Mathematics Textbooks, Materials, and Manipulatives

Monica A. Lambert
Florida Atlantic University
Research indicates that math difficulties of students with learning disabilities (LD) begin in the
elementary years and continue throughout high school (Mercer, 1992). For example, at the
elementary level, students have problems with basic facts and computation that often continue
through secondary school. For many students with LD, poor instruction is a primary cause of
their math difficulties (Carnine, 1991; Cawley, Fitzmaurice-Hays, & Shaw 1988; Hammill &
Bartel, 1995; Kelly, Gersten, & Carnine, 1990). Also, the quality of curriculum design can have
a significant impact on student learning (Kelly et al., 1990).
Numerous mathematics textbooks, materials, and manipulatives are available to assist
teachers in providing instruction to students with LD. However, textbooks, materials, and
manipulatives should be carefully evaluated before they are used in the classroom to ensure that
they meet student needs. Teachers can adapt and enhance the content of traditional basals to best
meet the students' needs (Kelly et al. 1990) (see Lock in this series for adaptations ideas). The
purpose of this article is to describe features of (a) mathematics textbooks, (b) commercially-
prepared materials that may be used to supplement textbooks, and (c) manipulatives that are
effective in teaching skills and concepts.
MATHEMATICS TEXTBOOKS
Textbooks
This section focuses on a description of mathematics textbooks commonly found in most
classrooms, a discussion of their strengths and weaknesses, considerations for using textbooks,
and modifications for students with LD. Mathematics textbooks are an integral part of instruction
for the classroom teacher. Typically, textbooks are the core of mathematics instruction. They
consist of sequentially planned materials for teachers and students in grades K-6 (Silbert,
Carnine, & Stein, 1981), and are designed for students who are learning math for the first time
(Silbert et al., 1981). Textbooks are divided into units according to topics for a school year. In
general, math textbooks serve as useful guides with a scope and sequence for the teacher to
follow, and include goals and objectives, lesson ideas, practice exercises, and enrichment
activities. Individual units focus on related skills such as numeration, addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and so forth (Silbert et al., 1981).
Textbooks serve as a guide for teaching the goals and objectives of the curriculum.
Unfortunately, in many classrooms the mathematics textbook is the sole determinant of the
content of daily instruction, thus, the structure of the textbook defines the curriculum. Many
teachers may start at page one and continue through the text page by page, based on the
assumption that following the sequence designed by experts" is best practice. Consequently, the
concepts taught may be determined only by how much of the text material is covered by the end
of the school year.
According to Carnine (1991) teachers, on the average, spend less than 30 minutes of
instructional time on some topics throughout the school year. This teaching for exposure is due
to the number of topics covered in textbooks (Carnine, 1991). Teachers are trying to cover too
many topics in a year; this maybe a result of the spiