JOURNALISM A SOLUTION FOR PEACE BUILDING? ...................................................... 50
4.2. Content: ............................................................................................................................................ 50
4.4: Session Methodology: ........................................................................................................................ 54
4.6. Readings: ........................................................................................................................................... 55
(i). Required: ......................................................................................................................................... 55
(ii). Recommended ............................................................................................................................... 55
Session 5: PRESENTATIONS ON THE INITIATIVES WITHIN PEACE JOURNALISM .......................................... 56
5.2. Content: ............................................................................................................................................ 56
5.6. Readings: ........................................................................................................................................... 58
(i). Required. ......................................................................................................................................... 58
(ii). Recommended: .............................................................................................................................. 58
Session 6: MEASURES FOR JOURNALISTS PROFESSIONAL GROWTH ............................................................ 59
6.2. Content ............................................................................................................................................. 59
6.3. Expected Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 63
6.5. Session Evaluation ............................................................................................................................. 64
6.6. Readings ............................................................................................................................................ 65
(i). Required: ......................................................................................................................................... 65
Session 7: NEW MEDIA AND PEACE BUILDING ............................................................................................. 66
7.2. Content ............................................................................................................................................. 66
7.3. Learning Outcomes ........................................................................................................................... 73

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7.5. Readings: ........................................................................................................................................... 75
(i). Required: ......................................................................................................................................... 75
(ii). Recommended: .............................................................................................................................. 75
Session 8: GUEST SPEAKER FOR ONE DAY ON THE ROLE OF JOURNALISM ETHICS AND PEACE BUILDING. . 76
8.2. Content: ............................................................................................................................................ 76
8.6. Readings ............................................................................................................................................ 78
Session 9: VISIT TO UMCAT-SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM FOR 2 DAYS .............................................................. 79
9.2. Content. ............................................................................................................................................ 79
Visit the school-UMCAT ............................................................................................................................. 81
9.6. Readings ............................................................................................................................................ 82
Session 10: WRITING A PROJECT ON DEVELOPMENT JOURNALISM ............................................................. 83
10.1. Learning Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 83
10.2. Content: ....................................................................................................................................... 83
10.3. Learning Outcomes ...................................................................................................................... 84
10.4. Session Methodology ................................................................................................................... 85
Students imagine themselves as journalists ................................................................................................... 85
10.5. Session Evaluation ....................................................................................................................... 86
10.6. Readings....................................................................................................................................... 86
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................. 87
Annex 1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 92
(International Principles of Professional Ethics in Journalism) ................................................................................... 92
Principle IV: The journalist's professional integrity ............................................................................... 92
Principle V: Public access and participation .......................................................................................... 92

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Principle VI: Respect for privacy and human dignity ............................................................................ 92
Principle VII: Respect for public interest .............................................................................................. 92
Principle VIII: Respect for universal values and diversity of cultures .................................................... 93
Principle IX: Elimination of war and other great evils confronting humanity ........................................ 93
Principle X: Promotion of a new world information and communication order ................................... 93

1

CHAPTER ONE (RATIONALE OR FRAMEWORK)

(a). Introduction:
For media, good code of conduct makes journalism and news; ethical and realistic and contributes
for a peaceful society. Good journalism is based on Key ethical issues such as truth, objectivity,
sensitivity, privacy, social responsibility, media laws, and democratic principles. Debate on the
above issues; has invoked concerns about roles and responsibilities of journalism; which have
become an increasingly important aspect everywhere. This is because media occupies a special
position in any democratic society as it impacts, directly or indirectly on a large number of its people.
The importance of journalism ethics becomes more pronounced as news reporting gets driven more
and more by the free market where people are exposed to television news, radio broadcasting,
newspaper articles and the new digital media; therefore leading to a decline in the traditional
professional ways of journalism and giving rise to active participation of the citizens in news making
This implies that as digital media comes into play on the side of journalists as well as reporters and
editors, there isa correlation with expanding freedoms through social media for citizens journalism
while new avenues for news reporting change face, and the area of media scope grows big. The
reason for this is that citizens everywhere have become acquainted with media production which
goes hand in hand with low costs because of access of new forms of technology; and yet profit
making; calling for the question of ethics here. All these ways of citizen participation lead to
collective contributions (citizen democracy). At the same time, Citizen Journalism challenges
conventional journalism and makes it too slow to satisfy citizens needs; yet citizen journalism does.
Citizen journalism provides news to citizens which undermines journalists role to provide news,
which has led to loss of meaning for professional journalism (Lewis, 2010).

Journalism with ethics and of ethics contributes a lot to a just and fair society that leads to peace and
stability especially. A responsible ethic is needed in a world where news media will bring together a
plurality of different religions, traditions and ethnic groups and cultures (Indeje, 2012, n.p.). The
question is; which role will journalism ethics play in the new media and the globalised world? Only
the future can tell.

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(i). International:
At the international level, advent of new media in the era of globalization, is a great contributing
factor for the changes in journalism reporting of current events and a distortion of old original ways
of reporting. This has caused journalists around the world a kind of fast and instant reporting which
is characterized by unethical reporting. Ochieng (2007) explains that journalists for example who
cover conflicts, sometimes lack objectivity and do not give the truth about what has happened since
they are never at the scene of the conflict. For example, the genocide in Rwanda saw a continuous
hunting for journalists because the media had contributed to the incitement of the genocide.
Because of this, many journalists were afraid to be present at the scene of the genocide and others
hid for their lives. Journalists outside other countries would report the conflict from outside Rwanda
and this would not give the exact kind of happenings in Rwanda. This has caused new thinking in
journalism through enhancing global journalism ethics to guide the conduct of journalists
throughout the world. Global journalism ethics argues for a new system of ethics in journalism that
will take into account its global reach and impact. It aims at reshapingthe aims and principles of
journalism such as; reporting the truth, avoiding bias, distinguishing news from opinion, serving the
public and others. Global journalism ethics also provides for a system of knowledge for news
reporting amidst technological advancement where stories and ethics; do not match; and a way that
leads to peace building efforts (Ward, 2012).While there exists a global journalistic ethics, there on
the other hand is an existing global movement of scholars who write on the subject, journals, and
books on global journalistic ethics that contribute to peace building efforts. They include scholars
like Cooper, Christians, Plude, White & Thomas (1989); Black & Barney (2002); Ward and
Wasserman (2008) and others.

Meetings and seminars that support the ethics of journalism have been organized in all parts of the
world since 1978 under the auspices of UNESCO. In these meetings, they discuss international
declarations of new media principles such as development of an international approach to the study
of media communication and journalism (Ethic Net, 1983). Many initiatives have been advanced in
the area of media communication and journalism but the most outstanding ones have involved the
need to restructure media system. There was a consensus on the need to establish a set of principles
which would guide proper dissemination of information throughout the world and the first attempt

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was in 2003 when the United Nations held two meetings at the movement of the World Summit
on the Information Society. It was held in Geneva and 175 countries participated in coming up
with a plan of action and having new principles. In order to see this work, another summit in
Tunisia, 2005 called for implementation of the 2003 Geneva principles. The biggest concern to be
discussed during this summit was the issue of growth of new online media and the digital divide
that exists between the Global North and South (Ward, 2012, n.p.). These attempts have had their
own criticisms as they range from scope, norms, and ethics that include economics, politics and
technology (Ward, 2012).These help journalists from anywhere in the world to work within the
framework of these new principle and adhere to this command from UNESCO; which becomes
part and parcel of the democratization process of information and communication both at the
national and international basis, for the purpose of bringing about a peaceful coexistence among
nations and respect of their cultures. It is here that the journalists duty or role becomes a priority to
promoting a democratized society within the information age by safeguarding peace and promoting
this peace. This is the picture of what new media in the global world should do as values are
compared to suit the aim of peace building (Ward, 2008).
(ii). Regional:

Media in East Africa has been bent to private growth with the increase in radio and television
stations in the past 15 years since liberalization of the sector began. This has led to dominance of
private control as a whole and led to high consumers choice even amidst complaints in the content
of the news. Butegwa (2006) thinks that the lesson for this is that growth in private media should be
followed by an increased investment by those in control, towards journalism trainings, and emphasis
on journalism ethics. Another lesson she thinks is that the more resources like human resources are
invested into the media, the higher the quality of journalism while low and poor resources,contribute
to poor journalism and a low output leading to poor quality. It is important that journalists have the
necessary training through which to build knowledge and experience of the facts about journalism
and what it means to be a journalist in order to respond to issues like an increased number of citizen
participation in new making because of poor quality in journalism. Therefore, good investment into
journalism will always lead to good quality of journalism and a higher citizen demand for the news
(Mshindi, n.d, as cited in Butegwa, 2006).

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(iii). Country:

Butegwa (2006) contends that Media in Uganda has grown tremendously with the commercialization
of radio stations and; a monopoly of one company sponsoring the news broadcast on a national
station for many days, thus compromising the product. The result of this monopoly is seen in how
private ownership becomes a basis for unfair distribution of information to the public through
biased information, and the aspect of commercialization of news. These have resulted into
importing of media like music on FM stations into the country and the other result is dominance of
religious programmes. For example, Uganda has had a number of newspapers, magazines, radios
and others that have been opened by individuals, the government or even some big enterprises.
When the missionaries came to Uganda, they owned magazines, newsletters and Notes; they were
published by the church Missionary Society in 1900 and became providers of information that time:
CMS also published the Luganda monthly religious newsletter Ebifa mu Buganda beginning in
1907, and in 1934 renamed the publication Ebifa mu Uganda. This Publication was redesigned
into a bi-monthly journal in 1956, and again in the late 1950s into an English-language
church newspaper under the title New Day. Similarly, in 1911, the Roman Catholic Munno
was published as a monthly religious newsletter. While primarily a religious publication, in
themid-1950s, Munno began to take interest in and comment on current political
developments. Munno remained in circulation until 1976 when Idi Amin banned its
publication (Ssewanyana, 2007, p.9).

The Kingdom of Buganda was very influential in ownership of the Uganda herald published in 1912,
yet even other kingdoms later produced their own radio stations that broadcasted in both their local
languages and English. Majority people got so much interested in the Uganda Herald newspaper
which also the western community read so much. The more it got famous, the more it was censored
and restricted it has started talking about the political aspects of the society. Some of these
publications were done in local languages and others in English. Before independence in 1962, there
were a lot of restrictions put on media. At the regime of Museveni, people were given more freedom
to express themselves but at the same time restrictions acted as a guideline for the conduct of the

5

people on radio stations, televisions and in newspapers. And because there has been ownership of
media into private hands, there has not been any serious demarcation and expectations on what
private owners ought to do and what not to do. Media in Uganda has been as portrayed as
redundant and only providing for music and religion. However today, freedom of expression is
enshrined in the 1995 Constitution but it is subject to statutory and regulatory restrictions as well as
regular government sanction attacks and interference. These sanctions have come in form of
Electronic Media Act (36), passed in 1996, In 1997 Uganda Communications Act (37) by the
parliament, in 2005, Media Centre by the government of Uganda, in 2006, under Museveni
established the new Ministry of Information and National Guidance.

The government of Uganda under Museveni has a broad regulatory framework for this freedom of
expression. For example, The Press and Journalist Act of 1995(35) established the Media Council as
well as the National Institute of Journalists of Uganda (NIJU), and its the responsibility of the
Media Council to regulate the conduct of journalists and their standards. The other role that the
media council pays is to check any differences between the government, the public and the media in
terms of information irregularities and also to censor all information that is to go to the public. In
the same way, the National Institute of Journalists of Uganda, launched in 1997, was established to
maintain the professional standards for journalists. One of the standards that are expected is that
journalists have to obtain a university degree and this has been met even though with criticisms
(Sewanyana, 2007).The other concern is that, people have resorted to a buyers market for news
where journalists earn less than 1 dollar for a news story. This has created meaningless and unethical
survival ways on the side of the journalists that neither satisfies the journalists nor the public;
bringing the whole journalism profession to stake and a result of poor product of the news
(Butegwa, 2006, pp. 12-14.)

Efforts have been done in addressing the problem. For example OHCHR with the Uganda Human
Rights Commission discussed about this issue of journalism losing quality and poor content of news;
where they addressed ways on how to rectify it and produced a DVD on this problem. In a
statement released to celebrate World Press Freedom Day, the Office encouraged the Government
and Parliament of Uganda to take all necessary steps to protect the right to information, critical
for building a professional, free and independent media (UNHR, 2010, n.p.)

6

(iv). Local:
Uganda Martyrs University in particular the Department of Good Governance and Peace Studies; is
envisioned as teaching and promoting ethics in every aspect. This explains why every course taken in
the university has an element of ethics; and this applies to students who graduate in the university
and go to live in communities and in society in general. As a consequence, this Masters Degree
course, titled Journalism Ethics and Peace Building, will be introduced at Uganda Martyrs
University in the department, in order to engage students in explaining, exploring, describing and
analyzing the role of journalism ethics and be able to apply ethical and responsible reporting that
helps in lasting peace.

(b).Course description:
This course seeks to deepen understanding on the role that journalism ethics plays in peace building
and conflicts. Questions addressed in this course include how can journalists contribute to peace
building initiatives? How can the two studies on media and peace building work together to bring
about peace? Through methods like presentations, visiting a school of journalism, and writing a
project, on development journalism, students will be able to identify answers to the topic of
journalism ethics and its role in peace building (peace journalism); they will be able to explore issues
and apply these issue and ideas into their own local journalism settings. The course is aimed at
exploring those initiatives within peace journalism and some non-traditional initiatives of journalism
that have not been given enough exploration. Initiatives such as International Media Support
Conflict Sensitive Journalism and non-traditional journalism initiatives like citizen journalism have
the potential to contribute to peace building. Issues such as ethical concerns in journalism, framing
in media, are essential for peace building while practicing journalism. The design of the course aims
to target local journalism within developing countries and promoting development journalism which
addresses reporting about grassroots problems that cause conflicts in a society; and using a kind of
conflict sensitive approach to peace building. The course may be of particular interest to students of
sustainable peace and conflict management and students of Development Studies and Ethics.

7

(c). Main Goal:
The main goal of this course is to find out how journalism ethics can contribute to peace building
and also how the lack of ethics sustains conflicts in societies, therefore, a need to find the link
between journalism ethics and peace building. Secondly, the other goal would be to find ways of
addressing journalism challenges within the media system that impede peace building.

(i). Significance:
Through transformative teaching methods, significance will be seen in enhancing knowledge and
awareness in the field within the global, regional and national contexts of students respective
countries. This course will also be significant for human resource development in the field of
journalism and also a firm foundation for the students in other related fields, as well. Students will
be in a position to have space for critical engagement and discuss the roots, purposes, aims and
applicability of different existing journalism ethics models and their relevance to peace building.
(ii). Relevance:
This course is relevant for students preparation for their own personal conduct that can apply to
their professions and the dilemmas that accompany their professions. Reason for this is because
ethics is sometimes overlooked and not given attention.
(d). General Objectives:
Students will show an understanding of the principles and ethics of accepted journalistic
practice, and how the ethics helps in the practice of peace journalism. This will be
demonstrated through the presentation they will do in class and the final project.
To analyze and engage in discussions of journalism role in conflict and peace building
process.
An analysis of the critic of peace journalism and what different scholars say about this.
Students will think of the different initiatives within peace journalism
The role that the development media theory plays in peace building will also be tackled. This
will lead to looking at this theory within local journalism especially in developing countries.
Students at the climax of the course will engage in writing projects on peace journalism
material. These will teach them how to write and differentiate between peace journalism
writings from the traditional journalistic writing.

8

(e). Intended Learning Outcomes:
By the end of the whole course
Students will have an understanding of the principles and ethics of accepted journalistic
practice,
How ethics helps in the practice of peace journalism.
They will have a picture on the journalism role in conflict and peace building process.
Students will have the knowledge to establish the link between peace journalism and peace
building.
They will begin to apply the knowledge acquired in class into their own local journalism
setting.
They will be able to present their written projects from this course

9

(f).Contents:
Session Topic Required/Recommended Readings
Session
1
INTRODUCTION OF THE
COURSE JOURNALISM ETHICS
AND PEACE BUILDING.

Definition of the terms
Journalism Ethics and
Peace Building

Introduction to Mass
Communication
Theories and Critique

Watching the
documentary Little
Alien for the purpose
of engaging students in
the discussion on ethical
and unethical journalism
Required:
Ward, S. (2008). Global Journalism Ethics:
Widening the Conceptual Base, 1(1) 139-
141.Retrieved on July 5, 2012 from
http://www.gmj.uottawa.ca/0801/inaugura
l_ward.pdf

Gunaratne, S (1996). Social Responsibility
Theory Revisited: A Comparative Study of Public
Journalism and Developmental Journalism.
Minnesota: Moorhead State University.

Recommended
Biersteker, T. (2007). Prospects for the UN
Peace building Commission. Human Rights,
retrieved on July 5, 2012 from
http://unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-
art2630.pdf

Kusturica, N. (2009). Little Alien Film.
Journeyman Pictures. Vienna. Retrieved
July 15 2012 from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iNSvT
boiI2w&feature=related
Session 2 JOURNALISM AND COVERAGE
OF CONFLICT

War Journalism Theory
(Reporting News)

Mainstream Media and
Coverage of Conflicts
Western Media
Coverage of Conflict of
South (Framing)

Required
Hawkins, V. (2011). Media Selectivity and The
Other Side of the CNN Effect: The Consequences
of Not Paying Attention to Conflict. Media, War
and Conflict, 4(1), 55-68. Retrieved on June
26, 2012 from
http://mwc.sagepub.com/content/4/1/55.
abstract
Ituma, M. (2010). Media Framing of Conflict
and Militarization of Aid in Africa: The Case
of Somalia. Retrieved on June 29, 2012
from
http://www.internationalpeaceandconflict.
org/profiles/blogs/media-framing-of-
conflict-and

10

Michira, J. (2002). The Images of Africa in
Western Media. Retrieved June 29, 2012
from.
http://www.teachingliterature.org/teaching
literature/pdf/multi/images_of_africa_mic
hira.pdf
Recommended:
Bratic, V. & schirch, L. (2007). Why and
When to Use the Media for Conflict Prevention
and Peace building. Prevention. European
Centre for Conflict Prevention pp. 5-20.
Retrieved on June 30, 2012 from
http://www.sfcg.org/articles/media_for_c
onflict_prevention.pdf

Session 3 THE ROLE OF JOURNALISM IN
PEACE AND CONFLICTS

Relevance of Wolfsfeld
theory

The Influence of Media
in Peace and Conflicts

Peace Journalism Model

Required
Wolfsfeld, G. (2007). The Role of the News
Media in Conflict and Peace: Towards a More
General Theory. Department of Political
Science Department of Communication.
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Aho, M. (2004). Medias Role in Peace building;
George a Thesis Presented in Partial
Completion of the Requirements of The
Certificate-of-Training in United Nations
Peace Support operations, Mason
University, Pp. 27-42. Retrieved on June 30,
from
http://media.peaceopstraining.org/theses/
aho.pdf

Peleg, S. (2006). Peace Journalism Through the
Lense of Conflict Theory: Analysis and Practice,
5(2), pp.1-17. Retrieved on June 30, from
http://cco.regeneronline.de/2006_2/pdf/p
eleg.pdf

Recommended:

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Peleg, S. (2007). Samuel Peleg In defense of
peace journalism: A rejoinder. Writing,6(2), 1-9.
Retrieved July 1, 2012 from
http://www.cco.regener-
online.de/2007_2/pdf/peleg.pdf

Session 4 IS PEACE JOURNALISM A
SOLUTION FOR PEACE
BUILDING?

Overview of Peace
Journalism
Peace Journalism and
Peace Building
Is Peace Building a
solution for Peace
building? (Criticism)

Required:
Lynch, J. (2007). Peace Journalism and its
Discontents, 6(2), 1-13. Retrieved on July 1,
2012 from http://www.cco.regener-
online.de/2007_2/pdf/lynch.pdf

Odero, M. (2010). What is Peace Journalism;
World Association of Christian
Communicators Seminar, Dar-es-Salam.
Retrieved on July 2, 2012 from
http://africa.waccglobal.org/what%20is%2
0peace%20journalism_.pdf
Recommended
Sagaral, L (2007)Engendering Peace Journalism
(1).A Presentation at the 3rd Women
Making Air Waves of Peace. NDFCAI-
WED Training Center. Cotabato City

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Session 5 PRESENTATIONS ON THE
INITIATIVES WITHIN PEACE
JOURNALISM

Required.
Nathalie, H. (2011). Political Posturing and the
Need for Peace Journalism in South Africa: The
case of Julius Malema. 41-55. Retrieved July
2, 2012 from
http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_m
la_apa_research_citation/5/0/0/5/5/p500
553_index.html?phpsessid=c03670d95504b
581b726a7e112fdb1a1

Arsenault, A., Powers, S., Putzel, J., Zwan,
J. V. D., & States, C. (2011). IMS | Conflict
Sensitive Journalism: Moving Towards a
Holistic Framework 1. Communications,
(January), 1-9.
Recommended:
Youngblood, S. (2010). Peace/Conflict
Sensitive Journalism Insights. Retrieved July
3, 2012 from
http://stevenyoungblood.blogspot.com/20
12/06/military-journalists-set-aside.html
Lee, S. (2010). Peace Journalism: Principles and
Structural Limitations in the News Coverage of
Three Conflicts. Journal of Mass
Communication and Society, Issue (13) 4.
Pp.361-384.

13

Session 6 MEASURES FOR JOURNALISTS
PROFESSIONAL GROWTH
What is media training
of journalists?
The underlying
ideological assumptions
about journalists
training
Journalist Training as
Western Oriented. What
is the future for
Journalism especially for
local Journalism?

Required:
Murphy, S. &Scotton, J. (1987). Dependency
and Journalism Education in Africa Are There
Alternative Models. Africa Media Review,
1(3), African Council on Communication
Education. pp.11-35. Retrieved July 3, 2012
from
http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African
%20Journals/pdfs/africa%20media%20revi
ew/vol1no3/jamr001003003.pdf

Banda, F. (2008). The Interpretation of Conflict:
Can Journalists Go Further? The case of Linking
The teaching and Training of Journalists to
Constructing a Peace-building Role in the World.
Retrieved on July 4, 2012 from
http://www.rjr.ru.ac.za/rjrpdf/rjr_no28/in
terpretation_of_conflict.pdf

Becker, L. & Lowrey, W. (2000). Independent
Journalism Training Initiatives: Their Impact on
Journalists and Journalism Education, James M.
Cox Jr. Center for International Mass
Communication Training and Research
College of Journalism and Mass
Communication University of Georgia.
Pp.2-28. Retrieve on July 3, 2012, from
http://www.grady.uga.edu/coxcenter/Acti
vities/Act_2000_to_2001/Materials00-
01/iamcr2001.pdf

Session 7 NEW MEDIA AND PEACE
BUILDING

Impact of New Media
Required
Nishikura, M. (2008).Thesis Summary: How
New Media Contributes to Peacebuilding. New
Media Technology: The Next Platform in
Peace building. Retrieved July 5, 2012 from

14

on Peace Building

How New Media
Challenges the
Definition of a
Journalist

How do Non-
Traditional Journalistic
Activities like Citizen
Journalism contribute to
Peace Building?

http://luvmegumi.blogspot.com/2008/05/
thesis-summary-how-new-media.html

Hermida, A. (2010). Rethinking the Role of the
Journalist in the Participatory Age. University of
British Columbia. Retrieved July 6, 2012
from
http://www.pbs.org/mediashift/2010/07/
rethinking-the-role-of-the-journalist-in-the-
participatory-age190.html
Recommended:
Eli, (2007). Things You Should Know About
Citizen Journalism. Scenario. Educause
Learning initiative. Retrieved July 2 2012
from
http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/EL
I7031.pdf

Glaser, M. (2006). Your Guide to Citizen
Journalism. Media Shift. Retrieved July 2 2012
from
http://www.pbs.org/mediashift/2006/09/
your-guide-to-citizen-journalism270.html
Session 8 GUEST SPEAKER FOR A DAY No required readings, besides those of the course
that the students should use, quote.

Session 9 VISIT TO A SCHOOL OF
JOURNALISM FOR 2 DAYS
No required readings, besides those of the course
that the students should use, quote
Session
10
WRITING A PROJECT ON
DEVELOPMENT JOURNALISM
No required readings, besides those of the course
that the students should use, quote

15

(g). Methodology:
The course will employ a transformative pedagogical approach. This is student-engagement into
their learning process. Methods that will boost students involvement will include; group
presentations because such groups help students to understand themselves better; their strength and
weaknesses and to support each other, student facilitation will enable empowerment and
communication skills, research on the different topics, student-led discussions, teacher-led
discussions, and plenary discussions.

(i). Strategies:
The above mentioned methods will help throughout this course. The facilitator will journey with the
students throughout the course with the aim of interaction, empowerment and enabling an
atmosphere of appropriate learning. The following methods will be used.

Group discussions and presentations: students will be given a chance to make their own groups
or the facilitator may choose to do it. Questions or topics or scenarios or articles etcetera will be
given to be discussed to the whole class according to the teachers arrangement. A mixture of both
sexes will enable balance and sharing. The group sizes will depend on the number of students taking
the course. Each group will decide on which way to do their presentation (creativity); following the
facilitators instructions. The facilitator will see to it that students do their best.

Power point presentations: power point presentations may help the facilitator in lecturing, or
reference additions to compliment the lecture. Slides will be provided to the students for further
comprehension of what was taught. This helps them to follow up the lecture.

Student-led discussions: These will be discussions facilitated by a student or group of students.
These arise from the insights from class or outside class or within their groups.

Research: Research is emphasized as part of students learning in Uganda Martyrs University. This is
because students are encouraged to practice it even in their class work. This is done also through
giving a certain percentage of work to students and the other percentage be researched by students.
This widens their knowledge arenas. Students will be provided a question or topic on which to

16

research, and they will have to present to the class their findings; they will facilitate plenary
discussions on the same topics.
Teacher-led discussions: The teacher will engage students in a discussion on certain issues about
the course. This will help get the students knowledge level on these issues. Movies may be
presented, case studies employed or something else that can involve the students discussion vividly.

Question and answer sessions: The students and the facilitator will ask and answer questions
related to the days topic of discussion.

Debriefing: Students will give a recap of the course from the previous session. This helps students
at the end of the day to follow up the course outline.

(ii). Resources:
The resources that will be used during the course will include: handouts, articles related to the
course, movies, books and chapters from books, films/clips, recommended websites, media and
memory publications, reports in line with this course topic, articles from journals and internet.

(h). Evaluation:
Participation in making an outline for the course: At the beginning of the course, the facilitator
will seek the students views on what ought to be in the outline even if the facilitator already has one.
This will be answered anonymously. Answers contributed will be used in the new course outline
content that the facilitator will have ignored or forgotten; to direct the kind of pedagogical approach
that may suite the students concerns.

Take away: The students will be asked on a daily basis, at the end of each day, to say what they will
take from of the days class. The facilitator will be able to have an overview of what students
understood and what they did not understand clearly through omitted aspects in the take away.
An alternative to this will be to know from the students what they liked or what they want changed
in the course.

17

Discussion: The other method of evaluation that the facilitator will use, will be based on the active
involvement of the students in contributing to the richness (content-wise) of discussions by the
students, and how easily students are able to talk about a specific topic. This will depend on the
facilitators creativity in making students take an active role in class.

Question and answer sessions: students and facilitator will engage in question and answer
sessions. The readings and class lectures will make clear to the teacher how well and how much
students have understood.

Evaluation triangle: This is a triangle where the top part means that someone clearly understood
the content, and the base means that someone has actually not understood anything from the course
content. Students will be asked to indicate where they feel they fit regarding understanding of the
course content. This triangle also evaluates the teachers ability to deliver or finding ways to help
those who are at the base so that they get to the top.

Debriefing: the students will give a brief report of the previous class. This will be used to tell what
the students understood.

Short notes or summary: students may at times be asked to write short notes or summarize about
their understanding from a session (200-300 words). These short notes will be used by the teacher to
tell how students conceive about the topics.

The evaluation serves to inform the facilitator about the students performance, students strength
and a prioritized need for developing the strength of a student. The final evaluation is an assessment
of candidate performance on skill areas.

18

(i). Bibliography
.eeble, R. (2001). Ethics For Journalists. London New York: Routledge.
Lynch, J. & Galtung, J. (2010). Reporting Conflict: the Low Road and High Road. In Reporting
Conflict: New Directions in Peace Journalism. University of Queensland Press.
Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2010). A Global Standard for Reporting Conflict and Peace. In R.L.
Keeble, J. Tulloch & F. Zollmann (Eds.), Peace Journalism, War and Conflict Resolution. New
York: Peter Lang.

19

CHAPTER TWO (ADMINISTRATIVE)

a). Specific Course Title: Journalism Ethics and Peace Building
(b). Course Code: Will be assigned by the university (Uganda Martyrs University) in particular by
the Department of Good Governance and Peace Studies.
(c). Prerequisites: Accredited Masters Degree and Under-Graduate level.
(d). Course Strength: The Course will run throughout the semester with a three-hour session each
week.
(e). Credits:3 credits
(f). Course meeting times and place: The venue for sessions will be one of the lecture rooms and
that will be decided by the management of the university and the department much later.
(g). Intended Participants: It will apply to media practitioners, journalists, and those who work in
media organizations.
(h). Where the course fits within the general programmed of studies (at the Department and
Programmed levels):
The course is designed for students mastering in Sustainable Peace and Conflict Management, in the
Department of Good Governance and Peace Studies, Uganda Martyrs University. There is also hope
of opening a Department of mass Communication and Journalism studies.
(i). Assessment of student performance
Students will be assessed on levels of:
1. Criteria: Group discussions and presentations, engagement in discussions, demonstrated critical
analysis of the concepts on the different topics, ability and willingness to facilitate group discussion
and presentation, simulation, written essays.
2. Tools: Group works and presentation, reflection papers, personal essays of 1500 words that will
be given accordingly, journal keeping and a final project.

20

The assessment format is as below:
Class attendance and participation 10%
Individual/group presentation 10%
School Visit Report 20%
Total 40%
Final project 60%
Grand total 100%

(j). Instructors biography: The course will be facilitated by Miss Francesca Namatovu. She holds
a Bachelors degree in Ethics and Development Studies from Uganda Martyrs University, Uganda.
She has a Masters in Media, Peace and Conflict studies from the University for Peace, a United
Nations mandated University, Costa Rica.

21

CHAPTER THREE (TEACHERS MANUAL)

Session one: INTRODUCTION OF THE COURSE JOURNALISM ETHICS AND PEACE BUILDING

1.1. Learning Objectives:
Students will be able to understand the ethical issues within the documentary and relate to
journalism
Students will identify the challenges with journalism today
Students will be able to apply the relevance of this topic to local journalism in Uganda
The course will entail opening the students thinking on the introduction of the normative
theories of mass communication that can apply to journalism roles and to peace building.

1.2. Content:
Watching the Documentary-Little Alien

The documentary Little Alien was produced in 2009 by Kusturica. It explains how teenagers fled
crisis regions and undertook an extremely dangerous journey to Europe, all alone, hoping for one
thing: to live. After arriving here, they fight to live normal lives, struggling against a system that
demands, they then sacrifice their youth to an uncertain future (Kusturica, 2009. n.p.). The purpose
of this documentary for the class is to help students learn how to relate what happened in movie
within journalism situation today. In this way, students will be able to explain the ethical dilemmas
within the movie and also find those dilemmas within journalism and then apply that to their
situations. They will at the end of this course, able to deal with dilemmas, to suggest what can really
apply in journalism and what is not possible and create a ground for effective journalism to
contribute to peace building.

Definition of the terms Journalism Ethics and Peace Building

Ethics refers to the rightful conduct which is accompanied with ownership of responsibility and
how this responsibility leads to the best interactions within the environment in which one exists and
works and within the available values and principles. Ethics is reasonableness and a use of a practical

22

judgment about decisions and choices (Ward, 2008). Furthermore, ward believes that there is
difference between Ethics and morals whereby ethics from the etymological point of view comes
from the Greek word ethos which means character and this relates to a level of people who
have good virtues and rightful conduct. Whereas Morality comes from mores which; implies
customs and values of a specific group or society (Ward, 2008).

Journalism in terms of ethics is described as a type of applied ethics which analyses the act of
journalism, its principles and values to a given situation and their given conditions. It is about tracing
the must dos for journalists in relation to what news organizations must do in a given society. Some
of the concerns/ problems that ought to be focused on; on the side of journalists include: the limits
of free speech, accuracy and bias, fairness and privacy, the use of graphic images, conflicts of
interest, the representation of minorities, and the role of journalism (Ward, 2008). For journalism,
the code of ethics is seen as a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues founded and
presented in truth for public enlightenment and serve as a forerunner of justice (Edmond, 2005,
p.1). This implies that Journalists have a duty to serve the general public regardless of the political
and economic influences.
The other point to note is the fact professional standards of the journalist prescribe due respect for
the national community, its democratic institutions and public morals which calls for a journalists
role in fostering the rights and freedoms for the people and their democratic societies. This can only
best be described in circumstances where there is freedom of expression for journalists and the
people. For societies that practice censorship for journalists, democracy may not be practiced and
this means that journalists will not take into consideration the meaning of democracy. To this end,
there are differences in the code of ethics for journalists in different countries. For example, North?
America has different code of ethics for journalists from the Ugandan code of ethics for journalists
depending on who defines journalism ethics and a difference in the media systems (Edmond, 2005).
Besides those differences in having specific codes of conduct for different countries, there is also a
universal code of conduct for journalists throughout the world that must be followed by journalists
and this acts as an ethical guideline that can be used in meaningful reporting that includes the role
for democratic preferences and a desired democratic space that eliminates all threats of harm and
misconduct which can then lead to processes of peace building. They range from journalists acting
independently, being accountable, seeking truth and minimizing harm as below. As attached the

23

Journalists code of conduct (Society of Professional Journalists, 2012).See Appendix 1 at the end of
the sessions.
Defining Peace Building
Former UN Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali; defines peace building in this context as an action to
identify and support structures which will tend to strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a
relapse into conflict Boutros still believes that peace building is defined differently according to
different agencies and argues that when peace building is defined differently, there is a lack of
consensus on peace building effort for many countries. Peace building is built on the assumption
that democracy and the market provide for the people a conducive environment for peace and this
is the liberal meaning of peace building (Biersteker, 2007, p.39.). At this point, journalists become
supporters and active participants in the protection of human rights because it becomes a role
towards their ethical and moral standards in reporting and addressing important topics that
everybody becomes involved. This brings me to the thought that since peace building stands on
grounds of democratic societies, journalism ethics still has a role to play since it also exhibits levels
of democracy and responsibility towards uplifting the rights and freedoms of the people; thus,
making the relationship between journalism ethics and peace building. It is logical enough an
assertion: a reliable, independent and diverse media would inevitably enable democratically-inclined
societies to better resolve conflicts without violence.
Yet the Security Council, (2001) defined peace building in a more technical way as:
The Security Council recognizes that peace building is aimed at preventing the outbreak, the
recurrence or the continuation of armed conflict and therefore encompasses a wide range of
political, developmental, humanitarian and human rights programmes and mechanisms. This
requires short and long term actions tailored to address the particular needs of societies
sliding into conflict or emerging from it. These actions should focus on fostering sustainable
institutions and processes in areas such as sustainable development, the eradication of
poverty and inequalities, transparent and accountable governance, promotion of democracy,
respect for human rights and the rule of law and the promotion of a culture of peace and
non-violence. The Security Council further affirms that a comprehensive and integrated
strategy in peace building must involve all the relevant actors in this field, taking into account

24

the unique circumstances of each conflict situation. The Council emphasizes that a well-
planned and coordinated peace building strategy can play a significant role in conflict
prevention. In this connection, the Council underlines that international efforts in peace
building must complement and not supplant the essential role of the country concerned(UN
Security Council, 2001, n.p.).
According to the Security Council, (2001), media and journalism is one of the actors in the field of
peace building that plays a vital role especially through the practice of democracy and the rights of
the citizens. This is where conflict sensitive journalism applies as it calls for journalists ethical action
in reporting on areas of urgent issues and raises the voice on certain issues that affect the society and
in this way building peace.
Introduction to Mass Communication Theories and Critique
Normative Theories of Mass communication (Social Responsibility Theory)
Normative theories of mass communication include authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility,
soviet communist and development theory but my focus will be on the social responsibility theory
and development theories. In this context, social responsibility theories explain the social role that a
journalist should have towards the government and the society at large. To me they are the essence
of what the journalist ought to do. The development theories explain the relation that the media and
the media should have to lead to the development of a country and eventually peace. These
normative theories describe the ideal roles and functions of journalism. The assumptions of social
responsibility theory are:
Media should have absolute freedom even from government interruption.
Media should be free to distinguish between truth and falsehood; good and evil
Press should serve as a watchdog on the government thereby serving as the fourth
branch/fourth estate of the governmental structure
Media should adhere to strict ethical standards
Respect for the dignity, privacy, rights and well-being of the public encountered when
gathering and disseminating information(Gunaratne, 1996, n.p.).

25

Criticisms of the Theory
The theory of social responsibility addresses that media has the absolute freedom from government
intervention and interference. Unfortunately there cannot be absolute freedom otherwise; the given
freedom may be misused. But at the same time, if the media takes over the control and may never be
interfered, then there is prone to be irresponsible action that can cause chaos and conflicts. It is also
not true that the government can fail to intervene even when the media uses hate speech to incite
violence or conflict like a case of Rwanda where the media played a terrifying role in the genocide.
This brings about inadequacy in the theory as well as in practice. The above assumptions are only
true in countries that are developed in the information age. Countries in developing countries still
experience a slow shift in the media sector while others are far advanced such that they are not able
to have freedom to that extent. Countries like the USA have its peoples advocate for freedom in
whatever form and they can easily sue one who limits their freedom to express themselves. For
example, The Arab world is running with the pace of the new media and so the media may be able
to control even the government even when people still struggle to get to the media freedom
platform. Whereas journalists in the developing countries are still prevented by the old ways of
reporting and media which does not help them to function as expected but instead keeps them even
more fearful to do their work of journalism because they fear to report about a certain issue. This
then becomes a limitation to expressing themselves and being truthful which limits the peace
process.
Global journalism ethics emphasizes the fact that there is a consensus that journalists ought to be
objective and truthful while reporting as central values for good journalism. Its also true that to
some, objectivity is relative according to individuals and the one practicing journalism.
The theory puts a lot of responsibility on media as it gives absolute powers to the media even
without government intervention. The media on its own cannot accomplish much. It needs the help
of other bodies to make media function well. For example, media needs the government for its
political powers for censorship and regulations, media needs the non-government organizations for
democracy and human rights promotion, the media needs the military for protection during wars
and difficult areas, it needs the people and this explains why the journalists themselves come from
the society of the people and an explanation for citizen journalists. Having absolute responsibilities
is unrealistic as it leaves loopholes for media and its functions. For example, the media in Uganda

26

may not be effective in its roles because it is not a strong body to get those absolute powers. What
we ought to know is that media is not just seen as an enterprise like others in the
business sector of any society, but due to its unique nature, society expects a particular role which
media must play in getting rid of social evils, educating people, criticizing government policies and
exposing other wrong doings in a society.
Relevance of this theory to Local Journalism
This theory has been used in cases of application of freedom of expression in most African settings
where the media has become a platform for people to express themselves although at the advent of
the new media, this theory has had both positive and negative connotations in terms of its appraisal
and criticism. According to my understanding, there exist different African media systems in Africa
that explain a different system for a particular country. Although these systems are different, there
exists a kind of struggle to reach the level of other countries especially in terms of freedom of
expression and democracy. There has been a tremendous change in the last decade in the media
system in Africa as some governments have stopped monopolizing the media except for some
countries like Sierra Leone, Liberia, Congo-Kinshasa, Congo-Brazzaville, Somalia. This has given
media the mandate to improve and grow in terms of information communication and educating the
people which has been done through empowerment of the people through speaking about issues
that affect their societies and encouraging societies that express their rights to expression. In this
case, the radio and television play a powerful role to educate the people. Amidst all these changes,
there still exist challenges like resource scarcity in line of human resource, finance and others. This
has been so in different countries with their differences in media systems (Lucian, n.d.).
For example, Ghanas media system empowers media as actors and facilitators because it is a
democratic country that allows for promotion of the rights of the people including those in the
media. This is arranged from the top to the bottom from president to the opposition party since
1992, with an independent judiciary with constitutional bodies which include among others the
National media Commission. Worth noting is that the media in Ghana has been in relation with the
politics of the country. In Nigeria on the other side of the coin, there is a struggle for freedom of
expression and also a fight against any censorship options form the government (Lucian, n.d.).

27

However, journalists in some countries are so much warned and threatened which limits their role
for democracy and peace building initiatives. A country like Rwanda now does not have a strong
group of journalists since the genocide happenings in Rwanda. Charles Kabonero, a journalist and
Editor of the independent weekly Umuseso newspaper ran from Rwanda into Uganda because his
life was being threatened, for his independent reporting which cannot work within Rwandas media
system (Brown, 2009). Some run into exile to other countries and most of them are still afraid to
truly practice their professional ethics and their roles. It is important that government work hand in
hand with the media in fostering media development which leads the nations into development
programs that lead to peace. This leads us to the theory of development in mass communication.
Development Media Theory
This theory was first coined in the 1960s in the Philippines (Stevenson, 1994, as cited in Gunaratne,
1996). This theory explains that a political journalists role is to inform and present to the reader the
findings, interpret these findings and pose relevant conclusions for the audiences while a
development journalist has the role of making sure that these findings are passed on to the audience
and brings meaning to these finding while presenting these findings to the audience to see their
relevance to development and at the same time provokes the audiences reaction for the findings.
Both the political journalist and the development journalist work hand in hand in bringing
development information to the audience but they differ in the way they do affect the audience. This
aspect of promoting findings entails a journalist showing the readers how important development is
to the whole society and nation and how readers can collaborate to work towards this problem. This
implies that the government and the media played a very significant role towards establishing the
development of a country (Chalkey, 1968, as cited in Gunaratne, 1996). The following differences
between a political journalist and a development journalist explain the importance that each kind of
journalist has to play in the development process. Their differences in the way they present the
findings to the audience; when worked hand in hand, can bring about development. Gayner (2007)
explains in his analysis how the two journalists are different in both developed and developing
countries. For him, political journalism is the same as mainstream journalism.

28

Development Journalist Political Journalist
Setting the media agenda for the public
and managing those forces that set the
agenda for themselves as journalists
In the developed world, he has three roles:
adversarial towards established forms of power;
interpreting the world we live in; and
disseminating information (Weaver and
Wilhoit, 1991)
He is concerned with the imbalances in
the global news flow and the need for
Third World perspectives in world news
(Thussu, 1996; Nordenstreng, 1995)
Concerned with news. Thats it.
He or she must also investigate and report
on how that information was arrived at
He is limited to the timely, objective and
accurate reporting of information
Emphasis on investigating the process
behind the story rather than merely
recording the news itself (1996:8).
Does not place emphasis on investigating the
process behind the story. Merely records the
news itself
Development is not linearly linked to
news alone. Other media formats and
influences too like entertainment, or
incidences that happen within the society.
Development is news alone

From the above differences, what we ought to know is that a journalist whether political or
development journalist, works for commercial aims-to get money and earn a living and this becomes
a limitation and a roadblock to journalists in developing democratic societies especially in developing
countries. There are many things that may influence a journalists role for peace building. It may be
individual influence from the journalist him/herself, may be the routine work in which the journalist
works and he gets used to what he does especially when it does not pay him well and hence leads to
cases where the journalist has to look for an extra job or find ways of increasing his pay or when it
becomes boring because of the same things being done, the organizational structures may also limit
the free flow of a journalists ways of functioning and also, extra-media and ideologies-Hierarchy of
influences approach (Reese, 2001, as cited in Gayner, 2007).

29

Development journalism was aimed at addressing the whole ordinary community, their needs, and
keeping the grassroots involved in constructive development (Aggarwal, 1978, as cited in Gunaratne,
1996). Aggarwal still asserts that development media theory is about making reporting relevant of
the development of national and local needs, its implementation and the effect it causes on the
people by government officials. Fair (1988, as cited in Gunaratne, 1996) accepts that the
development media theory is about helping in the peace building initiatives as he says it is a kind of
news that is related to the primary, secondary and tertiary needs of the countrys population; news
that satisfies the needs of a countrys population and contributes to self-reliance; news that relates to
development or to the social, economic or political problems (Gunaratne, 1996, p.99).
Keita (2011) asserts that development journalism in Africa started way back in the 1960s and 1970s.
It was initially for the purpose of reporting development although its objective changed later to
favor of a type of government in power. Take for instance, cases where principles of being true,
being neutral, reporting what is on ground, all no longer apply in some government in Africa. This
means that development journalism here fails because the people within Africa like leaders of
governments influence the development negatively and so failing the system. South Africa at the
same time, believes in the medias role to foster development and no other (Keita, 2011).I would say
that this theory can best describe how peace building can come about in a kind of development
cycle which involves the participation of the people, their grassroots and their initiatives and the
journalist being the one to bring meaning to these people through reporting what is on ground and
finding meaning of it. (Galtung &Vincent, 1992, pp. 151-165, as cited in Gunaratne, 1996, pp. 99-
101), have what they call a 10 proposal plan that can help journalists in reporting development issues
that can help this development media theory help flourish in peace. They include:
Whenever there is reference to development, make it concrete in terms of human beings
A development oriented mass media should focus not only on the economics but also on
the military, political and cultural aspects
Mere economic data will never do without accompanying dispersion data.
Focus on relations, not only differences, and do so not only within countries, but also
between countries.
A development oriented press would do well to focus on the totality of concrete life
situations

30

A development oriented journalism would never forget the dimension of democracy
There is always the possibility of reporting about development, not critically in terms of
problems, but constructively in terms of positive programs.
Allow the people to talk
Go one step further and let the people to some extent run the media.
Let people run more of society, and then report on what happens (Gunaratne, 1996, pp.99-
101)
The above proposal is discussed by Johan Galtung the father of Peace Research (Gunaratne,
1996).Galtung and Vincent propose this plan as guide for todays development journalism. Both
believe that the important task of a development journalist is to find out development issues that are
both in developing and developed countries, identify them, investigate them and make them clear
that they lead to development and them bring meaning to the audience by showing them what they
ought to do, leading to opening their minds and creativity and freedoms to participate in this
development. To this point, Galtung and Vincent consent that there is a relationship between
development, democracy and participation which need to be fully discovered and exploited so that
nobody else interferes with the development of a another country to impede its peace building(See
Galtung and Vincent, 1992, pp.151-166).
From the above, peace becomes important for development while development cannot do without
peace. They symbiotically relate with one another. When there are indicators of development, there
will be signs of sustainable peace. The UN report An Agenda for Peacein1992introduced the term
peace building and there has been a worldwide acknowledgement of this concept and its
significance and yet steps towards peace building have been taken. At the same time, some steps
taken have not seen for the desired peace. This has continuously prevented further peace. In 2001,
statement on peace building from the Security Council stated that the quest for peace requires a
comprehensive, concerted and determined approach that addresses the root causes of conflicts,
including their economic and social dimensions. It recognizes that peacemaking, peacekeeping and
peace building are closely interrelated and that peace building is aimed at preventing the outbreak,
recurrence or continuation of armed conflict and therefore encompasses a wide range of political,
developmental, humanitarian and human rights programmes and mechanisms (Norwegian Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, 2004, p.14). To this point, media and journalism are part of the approaches that

31

can help to address peace building through establishment of all forms that lead to conflict and
chaos.
1.3. Learning outcomes
Students will have the understanding of the ethical issues within the documentary and relate
them to journalism
They will be acquainted on the challenges of journalism in the contemporary world today
and know on how to address this problem.
Through the normative theories, students will be able to find the relevance applicability to
their local situations of journalism towards peace building

1.4. Session Methodology:
Methodology/Strategy Activities Resources
Students will brainstorm on what
they understand by the course
topic.(15 minutes)
Participation from everybody.
More questions are expected
from the students about the
course
Books, pens, laptop for
lecturing
Watching documentary. (little
alien (Nina Kusturica, Austria
2009- 94 min)

Students will watch the
documentary, active listening,
jotting down of the ethical
issues they see.
Students will debrief on the
documentary after watching it.
They will do this by sharing
what they have seen,
highlights and insights.
Questions and discussions will
be characteristic of the session
YouTube, Projector, laptop,
documentary

32

Presentations within groups of 7
students
Students will present on the
missing gap within journalism
(problem of journalism today)
and also share on how
mainstream media works out
the whole process of
journalism. They will also
present on the relevance of
journalism ethics to local
journalism within their
countries.
Groups, note books, pens and
manila charts.

Introductory lecturer on the
theories of mass communication
Lecturer will do the teaching.
Students will also participate
in the lecturing process
through their participation of
asking questions
Projector, laptop, questions
and answers
Take home Students will write each a 1
and a half paged paper on
how they would relate peace
building and development in
their own countries. They
should do this paper without
any reference to other
scholars. It should come from
what they know and have seen
about development and peace
building

33

1.5. Session Evaluation:
This sessions evaluation shall mainly be based on a short questionnaire to students; which the
lecturer will use to find out students level of understanding. The questions will come from the area
that students have tackled. Take-away will be part of the evaluation. This is expected to be a highly
academic exercise. Questions and answers will also act as evaluation session.

1.6. Readings:
(i). Required:
Ward, S. (2008). Global Journalism Ethics: Widening the Conceptual Base, 1(1) 139-141.Retrieved
on July 5, 2012 from http://www.gmj.uottawa.ca/0801/inaugural_ward.pdf

Gunaratne, S (1996). Social Responsibility Theory Revisited: A Comparative Study of Public Journalism
and Developmental Journalism. Minnesota: Moorhead State University.

(ii). Recommended
Biersteker, T. (2007). Prospects for the UN Peace building Commission. Human Rights, retrieved on
July 5, 2012 from http://unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art2630.pdf

Kusturica, N. (2009). Little Alien Film.Journeyman Pictures. Vienna. Retrieved July 15 2012
from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iNSvTboiI2w&feature=related

34

Session 2: JOURNALISM AND COVERAGE OF CONFLICT

2.1. Learning Objectives
Students will be able to define and analyze war journalism
Students will be able to analyze mainstream media and the coverage of the conflict and
provide the criticism to this media coverage of conflicts
Students should be able to understand how the western media portrays the south and be able
to compare with what is actually on the ground
2.2. Content
War Journalism Theory (Reporting News)
The media plays an important role in attracting attention of the public. The events on certain
conflict are fed to the general public by the media, sometimes; media reporting on conflict can
escalate the conflict depending on the news reported. This is what is tackled in this section as far as
war journalism.

War Journalism
Sometimes there can be a pre-disposition towards the patterns of reporting conflicts that may be
known as War Journalism, or Journalism biased in favor of war (McGoldrick, 2006, p.2). War
journalism was first defined by Johan Galtung (n.d) as journalism about conflict that is: Violence
oriented, Propaganda oriented, Elite oriented and Victory oriented (Lynch, 1998, as cited in
McGoldrick, 2006, p.2). Therefore, in war journalism violence seems to make more sense and is
portrayed as the only solution. Why should this be the case yet the journalists strive so hard to be
neutral and objective. Thus, reporting news in one way or the other have an impact on conflict in
a given situation.

According to Nohrstedt (2009), Wars are not only fought by military means but by media means as
well. Alongside the fighting on the ground, at sea, and in the air, a media war is fought over public
opinion and the willingness to fight of populations and troops (Taylor 1997, p.119; Thussu &
Freedman 2003, p.7 as cited in Nohrstedt, 2009, p.1). It is imperative to note that the media
becomes a battleground, and journalists are drawn into the conflict, either voluntarily or under

35

orders, or even unawares (Nohrstedt, 2009, p.1). To advance this, the media is used either directly or
indirectly to influence the general public to preferably support the parties in conflict. (Nohrstedt,
2009), further contends that Media and journalists have gained an increasingly central position due
to developments in media technology such as satellite TV channels broadcasting 24/7news too
rapidly that it is possible to report live from a combat zone (Nohrstedt, 2009, p.96).

In addition, the visual media increase the power of influence on the public that is why media is so
instrumental during conflict. For example, during the LRA war in northern Uganda, Mega Fm Radio
and other local newspapers were very influential and their reporting could change the public
perception about war (Nassanga, 2007). From this perspective, it is observed that media is at a
forefront during war. Therefore, conflicting parties are making ever greater efforts to influence,
steer, and control the reporting distributed through international media, and this is especially true in
the case of visual materials such as photographs and videos and other printed media in order to
capture the attention of the public (Nohrstedt, 2009).

In words of Nohrstedt (2009), War has always been highly newsworthy. Depictions of the
course of wars, of victories and defeats, are very dramatic and affect the fates of many
people in some cases almost the entire world. War news attracts a large audience and often
deeply engages people both emotionally and intellectually. Public opinion is mobilized to an
extent that otherwise has no counterpart even in the established democracies (Gitlin &
Hallin 1994 as cited in Nohrstedt, 2009, p.96).

The journalists report stories on armed conflicts, campaigns, war victors, and crashing defeats, all
these have a great impact on conflict. For instance the stories about victor parties tend to attract the
public towards siding with the war heroes. To this effect the journalists role in war cannot be
underestimated. War propaganda is viewed as a continuation of such conflict stories. By portraying
the struggle of what is known as good and evil, we are persuading to take position in the conflict
(Nohrstedt, 2006)

36

Mainstream Media and Coverage of Conflicts
Mainstream media include the channels through which information is disseminated to the general
public, such as the radio stations, Television, newspapers among others. Mainstream media are at
times directed towards promoting the interests of the military and governments in their coverage of
war. Accordingly mainstream media are seen as operating propaganda instruments of dominant
economic, political, social, cultural and military interests (Keeble, Tulloch, & Zollman, 2010). They
further base their assertion in lines of Noam Chomsky and Edward Hermans Propaganda Model.
To Chomsky and Herman (n.d.) the mainstream media in Western societies for example USA and
UK are to a very considerable level free from state intervention, however, the mainstream media
function as if they are part of the state propaganda machinery (Keeble, et al. 2010, pp. 216-217). In
their 1988 book called Manufacturing Consent-The Political Economy of the Mass Media Edward
Herman and Noam Chomsky introduced their propaganda model of media. This propaganda
model stipulates that there are five classes of filters (advertisement, source of mass media news,
flak, etc.,) in society which determine what is news, in simple terms what is printed in newspapers
and what is broadcasted on radio and television (Herman & Chomsky as cited in Cromwell, 2002,
n.p.).
This model also present how dissent from these mainstream media is little or zero, coverage while
governments and other big corporations gain access to the general public to convey their messages
(Cromwell, 2002). It is such mainstream media that tends to convey message on conflict in favor of
the victor parties during conflict thus influencing the public. A case in point is Uganda where the
New vision newspaper tends to cover only what is in line with the interests of the government and
portrays the other party as weak, defeated or seeking for surrender (Nassanga, 2007).
Sometimes the mainstream media coverage on conflict may escalate the conflicts as one party tend
to be dissatisfied with the news as another is fighting hard to maintain media popularity. The
question remains how does the news media coverage affect conflict? The mainstream media can
shape the publics attitudes about conflict. The media often determines what the public perceives the
conflict is about, its root causes and the consequences of the conflicts and generally how to think
about it (Gamson, 1989 as cited in Reuben, 2010). Reuben further argues that mainstream media
coverage has a great impact on both domestic and international conflicts; in particular the
mainstream media coverage of conflict can lead to either constructive or destructive outcomes of

37

this conflict. This is because the potential personal, economic, and social costs of conflict are
substantial. It is therefore worth noting that, the community whether local, national, or
international is better served by conflict coverage by media, which may be constructive and that
leads to the effective resolution of conflict with a minimum of negative costs, than by coverage that
is destructive (Reuben, 2010, p.47).

The above argument may lead us to reframe the question: under what circumstance does the
mainstream media coverage of conflict promotes constructive or destructive results? According to
Arno (2009), the news media plays an important role in facilitating the process of conflict
management in society especially in a democratic society. However, News media coverage of
conflict can play a leading role in fueling fires of hatred that can lead to death of many people as
seen with extermination of Jews during the Holocaust in 1942 and the Tutsi Rwanda genocide in
1994 (Seib, 2002). On the right note, it can also be in securing peace as was a case in Northern
Ireland (Spencer, 2004). Thus the mainstream media can play both the constructive and destructive
role in conflict.

Western Media Coverage of Conflict in the Global South
(Framing)
Framing is a scattered conceptualization with previous studies lacking clear conceptual definitions
and relying on context-specific, rather than generally applicable operationalisations (Entman, 1993,
p.51 as cited in Scheufele, 1999, p. 103). To Entman (1993), to frame is to select some parts of a
perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote
a particular problem definition, casual interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment
recommendation (Entman, 1993, 52). Additionally, Price, Tewksbury, & Powers (1995), assert that
framing and presentation of events and news on conflict in the mass media can affect how recipients
of the news can understand and interpreted that events. This therefore, shows how the western
media can influence the public perception on the conflict on Africa and thus more conflicts and
wars in Africa.
To Ituma, (2010), media framing is defined as how the media depictions affect the ways that
constrain how audiences interpret events, the way in which the story is told. It is such depictions

38

that may affect the audiences perceptions on the certain conflicts in Africa. In relations to this,
Ituma had this to say:
Media analysts also argue that frames help reporters to select and relay news in an efficient fashion
as explained by the Gramscian theory, which states: The revolutionaries will seek to replace the
ruling class concepts and values and educate the subordinates of their oppression. Values held dear
by the old culture will be destroyed (Ituma, 2010, n.p.).
The western media portrays Africa as a continent of endemic violence, conflict and civil war. Africa
has experienced different forms of conflict ranging from tribal clashes, armed conflicts, and civil
wars to genocide. It is worth lamenting that be it crisis in Somalia, Democratic Republic of Congo
government versus Congo rebels, conflict in Angola, Sudan clashes, or the 1994 genocide in
Rwanda, the reports of this kind have a high premium in the western media and they may earn a
headline or front page story status ( Michira, 2002, n.p.). It is imperative to note that while it may be
difficult to achieve objectivity in such reporting by western media, many observers still argue that
the Western media coverage about conflict in Africa are crisis-driven in such a way as to portray
African continent as naturally savaged, warlike, violent and steeped in tribal hatred (Michira, 2002).
This is the kind of framing that takes an unethical place in covering of conflicts in media and
specifically journalism which accelerates the rate of violence and conflicts in Africa However, this
leads to furthered conflicts as the media sometimes becomes an accelerator within the controversy.
HOW?(Gamson and Modigliani 1992 as cited in Vraneski and Richter, 2002) stress that what people
say and think will always influence the media to write stories about it and also what the media writes
and says and shows will be influenced by what the public has as opinion. Therefore, medias impact
comes with construction of the realities that already exist. Still, if the media does not interact with
the people, it may never get the reality out of it. Media and the public give each other reality of a
kind of discourse at hand. Hence, giving meaning to this discourse (Scheufele, 2001).

In Michira (2002), media coverage does not mention the western support to such conflicts in Africa;
both materially and militarily is not mentioned. According to Michira (2002), the US has supported
many undemocratic regimes in Africa as a means to create a favorable environment for natural
resources (oil, mineral resources). A case in point is former president Siad Barre of Somalia and
Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire (current Democratic Republic of Congo) among the many. From this
argument it can be observed that the western media tend not to portray such instances where the

39

western governments support the conflict in Africa. Those rebel leaders who are supported by the
western are perceived as freedom fighters such as the late Jonas Savimbi of Angola (Michira, 2002).
So then which role does framing of a certain situation of conflict play in peace?
Michira (2002) further argues that the western media comfortably avoids to talk about the ties
between some conflicts in Africa and the role of the western powers in the politicizing ethnicity by
pitting certain tribes against others in the Divide and Rule policy adopted mostly by the
British and Belgian colonial governments. In addition, the artificial drawing up of national
boundaries during the Scramble and Partition of Africa saw the division and polarization of Africa
communities that had earlier lived as one for centuries (Michira, 2002). These issues will never see
the light of the day and make the headline in the western media.
Most of the media coverage on Africa conflict shows it as unstoppable, tribal violent, and normal.
Therefore, such coverage tends to make the conflicts in the south to appear ugly, than before yet the
role of the western powers in the conflict is left out in the western media. Conclusively, it is right to
argue that the western media focus more on the interests of their mother countries, and their
activities to promote western popularity in the south (Ituma, 2012). It is safe to conclude that
western media heavily frames conflicts in Africa as severe in order to increase public support for
government action even if the conflict is not severe. Therefore, western media should portray the
actual situation on the ground so as to promote peace building than framing the situations towards
violence than peace. Such media should at least emphasize reconciliation, negotiation and the
importance of peace in their fasts. How do reporters report a conflict when they are far from the
scene of the conflict? This carries with it some issues of incredibility, lies and exaggerations; which
leaves the countries in Africa in the state of conflicts.
2.4. Expected Outcomes
Students should show their understanding in defining and analyzing war journalism
Demonstrate their skills in identifying the impact of frames.
Be able to understand the framing theory and western media reporting on conflict in the
south especially in Africa.

40

2.5. Session Methodology
Debriefing (10 minutes)
From previous class or insights
since the last class.
By students. Each will have to
show that she/he understood
the previous lessons. So each
will contribute at least what
she/he learnt

Manila papers, Markers
Students will still brainstorm of
what they know about how
conflicts are covered in media.
This will entail knowledge on
what they have read, experienced
and been told. They can still give
case studies and examples.
-students will do this by giving
case studies or examples of
experiences they have
watched or read. Active
participation is done here.

Manilas, markers, books, pens
and sharing
Non-conventional lecturing with
students active participation on
theories of conflict coverage
Students and lecturers
cooperate here.

Students will give examples of
frames that media uses in
covering conflicts. Each from
his/her country will have to give
these examples of such frames
Students will go into groups;.
This will help in the
argumentation process and
help them too to develop
their own new ideas on the
framing issue.

Imagination Technique Students do this by going into
a kind of small questionnaire
that the lecturer will
formulate. The questionnaire

41

will be on the aspect of media
coverage of conflicts.
Take Away Students will speak out what
they have taken away as
significant

2.6. Session Evaluation
The students will be given a minute paper; in addition the evaluation will be based on their
participation and key takeaways from the session. Questions and answers in the class will contribute
to students evaluation
2.7. Readings
(i). Required:
Hawkins, V. (2011). Media Selectivity and The Other Side of the CNN Effect: The Consequences of Not
Paying Attention to Conflict. Media, War and Conflict, 4(1), 55-68. Retrieved on June 26, 2012
from http://mwc.sagepub.com/content/4/1/55.abstract
Ituma, M. (2010). Media Framing of Conflict and Militarization of Aid in Africa: The Case of
Somalia. Retrieved on June 29, 2012 from
http://www.internationalpeaceandconflict.org/profiles/blogs/media-framing-of-conflict-
and
Michira, J. (2002). The Images of Africa in Western Media. Retrieved June 29, 2012 from.
http://www.teachingliterature.org/teachingliterature/pdf/multi/images_of_africa_michira.p
df
(ii). Recommended:
Bratic, V. & schirch, L. (2007). Why and When to Use the Media for Conflict Prevention and Peace
building. Prevention. European Centre for Conflict Prevention pp. 5-20. Retrieved on June 30,
2012 from http://www.sfcg.org/articles/media_for_conflict_prevention.pdf

42

Session 3: THE ROLE OF JOURNALISM IN PEACE AND CONFLICTS
To understand the functions of journalism and the role of journalism influence in building
peace and conflicts.
To focus on peace journalism model and how it can challenge the market-driven objective
journalism.
To demonstrate an understanding of the principles and ethics of journalistic practice, and
how those principles form the foundation of peace.
3.2. Content:
It is an acknowledged fact that information plays crucial role in most processes undertaken by
mankind. Journalism dispenses information that generates various views, opinions, and feelings and
at times they can foster cooperation, division and hatred or provoke positive or negative actions and
reactions. The different effects produced by journalism is in a way due to the fact that contemporary
media reporting give mixed messages that are likely to have multiple meanings and as such
complicating their understanding, explanation, interpretation and evaluation (Eldridge, 1993, cited in
Aho, 2004). It is in this understanding that Wolfsfeld, (2004) contends that journalism has differing
roles in peace processes as well as conflicts. This session is geared at examining the relationship
between journalism and the two aspects. At the beginning, the theoretical underpinnings that inform
the role of news media in peace and conflicts shall be covered followed by the discussion of the
relevance of journalism to peace building. Additionally, attempts shall be made to details the
relevance of peace journalism to local journalism with a special focus on developing countries. It is
instructive to note at the outset that the role of media in peace and conflicts is studied under the
context that media functions as an agenda setting agency, it can impede of facilitate the processes
and at times, journalism facilitates a more accelerated public policy (Livingston, 1997 as cited in
Aho, 2004). It is necessary to grasp the role of journalism in both peace processes and conflicts in
order to maximize the possibilities of journalism functioning as a tool for peace rather than being
and agent for conflicts and other misunderstandings in the society.

43

The Influence of Media in Peace and Conflicts
There are various scholars who have written on the way media can influence both peace processes
and conflicts. The various roles played by media determine the nature of the influence exerted; and
the extent to which such outcomes can either be peaceful or conflicting. Wolfsfeld (2004) details
four major ways in which media can influence the peace process. It is from these four ways that
when such similar influences do not result into constructive peace process, they bring about
conflicts. Media defines the political atmosphere that can either be healthy for peace or conflicts, it
helps in shaping the debate between and among various groups in the society such as government
and the opposition, Civil Society, common citizens, academia and others, it shapes the kind of
strategy and behaviour that can be adopted by parties to the conflict or in a certain circumstance and
on the other hand, media is essential in accrediting or eroding the legitimacy of the party or parties
to a conflict of peace process (Wolfsfeld, 2004).
Definition of the political atmosphere in which the peace process of conflict take place; almost everyone in the
society, community, country or even at international level depend on the media for particular
information. The information that is communicated by various journalists generates awareness on
various issues including peace and conflicts. For instance, during a peace process such as negotiation
or mediation, citizens, the general public and other stakeholders to the process, follow news and in
such a way, they are informed on potential developments and the type of news received can generate
hostility, trust, cooperation or violence (Wolfsfeld, 2004). In such a manner, news sources;
televisions, newspapers, radio and others are instrumental in influencing the atmosphere in which
peace processes or conflict is pursued.
Determining the nature of debates in the processes; The media plays a significant role in influencing which
particular issues gain access to the people and therefore form part of the agenda for the debate in
many interactions. It is an undisputable fact that what is debated by people in various areas partly
originates from media reports. Wolfsfeld (2004) explains that media determines who and what kind
of arguments reach the public. It is now a common practice in many areas that whoever wants to
communicate a message to the larger public depends on the media and journalist. Prominent
politicians, celebrities, organizations and other individuals work hold press conferences whenever
they have something they wish the public to know. The type of media and the outreach and access
of such media chosen to a great extent, tells what becomes the talk-of the day to most people. In

44

peace process or conflict situation, this whole influence is important as it determines not only the
nature of the debate but also the possibility of the process moving forward or escalation of the
conflict.
News media also inform about the strategy and behaviour of various groups in peace process or conflict
(Wolfsfeld, 2004). Media reports communicate on the strategy and behaviour being used and
demonstrated by parties involved in a peace process or conflict. By so doing, they shape future
strategies and behaviour for different groups and in that way, they determine whether progress in
the process can be attained or worsened. Journalists can convey success, blame, failure, hatred,
reluctance, judgement or other kind of information. All these feed in the process and help determine
the success or failure of the undertaking. It is therefore worth noting that journalism occupies a key
position in peace and conflicts and the kind, choice and manner of reporting are to be carefully
sorted if media is to work constructively towards peace.
On the other hand, journalism influences the peace processes as it functions as an instrument that either
raises or lowers the public standing or legitimacy of those involved in a conflict or peace process (Wolfsfeld,
2004).Depending on how the media reports on certain groups or parties to a conflict or peace
process, it is evident that the public can be influenced to support or oppose the particular group
they see as working in their favour. Whether the people become supportive or opposed to certain
groups, actions, strategy or behaviour, the peace process or conflict moves towards resolution or
transformation or towards a more complicated and difficult situation.
Peace Journalism Model
As it has been depicted earlier above that the media and journalism in general play a double-edged
role in the sense that they influence both peace processes and conflicts, it is important to have a
grasp of the kind of journalism that fosters peace and the one that is likely to promote war or
conflicts. Peace oriented journalism embraces different features and practices than those exhibited
by war oriented journalism and was for the first time developed by Johan Galtung who is sometimes
referred to as the father of peace and conflict studies and has since then been emulated by other
scholars in the field including Lynch and McGoldrick 2005 cited by Peleg (2006). These two models
are as summarized below.

45

PEACE/CONFLICT
JOURNALISM
WAR/VIOLENCE JOURNALISM
Peace-Orientated
1. Explore conflict formation, x
parties, y goals, z issues, 'win-win'
orientation.
2. Open space, open time; causes and
outcomes anywhere, also in
history/culture.
3. Making conflicts transparent
4. giving voice to all parties, empathy,
understanding
5. See conflict/war as problem, focus
on conflict creativity
6. Humanization of all sides; more so
the worse the weapon.
7. Proactive: prevention before any
violence/war occurs.
8. Focus on invisible effects of
violence (trauma, damage to
structure/culture).
War-Orientated
1. Focus on conflict arena, 2 parties,
1 goal (win), war, zero-sum
orientation.
2. Closed space, closed time; causes
and exits in arena, who threw the
first stone.
3. Making wars opaque/secret.
4. 'us-them' journalism, propaganda,
voice, for 'us'.
5. See 'them' as the problem, focus
on who prevails in war.
6. Dehumanization of 'them'; more
so the worse the weapon.
7. Reactive: waiting or violence
before reporting.
8. Focus only on visible effect of
violence (killed, wounded and
material damage).

Source: This model has been adopted from Peleg (2006, p. 5)

46

In order for journalism to be instruments of peace it is essential that journalists working for private
or public agencies such as newspapers, radio, televisions and all other sources practice peace
journalism with all the features though not detailed to those listed above. While it cannot be totally
disputed that peace journalism has a role in peace building, it is necessary to assert categorically that
is not a self-sustaining solution and a single answer to peace building. In other words, peace
journalism is useful when is employed as part of a large comprehensive approach to the process.
Part of the reasons as to why peace journalism is not the only solution to peace building is the fact
that it has inherent weaknesses that are expressed as criticisms to peace journalism. The model of
peace journalism whose features have been detailed in this section is critiqued by various
stakeholders, prominently among them being Edward, Said and Gadi Wolfsfeld. Edward Said
critiques peace journalism and argues that it can only help in peace building when the biases of
writers are taken into consideration, the forms used in reporting are properly shaped and he also
labels criticism based on orientalism, mainly depicting how Western media have been reporting
particularly regarding Islam (Perez, 2006)
Journalism can contribute towards peace when journalists adhere to the ethics of their work. It is
however acknowledged that though some journalists may be willing to work in accordance with the
stipulated codes, they face challenges that may either be systemic, personal or at times just because
doing so compromises the interests and values of various stakeholders who may be owners or
funders. There are certain codes of conduct guiding journalism. According to (Ratief, 2002 as cited
in Aho, 2004, p. 22),
While it is in a way guaranteed that if media adheres to the stated codes of conduct, it is possible that
journalism will help lessen chances of being causative agents of conflicts and fulfil their roles
responsibly, it is important to note that the way the codes are stated, leaves loop-holes for
manipulation and poses questions that cannot be answered right away. For instance, many codes as
exemplified by such codes as number (ii), (vii) and others are likely to be manipulated especially
when it is unclear, what comprises a legitimate public interests, who defines it, when, why and how.
Moreover, having a list of codes is not enough; there is a need to transcend the mere establishment
and address concerns over enforcement, effectiveness and contextual realities in which media
operate. Additionally, there are other issues that are to be uncovered regarding the role of media in
different parts of the world. Media is sometimes used as a tool for propaganda and hence it
represents power relations and interests that may facilitate or impede their instrumentality as agents

47

of peace. In this case, media has been seen serving the interests of powerful and strong groups in
society like the rich, and those in power. The media does this through their business oriented goal of
making profits within these media organizations and other factors like influence from the public on
advertising; which help the media to form ideas and present them to the public with the purpose of
serving the interests of those powerful elites. Money and power are the driving forces here. This can
be explained well in Chomsky and Edward Herman Propaganda Model. For news to be called news,
they have to go through stages to satisfy the demands of the powerful and by the time it reaches the
audience, it has no real meaning and there has been a filtering of what ought to have been delivered
to the public and then what must be delivered to the public is discarded because it goes against what
the powerful expects and want (Delta, 2005).
3.3. Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this session, students will have knowledge on functions of journalism and the
role of journalism influence in building peace and in conflicts.
Students will be able to apply the peace journalism model into their own local journalism
settings and challenge the market-driven objective journalism.
They will have the ability to demonstrate an understanding of the principles and ethics of
accepted journalistic practice, and how those principles form the foundation of peace.
May be from previous class or
insights since the last class.
By students(participatory in
nature)

Brainstorming with the class on
the role of journalism in peace
especially from local contexts.
Students will participate fully
in this activity as they will all
share about the what they
know about journalism role in
peace
Questions and answers, text
books etc.

48

Non-conventional lecturing by
the lecturer with students
interruption of questions,
queries, any supplements and
compliments.
Students will at times be
expected to participate in
answering some questions
posed by the lecturer or what
will have inspired them
Manilas, markers, laptop and
projector
Group discussions Students will discuss in groups
about certain questions that
will be given by the lecturer.
The discussions will be
especially on the peace
journalism model and how
important it is.
Papers, books, manilas,
projectors, laptop and
anything that will help
students discuss well
Students will be evaluated according to their active participation in class. The examples that they
give and their active involvement will tell more whether they are in line with what is being taught or
not. Their activeness in the class will also tell who is following or not. The questions and answers
have so much to contribute to a students understanding; yet their input during class is also
important. Silence in class is an indicator that the student is either not with others or it is just
personality; of which the lecturer may not be sure of. So its important that the student speaks and
contribute to measure his/her understanding.
3.6. Readings:
(i). Required
Wolfsfeld, G. (2007). The Role of the News Media in Conflict and Peace: Towards a More General
Theory. Department of Political Science Department of Communication. The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem.
Aho, M. (2004). Medias Role in Peace building; George a Thesis Presented in Partial
Completion of the Requirements of The Certificate-of-Training in United Nations Peace
Support Operations, Mason University, Pp. 27-42. Retrieved on June 30, from
http://media.peaceopstraining.org/theses/aho.pdf

49

Peleg, S. (2006). Peace Journalism Through the Lense of Conflict Theory: Analysis and Practice, 5(2),
pp.1-17. Retrieved on June 30, from http://cco.regeneronline.de/2006_2/pdf/peleg.pdf
(ii). Recommended:
Peleg, S. (2007). Samuel Peleg In defense of peace journalism: A rejoinder. Writing,6(2), 1-9.
Retrieved July 1, 2012 from http://www.cco.regener-online.de/2007_2/pdf/peleg.pdf

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Session 4: IS PEACE JOURNALISM A SOLUTION FOR PEACE BUILDING?

To focus particularly on the possibility of peace journalism.
To acquire an overview of the relevance of peace journalism especially to developing
countries
To possess an understanding of peace journalism role in peace building.
4.2. Content:
Introduction
There is a consensus that journalism can influence both peace and conflicts in the society. It is also
understood that not all journalism or work of media is favourable for peace. Lynch, (2012) defines
peace journalism as act of choice done by editors and reporters on what and how to report it which
opens the societys way of looking at non-violent means to conflict. Amid such an acknowledgement
that journalism and media have a place in peace building in the society, there have been mixed
perceptions regarding the role of media in peace. As such, while some scholars, analysts,
practitioners and commentators express appraisal, others usually critique the role of peace
journalism and its ability of serving as agents for peace building. Some analysts as exemplified by
Odero, (2010) argue that the relevance of peace journalism is context specific and it has much
relevance in places like Africa, Asia and South America. Journalism has also a role towards peace
and conflicts in all other parts of the world that are not necessarily in the developing and poor
world. In this session, an attempt is made to address the question as to whether peace journalism is a
solution to peace building or not. Efforts are therefore dedicated at assessing the features or
characteristics of peace journalism that are important in peace building and their relevance in
developing countries especially those in Africa. Besides, this part examines the appraisals and
criticisms labelled on the role of peace journalism in peace building.
Peace Journalism
As introduced earlier above, not all journalism can promote peace and therefore serve a purpose in
peace building. The famous model which is used to describe peace journalism is attributed as being
peace-oriented in the sense that it encourages non-violence and dialogue, fosters win-win outcomes,

51

it humanizes all parties to the conflict, focuses on mostly invisible impact of violence, it is
transparent and it is proactive and attempts to address potential conflicts before they break out and
fosters creativity. This can be achieved by editors and reporters making choices of what stories to
cover and about how to report them and this creates opportunities for society to consider and value
non-violent responses to conflict (Peleg, 2006, p. 5).
Additionally, peace journalism is truth-oriented by the fact that in all reports, attempts are made ad
exposing truths about all parties without favouring or discriminating against any one (Perez, 2006).
Other characteristics of peace journalism include being people oriented and solution-oriented
(Perez, 2006). There are other features associated with peace journalism. Odero (2010) puts forward
that peace journalism is and should be visionary, compassionate, responsible and ethical. The
features are not exhaustive.
Peace Journalism and Peace Building
Journalism that is characterized by all the discussed characteristics is said to be essential in helping
create a full functioning society politically, economically, socially and all other aspects of life
especially after war, efforts that are generally termed; peace building. Part of the explanation attached
on the ability of media or journalism at large to have potentials for peace building is that media is
instrumental in building a culture of peace, it is an agent of transformation and it is endowed with
formative powers (Odero, 2010). Media can help create a culture of peace by acting ethically,
refraining from perpetuating stereotypes, naming certain parties or by not instigating violence.
Similarly, media when used constructively serves as a tool to transform peoples beliefs, ways of
thinking and perception, promotes tolerance and compassion. As a result, a transformed society is
more likely to undergo a formative phase and hence becoming more peace-oriented.
On the other hand, the media performs various functions in relation to conflict prevention and
peace building. Among such functions include; serving as providers and interpreters of information,
acting as watchdogs, influencing policy makers, bridging parties to conflicts, promoting peace and
functioning as both diplomats and gatekeepers (Odero, 2010, p. 6). The media provides information
to people and analyses it and hence enables people to be informed and in some cases, such
interpretations may foster reactions. Investigative media also uncovers unknown and hidden
information and informs the public and hence serve as watch-dogs in the society and through the
various news coverage, media is influential to policy makers and shapes options, agenda and debates

52

for public policy. The media serve as diplomats when they pass message between and among parties
to a conflict of peace process such as negotiation or mediation and others and in so doing, they can
play a bridging role in the sense that relationships between parties may be strengthened or weakened
depending on what is communicated (Odero, 2010).
Is Peace Building a solution for Peace building?
While it cannot be totally disputed that peace journalism has a role in peace building, it is necessary
to assert categorically that is not a self-sustaining solution and a single answer to peace building. In
other words, peace journalism is useful when is employed as part of a large comprehensive approach
to the process. Part of the reasons as to why peace journalism is not the only solution to peace
building is the fact that it has inherent weaknesses that are expressed as criticisms to peace
journalism. The model of peace journalism whose features have been detailed in this section is
critiqued by various stakeholders, prominently among them being Edward, Said and Gadi Wolfsfeld.
Edward Said critiques peace journalism and argues that it can only help in peace building when the
biases of writers are taken into consideration, the forms used in reporting are properly shaped and
he also labels criticism based on orientalism, mainly depicting how Western media have been
reporting particularly regarding Islam (Perez, 2006).
The criticisms that are raised concerning peace journalism are relevant and when not considered
they limit the possibility and scope of peace journalism serving as constructive tools for peace
building. The question of writers bias for instance is very eminent and at times journalist fail to
balance between personal values and the reality they are supposed to report on. Even when
reporters are willing and ready to do their work objectively, sometimes their efforts are constrained
by the interests of their employers or other important stakeholders and hence all these limit the
ability of peace journalism to work as pathways for peace building. A case in point can be seen on
Western media reports on the Arab uprising in 2011 specifically on the Libyan crisis. During the
Libyan crisis, Western media reported that Gaddafi had given Viagra to his troops so as they could
conduct mass rape and also broadcasted widely the assertion that the Libyan leader had intended to
kill all opponents as rats (Arbuge, 2011). While it is true that Gaddafi had threatened to deal with
opponents as rats, he had not taken any action to implement his words but the media broadcasted it
and made it an agenda that helped justify invasion. Furthermore, neither the claims that Viagra was
given to soldiers nor evidences of mass rape could be evidenced on ground (Aburge, 2011).

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Wolfsfeld (2004 as cited by Perez, 2006) critiques peace journalism and advances that it is likely to
enhance peace building when there is a consensus with the political leadership that is in place. While
acknowledging the fact that there needs to be a consensus and partnership between peace journalism
and political elites if peace building is to succeed, it is also crucial to note that this cannot be the only
answer to a complex process of peace building. As an expression of the limitations of the
weaknesses of the views put forward by those who critique peace journalism, Perez (2006) contends
that although those who label criticism raise valid concerns in some ways, they do not provide an
alternative model for peace journalism and that Wolfsfelds call for consensus with the political
leadership fails to capture the complexity of peace building in the sense that it does not mention
other social, economic, environmental and other dimensions of conflicts that only when addressed
can sustainable peace be forged.
Peace building is in itself a multi-faceted process whose accomplishment cannot be reduced to a
mere work of peace journalism. A successful peace building requires long term dedicated efforts,
demands resources, addressing the root causes of conflicts, trauma, reconciliation and
reconstruction as well as other concerns. All these can never be expected to be settled simply by
peace journalism.
Conclusion
Throughout this session, it has been established categorically that journalism has a place in peace
building in all parts of the world. It has also been made clear that although journalism plays a
significant role in the process of peace building, it is definitely not the only one solution and that it
can only work as part of a larger strategy employed comprehensively to deal with stabilization of
post-conflict communities. To reveal how journalism can facilitate peace building, peace journalism
has been identified as embodying the necessary features fit for the role and most importantly, the
various roles that can be accomplished by media in both conflict prevention and peace building have
been thoroughly covered.

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Students will be able to know whether peace journalism is a solution or not.
They will integrate this knowledge on peace journalism into their local journalism
environments.
Students will not only possess the knowledge but will also use it during their final projects in
the writing of peace journalism materials.
4.4: Session Methodology:
Methodology/strategy Activities Resources
Debriefing (10 minutes) from
previous class or insights since
the last class.
At least each student will
contribute something from
the previous class.

Non-conventional Lecturing (1
hr) more discursive and
interactional on the possibilities
of peace journalism
Lecturer will do this by
throwing questions to
students as he/she lecturers.
This is a kind of probing to
see if students understand the
whole topic
Power point presentation
(slides) for the lecturer, laptop
and projector, text books
Questions and Answers Students will pose questions
and exchange them with
answers within the class. The
lecturer still remains a part of
the process
Manilas, flip charts. Etcetera
Small Group Discussions(20
minutes)
Students will go into groups
to discuss whether peace
journalism is possible for
peace building. This will be
Books, pens, manila papers,
clip boards, flip charts,

55

critical analysis.
Use of case studies where peace
journalism has worked and where
it has not worked
Students will share some
experiences that they know or
the teacher will frequently give
the lead in this.
Manila, flip charts,
markers

Group presentations where by each student will have to contribute to the presentation process; will
be a form of evaluation because it will help in knowing whether each student understands or not or
whether they are progressing in the topic or not. Questions and answers will be part of evaluation;
take away is a manifestation that students are moving with the lecturer
4.6. Readings:
(i). Required:
Lynch, J. (2007). Peace Journalism and its Discontents, 6(2), 1-13. Retrieved on July 1, 2012 from
http://www.cco.regener-online.de/2007_2/pdf/lynch.pdf
Odero, M. (2010). What is Peace Journalism; World Association of Christian Communicators
Seminar, Dar-es-Salam. Retrieved on July 2, 2012 from
http://africa.waccglobal.org/what%20is%20peace%20journalism_.pdf
(ii). Recommended
Sagaral, L (2007) Engendering Peace Journalism (1).A Presentation at the 3rd Women Making
Air Waves of Peace. NDFCAI-WED Training Center. Cotabato City

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Session 5: PRESENTATIONS ON THE INITIATIVES WITHIN PEACE JOURNALISM
Students will be required to work on their group presentation. This will enable them to learn how to
work in the group and learn the skills of being critical in analyzing issues. For group presentations,
this session will then focus on:
Enabling the students gain confidence in explaining the different ways of practicing peace
journalism through the initiatives and understand how they work in peace building.
Allowing students to discover the problems and challenges within these initiatives and to be
able to pave way for good journalism
To engage students in the creativity within peace journalism. This will allow them to apply
the knowledge within these initiatives to local journalism where the students come from.
5.2. Content:
There will be group presentations done by students on the initiatives within peace journalism. These
will contribute to the final grading that the students will acquire. Each group will contain 10 students
with a gender balance and this will enable exchange of ideas. Clarity of their ideas (projects) and
being precise and concise on aspects of the following initiatives will reward students high marks.
Institute for War and Peace Reporting www.iwpr.net
International Media Support Conflict Sensitive Journalism http://www.i-m-s.dk/
Peace Journalism Face book group
pagehttp://www.facebook.com/#!/group.php?gid=170638403613
Youngbloods Uganda Peace Journalism Project blog
http://stevenyoungblood.blogspot.com
Students will show in their presentation how these initiatives function, their agendas and roles in
peace journalism. This will lead them to check whether truly these initiatives are the best for peace
journalism or there ought to be addressing of the missing gap within the initiatives. What makes
these initiatives perform the way they are? What are the advantages and disadvantages? How far can
these initiatives address peace journalism? How different are they from the initiatives that existed

57

before? The most important part is students learning how to think new and form new ideas and not
rely on the ones that exist. This will in the end, create new scholars in the field of journalism ethics
and peace building. This is all done with the aim of thinking critical and developing future journalists
who are ethical and contribute to building peace.
At the end of the course, students will be equipped with confidence in explaining the initiatives
within peace journalism and understanding how they work in peace building. They will also discover
the problems and challenges within these initiatives and to be able to discover ways for better
journalism within peace journalism and then apply the knowledge within these initiatives to local
journalism where they come from.
Students present on what they
will have chosen from the
initiatives
The whole day will be
dedicated to presentation.
Manila papers, Markers,
laptops
Active listening and attentiveness Students who are not
participating in the
presentation will have to
respect this.

(slides), laptop and projector
Engaging the whole class in the
presentation
Presenters. Each individual
will have to present in that
group not leaving work for
some members. Marks will be
added for each ones
participation
Creativity
Question and answer (10
minutes) posing questions,
Students and facilitator engage
in asking and answering
Manila, projector, etcetera

58

feedback from non-presenters questions.
Group presentation that are lively and involve everyone will contribute highly to the grading.
Participation of the class in answering questions and contributing to the presentations even if one is
not in that group will be mean that the students are following. Take-away will be part of the
evaluation. This is expected to be a high academic exercise. Questions and answers will also act as
evaluation in this session.
5.6. Readings:
As for the presentations, students will find their own readings to help them in the presentations but
the following readings can also help them.
(i). Required.
Nathalie, H. (2011). Political Posturing and the Need for Peace Journalism in South Africa: The case
of Julius Malema. 41-55. Retrieved July 2, 2012 from
http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/5/0/0/5/5/p500553_i
ndex.html?phpsessid=c03670d95504b581b726a7e112fdb1a1
Arsenault, A., Powers, S., Putzel, J., Zwan, J. V. D., & States, C. (2011). IMS | Conflict
Sensitive Journalism: Moving Towards a Holistic Framework 1. Communications, (January), 1-9.
(ii). Recommended:
Youngblood, S. (2010). Peace/Conflict Sensitive Journalism Insights. Retrieved July 3,
2012 from http://stevenyoungblood.blogspot.com/2012/06/military-journalists-set-
aside.html
Lee, S. (2010). Peace Journalism: Principles and Structural Limitations in the News Coverage of
Three Conflicts. Journal of Mass Communication and Society, Issue (13) 4. Pp.361-384.

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Session 6: MEASURES FOR JOURNALISTS PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

The learners should be able to identify the different measures to promote journalists
professionalism
Appreciate the importance of media training of Journalists
Identify the measures for local journalists training
Analyze the relevance of western and local training of journalists in developing world.
6.2. Content
Media training of journalists can as well be termed as media development. Media development is
the strengthening local journalism and management skills, reforming the legal and regulatory
regimes, helping and nourishing civil society organizations that promote a free press, and building an
institutional environment that is conducive to the free flow of information and ideas (Kumar,
2006, p.3). It is an essential component of journalism that promotes professional growth in this
field. Media training is fundamental both in conflict and post conflict situations. There is need to
focus on international and local efforts to promote independent media in transition and post conflict
societies. To equip the journalists with skills, knowledge and information on various aspects of
reporting is ideal in peace building. According to Kumar (2006) the impetus for media
development came as a result of the down fall of the Soviet Union and its hegemony in Eastern
Europe and Asia. In most of these nations the media played a crucial role in exposing and
undermining authoritarian regimes. Thus, the need for journalists training gained momentum in the
world so that such dictatorial regimes and their activities could be addressed to the whole world

In addition, the horrible events in Rwanda 1994, plus the former Yugoslavia also contributed to the
impetus for media training and international involvement in media assistance (Kumar, 2006).
Kumar (2006), further contend that these events demonstrated to the whole world that the media
controlled by the state or ethnic factions can be a powerful force behind instigating and directing
violence. Therefore, media is used as a tool by the state and other actors in the conflict to gain
public attention, as put forward by Kumar:

60

As the media helps to define the nature and implications of latent or manifest conflict for
decision-makers and shapes public opinion, biased, intolerant, and inaccurate reporting of
events can inflame public passions and fears. On the other hand, balanced reporting can
reduce political tensions and contribute to the resolution of conflict Kumar, 2006, p3).

This is clear indication the professionalism in journalism is instrumental in peace building, thus
media training of journalists is fundamental so as to achieve peace in a given society.

It is worth noting that, programmes geared towards training of journalists aim at upgrading
journalistic skills and expertise (Kumar, 2006). Media development helps to improve the
professional skills and growth of print and broadcasting journalists. Kumar (2006) argues some of
the journalists in transitional and post-conflict societies like South Sudan lack adequate training and
facilities for journalists. Therefore, training of such journalists is important so as to promote peace
building. The training can be short-term, medium term and long-term training, and help to equip the
journalists with skills which can be readily applied. In addition, training provides a systematic and
comprehensive exposure for the trainees both in theory and practice of journalism (Kumar, 2004).

More still, there are multiplier effects of this journalism training. The journalists who acquire the
skills and expertise in one way or the other help other journalists to acquire those skills either
directly or indirectly, thus Multiplier Effect (Kumar, 2006). The journalists who receive such
training share their newly acquired expertise with their colleagues in the field of journalism. The
juniors can learn from the trained journalists either through watching them or assisting them during
broadcasting media. Additionally, the trained professional journalists may encourage the other
journalists to improve on their skills and may even avail them with educational and training facilities
(Kumar, 2006).

The underlying ideological assumptions about journalists training
Most of the media training of the journalists is based on the western models. Some of the
organizations and other agencies which offer training to journalists use the western curricula to train
the journalists. There is need to de-colonize journalism curricula and western practices of journalism
so as to put journalism in a wider context of African and non-western models of training

61

(Papoutsaki, 2007). Journalism training should be looked from the societys specific knowledge and
information needs. Thus, journalism training in the western and non-western countries requires
different approaches (Papoutsaki, 2007). If we are to achieve peace building in our communities, we
need training based on the given context and available situation. Papoutsaki (2007) further argues
that the content and delivery of the training materials require pedagogical and epistemological tool
which are different from the western pedagogy.
The journalism training categories can be conceptualized as ten fundamental questions, these include
the following (Deuze, 2006, p.24):
1. The motivation: why the training?
2. Paradigm: what (set of) ideologies that guide this training
3. Mission: what is the position of journalism training versus the media profession and its
publics?
4. Orientation: on what aspects of the journalism are the training based (e.g. the media, genres,
context and functions of journalism in a society?
5. Direction: what are the characteristics and behaviors of those who graduate from the
training?
6. Contextualization: in what social context is journalism training grounded?
7. Training: is Journalism training a socializing or an individual agent?
8. Curriculum: how is the balance between practical and contextual knowledge resolved most
especially in peace building?
9. Method: what is the structural or preferred pedagogy and what is the rationale behind this
pedagogy?
10. Management and Organization: How is journalism training organized?
Deuze (2006) asserts that, all these categories should be considered in the training because every
category has a Domino-Effect, thus one leads to the other.

62

Most developing countries have experience colonization and the imposition of western training
systems, and the local ways have been continuously undermined (Kawagley & Barhardt, 2006;
Thaman, 2003). With the globalization and continued western hegemonic practices in the field of
journalism affect the kind of training the journalists receive (Papoutsaki, 2007). Thus the journalism
training works under the western curricula; therefore, there is need for a de-westernized, de-
hegemonized local knowledge based training so as to enhance peace building.
Journalist Training as Western Oriented. What is the future for Journalism especially for
local Journalism?
It is imperative to note that the western model of training journalists still dominant in African, Asian
and Middle East regions. The curriculum, pedagogy is still western oriented, therefore, how local
journalism can achieve its purpose still remains a question to answer. According to Banda (2008),
the continuing dependence of developing world education systems on the western is uncontested,
largely due to the imposition of the colonialism and its postcolonial legacy. Banda further laments
that:
One of the instrumentalities used by the imperial nations to civilize the natives was
education. Its cultural foundations were those of the imperial nations, uprooting the natives
from their own histories, epistemologies and ontologies. African journalism education
reflects, in almost every conceivable way, Western forms of journalism training and
education (Banda, 2008, p.50)

This assertion clearly demonstrates how the journalists training in Africa and other parts of the
world continue to be western oriented. Thus, one may wonder whether, the media is directed
towards to meeting the western interests or conflicting societies interests. It is ideal that the
journalists be trained in line a given context so as to promote peace building in a given society rather
that achieving the western interests.
African journalism training continues to seek legitimization from the western media (Banda, Beukes-
Amiss, Bosch, Mano, Mclean &Steenveld 2007 as cited in Banda, 2008). The African media trainers
do not have enough resources to conduct indigenized training and generate local knowledge that can
be used to promote professionalism in the journalists. Steenveld et al (2007 as cited in Banda, 2008),

63

assert that even if this indigenous knowledge is generated, it has to be legitimized by the western
institutions due to the funding, peer review and other related processes in journalism. Thus, the lack
of self-reliance economically, continues to hinder Africas epistemic and ontological independence
and identity (Steenveld et al 2007). The training in Africa needs to address the local needs, and the
local journalists need to be trained so as to embrace the indigenous information in their work. The
practice of journalism needs to rediscover itself into journalistic agency (Steenveld et al 2007). In
the words of Banda (2008), the journalism agency can be creatively tapped into journalists training in
Africa. Banda (2008) further puts it forward that after all:
It is no use encouraging journalism students to collect interesting theories as if they were
geological or biological specimens, by way of a hobby. The responsibility is to give them
tools to apply a critical self-awareness to their own journalism setting(Lynch & McGoldrick,
2005, p.228 as cited in Banda 2008, p.50).

Banda (2008) provides how the local journalists in Africa can dissociate from the western
journalism. The African journalists training need to move at the same pace with journalistic practice
so as to yield results. Banda 2008 argues that African journalism has the raw materials to engage in
the deconstruction of western journalism and construct a training that resembles more than realities
in Africa. The future of local journalism depends on the construction of the pedagogy that is built
on the indigenous knowledge and underpinnings. Afro centric forms of journalism can effectively
support the peace building initiatives; therefore, effective training of journalists based on the
indigenous knowledge and information is essential for peace building in conflict societies.
6.3. Expected Outcomes
The students should demonstrate their ability in defining the media development or media training
of journalists, and identify the measures to facilitate the training of journalism. In addition the
participants should be able to challenge ideological assumptions underlying media training. The
students should also be in position to outline the basic assumptions for promoting indigenous
training of journalists rather that westernized training.

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From the previous class
Students will share what they
learnt the previous day
Non-conventional Lecturing (1
hr) more discursive and
interactional
Lecturer will lecturer on the
topic of media training of
journalists starting from what
is journalists training?
Questions and Answers Students will pose questions
The lecturer still remains a
part of the process as he
throws questions to the class.
Reflections and sharing Students will reflect on the
role of journalism training
especially in developing
countries. Has it had an
impact? Positive or negative?
Then students will share what
they have reflected

A small test will be given on the thought about journalism training and what the future is for
journalism training. Each will be required to participate in the discussion and suggest the key
takeaways from the session.

65

6.6. Readings
(i). Required:
Murphy, S. &Scotton, J. (1987). Dependency and Journalism Education in Africa Are There
Alternative Models. Africa Media Review, 1(3), African Council on Communication Education.
pp.11-35. Retrieved July 3, 2012 from
http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/africa%20media%20review/vo
l1no3/jamr001003003.pdf
Banda, F. (2008). The Interpretation of Conflict: Can Journalists Go Further? The case of Linking The
teaching and Training of Journalists to Constructing a Peace-building Role in the World. Retrieved on
July 4, 2012 from
http://www.rjr.ru.ac.za/rjrpdf/rjr_no28/interpretation_of_conflict.pdf
Becker, L. & Lowrey, W. (2000). Independent Journalism Training Initiatives: Their Impact on
Journalists and Journalism Education, James M. Cox Jr. Center for International Mass
Communication Training and Research College of Journalism and Mass Communication
University of Georgia. Pp.2-28. Retrieve on July 3, 2012, from
http://www.grady.uga.edu/coxcenter/Activities/Act_2000_to_2001/Materials00-
01/iamcr2001.pdf

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Session 7: NEW MEDIA AND PEACE BUILDING

To understand the impact of new media on journalism and peace building
To know that new media has challenged the definition of a journalist now than before
To get acquainted with the non-traditional methods of journalism like citizen journalism and
their role towards peace building
7.2. Content
Impact of New Media on Peace Building
What makes media new? What is fundamentally new? Grant (2008) sees a difference between new
media and traditional media. For the former, communication is no longer one way. Secondly, the
time compression is surprising. For example, when magazines were being edited in the traditional
media, months would be spent doing the work ready for publication and then printing would also
take some time and also the time spent waiting for comments from the audience is another aspect to
be looked at. This is exactly the opposite of new media. It takes an editor some few minutes and
other few minutes to publish and some more few minutes to get the comments back. There is a
universal access to simple publishing tools. As for new media, the magic lies in the internet and the
desire for people to access that new entertainment. Do not forget the advantages that new media
brings which are digitization, convergence, interactivity, networking sites like My-space, Face-book,
Twitter, Blogs, satellite channels etcetera and video exchange. These especially attract a biggest
number of the youth and elites (Grant, 2008).
To some people new media or new technology may mean small steps forward that are an
addition to what has been there. For example, the internet has been there for quite some time but
has brought Face book, Twitter, Blogs and now doing well in the Arab world and others. These are
step by step developments that have happened and the media has changed certainly. I prefer the idea
of thinking about this question historically and how media started and where it begun from. Like
Crain, (2008), he thinks that the term new media possesses its challenges ranging from the fact
that every new development is new at that time it is invented and the other fact is that all the new

67

media borrow from the old media. Zoe believes that new is about how long the new can travel how
far the content can travel. Satellite TV is now being able to reach a bigger audience and connecting
people and giving platform for new issues of the time (Grant, 2008).
With the advent of the new media, there came with it what we call world news media giants like the
CNN, Al-Jazeera, internet satellite and others that are not compared to the giants but still form part
of the main stream media like T.V channels and radios. There is another stream of new media like
Twitter, Face book, blogosphere and others that can attract a majority people into the cafes and
internet. This new media advancement has been in existence over the last 20 years and this period
has seen a number of developments in the way people learn from the news and a kind of interaction
that has caused more internet involvement of the youths, elites, the Muslim world and citizens
becoming journalists. For example, bloggers in the Arab world have taken on the role of writing and
speaking about the political and social platforms within the Arab world where even many bloggers
have risked their lives to die and others have been tortured. All these are brought to peoples latest
mobile device through clicking on a topic that a person wants and leaving out what he does not
want to watch (Megumi, 2008). The internet also becomes a kind of a place where issues on politics
and the social dimension are discussed. Since then, the new media has come along with good and
bad things especially on the side of peace building. They include the following:
New media is blamed for fanning flames of conflict such as transmitters, social media and some
traditional form of media like television through their broadcasts and untruthful. The best example
of interest is the Rwanda Hate Radio in 1994 where radio RTLM played a significant role in
igniting the genocide in Rwanda which caused loss of lives and psychological traumas. In 2007 in
Kenya, radios were instruments of hate and violence and mobile phones acted as instruments for
communication of violence. However, media has been used to bring people together instead of
dividing them through social network aspect of the web 2.0 which allows people to interact and
make dialogue for peace and social change. For the sake of peace building, the new media has
helped in focusing on humanity and human rights and the world issues such as conflicts, starvation,
development issues and democracy which allows for empowerment of the people through the
improved communication. This should not rule out the fact that not all new media is pro-peace.
Some new media have contributed greatly to the global digital divide like use of mobile phones to
divide among tribes and cultures; a case of Kenya among the kikuyu and the Luo, Kikuyu and
Kalenjins.

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New Media Impact on Journalists Effort towards Peace Building
New media does not exclude journalists, in fact it does impact more on journalists because
journalists are more involved in the digital age than anybody else and within this age, the journalist
of today has become different from the journalist of before. The reason for this is that the
journalists of before had the role of making sure that the content of the news was handed over to
the audience without any other person. The journalist was the ultimate giver of the content without
contamination of this information. On the other hand, the journalist of today has been
overshadowed by the citizens who are now able to also make news and provide their own content of
the news. The impact is the loss of meaning in the role of the traditional journalist and getting
swallowed up in the trend of citizen journalists. To this end it is also important to know that new
journalism ought to work hand in hand with traditional journalism to bring out effective journalism
as both have effects on peace building. The journalist today stands high chances for this effect both
positive and negative.
Porter, (2009) shares his thought on some of the challenges of new media to journalists. He
advances that as new media comes into play today, there are challenges that threaten the journalists
working role and their role in news making. For example the advent of social media like twitter, face
book and others, pose challenges for journalism today because these social media platforms are
more educative to the public than journalism and people get more involved in these social networks
than waiting for traditional journalism to make news for them. The reason why people have lost
interest in traditional journalism is because citizen journalism for example what Eli, (2007) believes
that citizen journalism is more participatory and makes people creative thinkers who contribute yet
traditional journalism does not give room for that as it only gives a daily routine of provision of
news. Again journalism today has little pay and yet journalists work so hard while gathering news
and this makes for tired and bored journalists who cannot provide efficient and effective work. The
other is a challenge of competition with other media outlets as each media outlet struggles to have
the best-selling stories that attract the audience (Porter, 2009). Sambrook (2009) adds that all these
challenges impact on the journalist and makes a declining impact on the journalists role as a gate
keeper of information. They are swept by what is new now. Journalists have moved from being the
gatekeeper of information to sharing it in a public space (Bunz, 2009). So if journalists who have this
access are manipulated by the new platforms for new media, then this impacts on both the

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journalists traditional role of providing information. All this is manifested in the way journalists act
while on duty for instance during coverage of a conflict.
Social media has caught the attention of journalists as journalists have also become citizen
journalists. For example, some journalists have become both citizen journalists and professional
journalists. For example, Pawe Rogaliski, a prized Polish blogger and journalist (The Hunter
Citizen, 2012).This is because journalists also come from and live in a social surrounding of which
they are not excluded from that social setting. What is offered on social media becomes attractive
for journalists and at the same time, social media stories attract audiences which in the end influence
the professional journalist to get involved in citizen journalism. For example phones have also
contributed to journalists social media interaction as they use them to trace information from
citizens especially in conflict /disaster. For instance, Ushahidi in Kenya where mobile phones were
used to trace people alive or dead after the 2007 post violence elections
How New Media Challenges the Definition of a Journalist
According to Balci (2011), new media today gives a journalist a greater role to play because of the
challenges that have come along with new media. He says that journalists are expected to master far
more tools and platforms than before (Balci, 2011, n.p.). This is because of the change in
technology and new social media challenge on the side of the citizen journalists. To this end the role
of journalist has been redefined. Hermida (2010) on this point also says that the role of a journalist
today is determined by three forces of media technologies, professionalism and the society whereby
all these three affect a journalist positively or negatively.
Journalism today portrays new ways of reporting which encourage more participation, interaction
with the audience and exchanging ideas and thoughts. Todays journalism challenges conventional
journalism and its ethics which seems outdated. The journalist today has become part of the active
citizen that participates in social media; making the professional journalist questions his past ethics
in a global changing world. For example, the journalists gate keeping role has been erased by new
media whereby gate keeping taught a journalist how to defend his profession even with dilemmas
about the profession which is the opposite today (Mugira, 2009). For example, BBC News executive
Horrocks describes this mindset as fortress journalism where journalists see their work as to be

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defended. This has resulted in the static nature of journalism from of old to today and this has
impacted on their roles of peace building even amidst technology advancement.
From my own analysis, the question is that if everybody else can make news and publish and write,
then what role are journalists playing? This question leaves no role for journalists to play today since
everyone is in search for news and updates. What is expected of a journalist today? Can he/she write
meaningful news to the audience? Can she/he make an impact felt now?
When it comes to traditional media, like newspapers, Hermida in his quote explores this. He says
that:
New media technologies do not just offer journalists new ways of doing their old job. A
newspaper online is not the same as a newspaper in print. On paper, the newspaper delivers
a bundle of stories, ads and amusements, such as the crossword puzzle. On the web, the
newspaper package is unbundled into individual fragments. The stable, hierarchy of
information in the printed newspaper falls apart online (Hermida, A, 2010.n.p.).
The above quote means that the new media is more meaningful to the people than what exists from
of old. People actually fall for what is new than what is old, as Hermida puts it that information on
the web is unbundled into fragments because everybody reads it and is more interested in the news
online because of technology influence and its new technology.

How do Non-Traditional Journalistic Activities like Citizen Journalism contribute to Peace
Building?
The advent of new information and communication technologies (ICTs) came with it another
regime of possibilities of citizen journalism. The role of the citizen journalists is a sensitive topic
while discussing new media because it contributes a part of the development today as it promotes
citizen participation. The other way to approach the topic is citizen journalism is the definition of
technology. This means that citizen journalism can also happen outside new media technologies
(Banda, 2010). The following implications for citizen journalism are explained by Banda, and they
provide a basis for the role of citizens and democracy (2012, p.8.).

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There is a plurality of media platforms, theoretically providing more opportunities for citizens to
experiment with citizen-journalistic communication.
There is so much competition for sources of information that the base of possible sources is likely
to be diversified, suggesting that conventional journalism will rely on citizen journalists for some of
its production. Arguably, this is likely to result in greater use of people hitherto marginalized from
mainstream media.
There is a greater opportunity for citizens to own their own media and counter the effects of years
of reportorial neglect occasioned by an unhealthy concentration of media ownership.
With new media outlets set up in far flung areas, such as community radio stations, the likelihood
of achieving universal access to media by citizens is such that it could fuel interest in localized forms
of journalism, including citizen journalism.

The above implications are essential because they manifest the role of that citizens have in
promoting democracy and the rights to freedom. Their emergency on the new media platform is an
initiative that has empowered them in reporting on societal issues and their participation in making
news. Thus making a difference in the conventional type of journalism which only looks at a
journalist as a professional and the need to protect their profession without doing exactly what the
profession requires of them.

Glaser, (2006) defines citizen journalism as an unprofessional training that employs methods of
modern technology with the use of the internet to make, or bring about a change in the media or to
enhance a change in the way the media functions. Citizen journalism can work on its own or with
others through the use of blogs in an online forum as the common instrument for achieving their
goals of journalism traditional media change. This has much to do with enhancing a change in the
mainstream media and its traditional ways of journalism and ways of finding correct mistakes in the
blogs. It is about correcting the wrong in the mainstream media and finding new ways of how to
address the problem through modern ways of the media. Citizen journalism aims at making a
difference in developing a balanced story that awakens readers thinking so that they are able to act
according to a certain situation.

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How does Citizen Journalism contribute to Peace Building?
New journalistic activities that have come with the advent of new media have been significant
towards the process of peace building as they portray a difference in the lives of the people. Eli,
(2007) asserts that for example citizen journalism:

Citizen Journalism epitomizes the belief that the experiences of people personally involved
with an issue, present a different and often more complete picture of events than can be
derived from the perspective of an outsider. Due to limitations of access and time and in
some cases ulterior motives to present just one side of a story, traditional reporting risks at
least the perception of being skewed. By granting access to anyone to cover the news, citizen
journalism presents a more personal, nuanced view of events and has the potential to
cultivate communities of people with a common interest. Through blogs, citizen journalists
have broken stories about political corruption, police brutality, and other issues of concern
to local and national communities (Eli, 2007, p.4)

Eli, (2007) highlights the importance of objective thinking within citizen journalism as it brings
citizen involvement in the ideas and events presented. As citizens participate in giving answers to the
events at hand, they in one way contribute to new ideas in the social, political and economic world,
hence making a free flow of information from the citizen journalists to the citizens participation in
the world. This implies that the citizen journalists facilitate the participation of the other citizens
thinking and connectivity in the world of ideas. When this kind of flow of information takes place,
there exists a friendly relationship and a transparent exchange of ideas that create a harmonious
society and a mature way of solving problems and issues.

What could be the Future for New Media on Peace Building?

First and foremost, its quite important to remember that media today, may not be the same media
tomorrow as we live in a world of rapid technological advancement which brings with it new ideas
and creative minds as people participate. As technology advances, even journalists in future will
change their ways of reporting. This enables prediction of new ways of reporting for journalists in
future which will involve a more advanced means which allows even citizen being able to report

73

news since everybody will be involved in the new media arena. Social networks too are creating a
platform for democratic societies to actively participate in the new media and a further need for
more involvement in bigger networks that can go beyond media and connect to other networks
outside media to cause development. When these networks are created, peoples attitudes, behavior
and feeling will grow bigger and greater that even developing countries will have to move with this
pace because they have access to these big data. Its possible that more social networks will create
more ground for peace building initiatives that may be done on the internet and people will have to
manage them online and solve problems on the internet. On the contrary, future media may still
contribute to further conflicts as it creates a society of individuals who mind about their own lives
and not the lives of others. I think each will be alone and none will mind about the other. The new
media that time may be, 20 years from now, may look totally different from what it is today.

There is a possibility in future that new media in 20 years to come will bring about more increased
freedom of expression for the people as each will have the opportunity to express important issues
of peace building. I also suspect that most societies in future with the newest media will live in
democratic societies where each ones rights will be respected and people will be able to live in
harmony since this is the whole debate about peace building. With the newest media that time, I
project that new media and peace building will speak the same language, will have symbiotic
relationship as each will feed from the other.

7.3. Learning Outcomes

Students will have knowledge on how new media impacts on journalism Students will
embrace the fact that new media has changed the whole description of who a journalist is.
This means that it has affected a journalist of today both positively and negatively.
Students will be able to apply the knowledge on non-traditional methods into their own local
journalism settings.

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At least each student will
contribute something from
the previous class.

Non-conventional Lecturing Lecturer will lecture through
using a participatory kind of
approach that engages critical
thinking of students on the
subject
Questions and Answers Students will be expected to
ask as many questions as
possible because this
contributes to their final
grading
Small Group Discussions(20
minutes)
Students will go into groups
and discuss the different new
media tools and discuss how
each has contributed to
further conflict (for example
hate speech) or peace. They
can as well give examples
here. They will then present
this in their small groups
Students will be asked to think of
anything especially from their
Here students will take this as
a take home and they will be
Manila, flip charts, YouTube,

75

local settings of something that
can best lead to peace. It can be a
concept in local languages, it can
be a word, it can be anything and
see how students can incorporate
it in the peace building arena. For
example, the concept of
Ubuntu. This can range from
cultures
expected to work in groups
and present this in class. It
will begin the classes the
following day.
markers
7.5. Readings:
(i). Required:
Nishikura, M. (2008).Thesis Summary: How New Media Contributes to Peacebuilding. New Media
Technology: The Next Platform in Peace building. Retrieved July 5, 2012 from
http://luvmegumi.blogspot.com/2008/05/thesis-summary-how-new-media.html
Hermida, A. (2010). Rethinking the Role of the Journalist in the Participatory Age. University of
British Columbia. Retrieved July 6, 2012 from
http://www.pbs.org/mediashift/2010/07/rethinking-the-role-of-the-journalist-in-the-
participatory-age190.html
(ii). Recommended:
Eli, (2007). Things You Should Know About Citizen Journalism. Scenario. Educause Learning
initiative. Retrieved July 2 2012 from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI7031.pdf
Glaser, M. (2006). Your Guide to Citizen Journalism. Media Shift. Retrieved July 2 2012 from
http://www.pbs.org/mediashift/2006/09/your-guide-to-citizen-journalism270.html

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Session 8: GUEST SPEAKER FOR ONE DAY ON THE ROLE OF JOURNALISM ETHICS AND PEACE
BUILDING.
To have and understand more from lived experiences on journalism ethics and Peace
building
To get a different picture of what is being explained about journalism ethics and peace
building
To obtain real examples from the guest speaker and his experience on this topic.
8.2. Content:
Having a change in the class dynamics by inviting a guest speaker makes the whole teaching process
more meaningful; through a new knowledge and an experienced person who has either gone
through the same experience or one who has taught it to others. This gives an informed knowledge
on the topic. So a guest speaker is there to address what may seem of doubt. The topic of journalism
ethics and peace building; really calls upon having a guest speaker because the university of Uganda
martyrs does not have any department or faculty on mass communication or media studies.
Secondly, the class is a mixture of students from all backgrounds and professions. So this means that
if the class receives a guest speaker on this topic, there is a possibility that he/she will highlight more
on what mass communication does in particular. This is pedagogical teaching method and more
creative to break the monotony of the daily teaching of the teacher. This enriches the student in one
way or the other and a wider focus of ideas.

A guest speaker never at one time becomes a substitute but instead he/she is just a guest of which
the teacher should not absent herself/himself while the guest speaker gives his ideas. Inviting guest
speakers means putting across issues and putting across real life journeys (Mullins, 2001).While
inviting a guest speaker, there a few things that the teacher ought to put into consideration especially
before the guest speaker comes to give his talk. These normally help both the guest speaker and the
teacher and the students to have a focus of what they need during the guest speakers stay. They also
help to make things flow in the right direction as the class wishes it. Preparation before will highlight
what will be talked about during the guest speakers stay (Purcell, 2011, n.p.). They include:

77

1. Know with the class what structure will be followed when the guest speaker come. The
structure can include guest speakers presentation followed by questions and answers; or
inquire from the class what topics they would like to put forward when the guest comes; or
sort of an interview questionnaire to be given to the guest speaker. This will act as a basis for
what the speaker will talk about and in this case, the students will follow what the guest
speaker will be talking about. Hence the good role of a guest speaker (Purcell, 2011).
2. At this point, the students ought to know what you will talk about and they are not biased
toward what they ought to get from the teacher and guest speaker.
3. Let students know what is going on beforehand. Dont take them unawares. This helps them
not to have too much expectations or too low expectations. Their clarity on things makes
the whole preparation for the guest speaker clearer. It is also useless inviting a guest speaker
yet this will not be applicable either in the exams or in their lives. Is there a possibility of
making a report out of the guests visit?
4. Everything ought to be in the right order even when the guest speaker comes. They need to
know the place and time when to be there when the guest comes.

Preparation for everything is really important as it makes success inevitable. If there is need for
preparing the projector, manilas, markers, and the internet test and all that the guest will need, this
can be important. This will make every time spent successful at the end of the day to the teacher,
students and guest speaker (Purcell, 2011, n.p.)

At the end of the session, learners will have acquired basic knowledge features on the topic of
journalism ethics and peace building. Acquisition of critical listening and assessment skills will be an
achievement.

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By students(participatory in
nature)

Teaching, methodology and
activities to be done will be
decided by the guest speaker
Guest speaker in the areas of
journalism ethics and peace
building. Can be a journalist
and projector, questions and
answers etc.
A talk from the guest ( a whole
day)
.Guest speaker in the areas of
building. Can be a journalist
Presentation, manilas, markers
and whatever he wishes to
help him/her in the sharing
Questions and answers or
insights by the students
Students, teacher and guest
speaker all get involved in
this.
-do-

This session will be evaluated by the debriefing activity at the beginning of the class before the guest
speaker. A take away activity will help to evaluate the learners understanding of experiences shared
by guest speakers. Students will also be evaluated by the questions and the answers in class and yet
will also in a sentence say what inspired them in class and what they learnt.
8.6. Readings
The readings here will be provided by the guest speaker some days before he/she comes to give his
talk. This is because the preparation process will have given them a hint of what they will be doing
with the guest speaker.

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Session 9: VISIT TO UMCAT-SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM FOR 2 DAYS
The purpose of the students visiting the school of journalism is first and foremost that; Uganda
Martyrs University does not have an established department of faculty on mass communication
studies of journalism. Secondly because the students that will be taught will be a mixture of different
professions; of which some students do not have the experience. And so Uganda Martyrs University
would like to visit the School of Journalism for 2 days. The objectives for this are;
To provide students with an opportunity to study with people actively engaged in daily
journalism;
To provide the recipient with an opportunity to think, write and teach about journalistic
issues especially that lead to peace building.
Students will be able to interact with the students from the school of journalism and share
with our students what exactly happens in journalism
This visit will act as an eye opener to the management of Uganda Martyrs University to
begin a school of journalism in Uganda Martyrs University. Because students will present
reports about the visit to the conference within the university
9.2. Content.
UMCAT means United Media Consultants and Trainers. It is a leading privately run media training
institution in Uganda which provides progressive and highly relevant training and education in
journalism and mass communication. The school is under the Directorate of training of UMCAT, a
company registered and incorporated under section 16(1) of the companies Act of the Republic of
Uganda. It begun in 1996 and attracts students from the whole of East Africa, West Africa and far
East. It is therefore important that students that will take this course will have a very and special
time to visit this school of journalism for purposes that are mentioned above in the objectives.
Students will then write a small report of one page on what transpired during the 2 days. In this they
will write about in summary what the professors in the school taught and what they learnt. This will
act as a basis for finding whether the visit was a waste of time or not. This will contribute to the
grading too at the end of the course.

80

These reports written by students will be used for presentations in Uganda Martyrs University as a
trigger for a future thought of building a school of journalism or mass media. This school is really
advocated for in Uganda martyrs University to help students know the role that media plays in
society since all students come from the society. Development too should be defined in terms of
media communication and its functions. This will help remind the students that media has always
acted as a tool for violence like the case of Rwanda. Students in this course come from different
countries from East Africa where the media has been instrumental in causing violence but at the
same time peace.
Students will have the new added knowledge form the school of journalism which they will
use in their final report.
They will be equipped with the ability to think, write and teach about journalistic issues
especially those that relate to peace building.
The interaction from other students from the school of journalism will act as an intriguing factor to
have a school in Uganda Martyrs University.

Students will be given some prior
knowledge on where they are
going. Scho0l of journalism. That
will be a day before.
Students will be required to
prepare in advance

81

Visit the school-UMCAT

Teachers in the school of
journalism will give a 2 day
lecturer on the general role of
building. Students will be
expected to be active and be
attentive
Books, pens for students.
Projector, laptop and all the
other teaching aids for the
teachers, will be needed.
Observation and active
participation on the visit and
interaction
Students will interact with the
other students on basis of
learning. Friendship can also
be a tool for learning
Field necessities
Findings from the visit to the
school of journalism

Students will write a one page
report in summary of what
they learnt and what is
instrumental in journalism for
peace building.
books, pens,
This visit will enable students
more concentration on to their
final project
Students will take like a whole
semester thinking of what to
write for their project. This
will be the final grading level
and the highest because it will
be more practical and
crowning what has been
studied and learnt.
Papers, pens, sharing, and all
that students feel will help
them during this project.
Students will be evaluated on how they have been active during this school visit, their contributions
to the visit, the kinds of reports they will write and their outcomes from these reports.

82

9.6. Readings
Readings will be provided while at the visit to the school of journalism. Students are also expected to
find their own personal readings to help them in getting more knowledge on the whole course.

83

Session 10: WRITING A PROJECT ON DEVELOPMENT JOURNALISM

The reason for choosing development journalism is because Uganda is a developing country in all
spheres of development yet development journalism entails journalism that addresses the
development of a country with the help of the government. It is about addressing all problems from
the grassroots level in order to help reach development and journalists being the voice of the people.
This is seen in session one where we saw the theory of development journalism. This theory can
work very well in such countries as Uganda. This is the reason why students will be able;
This project is to raise plenty of questions about development journalism and the medias
accountability in Uganda and other countries.
To know how to address some development problems like elections and which role
journalists can play in this.
The project will be able to help in addressing problems of local journalism settings and
rectify the problem within journalism which prevents peace building process to flourish.
10.2. Content:
Anywhere in any school or university, the purpose for projects is a learning tool that helps students
to widen their levels of technical writing skills and apply the knowledge in their own local settings in
this context local journalism. This then becomes important as Becky, (2010) believes that projects
help in tracing how far students can go in applying the practical knowledge and helping students to
grow in that area. Sometimes students find themselves there and their potential other than tests
which only limit them from being more practical. She still believes that projects enhance a different
kind of learning different from home; thats kind of creativity.
1. For this project, students will choose a project on the areas that involve addressing
grassroots problems. Students will do these projects using a development journalism language
2. This project will be done using development journalism techniques and students should
imagine themselves as journalists reporting about this problem. They ought to write articles
from this and will find which language to use; they will know which ethics can apply and
how a journalist would report on that certain issue.

84

3. Students will choose topics of interest for their project. Students may choose to write audio
documentaries or visual documentaries.
4. Students can inquire more about this project through the lecturer throughout the entire
semester.
10.3. Learning Outcomes
Students will be able at the end of this course to;
Understand development journalism and the medias accountability in Uganda and other
countries.
Discover whether media organizations can work in the long term with NGOs and charities
and which ethics can apply to this
To know how to address certain problems that happen at the lowest levels of the society and
which role journalists can play in this.
Help in addressing problems of local journalism settings and rectify the problem within
journalism through conflict sensitive journalism which leads to peace building.

85

Choose a project. Choose any
topic of interest for their project
Students Consultations, they can watch
videos or listen to audios to
find how best to do it. You
Tube can be a resource.
Students imagine themselves as
journalists

Students do this through
intensive going through which
project will require all this

Use of Radio campaigns, audio
documentaries and visual
documentaries or a seminar
campaign
Students will show the
essentials of peace journalism,
on covering elections for
example; so as to discourage
violence.
Aspects on journalism that
promotes societal
development and encourages
reconciliation rather than
violence; will be applied.

All the necessary requirements
for students
Consultations from lecturer Students will consult as much
as possible when possible.

Handing in of the final projects At the end of the semester,
students will hand in their
projects.

86

Students will be evaluated on how best they can do the project. Consultations from the
lecturer will mean a lot here to the lecturer and will help serious students to know how
they are progressing. Sometimes, students will have small meetings to evaluate their
progress on these projects and the lecturer will have to be present to direct them.

10.6. Readings
Students will find the readings themselves to help them in the projects they are writing.
This will be upon consultation still from the lecturer.

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Annex 1
(International Principles of Professional Ethics in Journalism)

Principle IV: The journalist's professional integrity
The social role of the journalist demands that the profession maintain high standards of integrity,
including the journalist's right to refrain from working against his or her conviction or from
disclosing sources of information as well as the right to participate in the decision-making of the
medium in which he or she is employed. The integrity of the profession does not permit the
journalist to accept any form of bribe or the promotion of any private interest contrary to the
general welfare. Likewise, it belongs to professional ethics to respect intellectual property and, in
particular, to refrain from plagiarism.
Principle V: Public access and participation
The nature of the profession demands that the journalist promote access by the public to
information and participation of the public in the media, including the right of correction or
rectification and the right of reply.
Principle VI: Respect for privacy and human dignity
An integral part of the professional standards of the journalists is respect for the right of the
individual to privacy and human dignity, in conformity with provisions of international and national
law concerning protection of the rights and the reputation of others, prohibiting libel, calumny,
slander and defamation.
Principle VII: Respect for public interest
The professional standards of the journalist prescribe due respect for the national community, its
democratic institutions and public morals.

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Principle VIII: Respect for universal values and diversity of cultures
A true journalist stands for the universal values of humanism, above all peace, democracy, human
rights, social progress and national liberation, while respecting the distinctive character, value and
dignity of each culture, as well as the right of each people freely to choose and develop its political,
social, economic and cultural systems. Thus the journalist participates actively in social
transformation towards democratic betterment of society and contributes through dialogue to a
climate of confidence in international relations conducive to peace and justice everywhere, to
dtente, disarmament and national development. It belongs to the ethics of the profession that the
journalist be aware of relevant provisions contained in international conventions, declarations and
resolutions.
Principle IX: Elimination of war and other great evils confronting humanity
The ethical commitment to the universal values of humanism calls for the journalist to abstain from
any justification for, or incitement to, wars of aggression and the arms race, especially in nuclear
weapons, and all other forms of violence, hatred or discrimination, especially racialism and
apartheid, oppression by tyrannical regimes, colonialism and neocolonialism, as well as other great
evils which afflict humanity, such as poverty, malnutrition and diseases. By so doing, the journalist
can help eliminate ignorance and misunderstanding among peoples, make nationals of a country
sensitive to the needs and desires of others, ensure respect for the rights and dignity of all nations,
all peoples and all individuals without distinction of race, sex, language, nationality, religion or
philosophical conviction.
Principle X: Promotion of a new world information and communication order
The journalist operates in the contemporary world within the framework of a movement towards
new international relations in general and a new information order in particular. The new order,
understood as an integral part of the New International Economic Order, is aimed at the
decolonization and democratization of information and communication, both nationally and
internationally, on the basis of peaceful coexistence among peoples and with full respect for their
cultural identity. The journalist has a special obligation to promote the process of democratization of

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international relations in the field of information, in particular by safeguarding and fostering peaceful
and friendly relations among states and peoples.
Source: Consultative Club of International and Regional Organizations of Journalists, 1983. Paris.
(http://ethicnet.uta.fi/international/international_principles_of professional_ethics_in_journalism.)

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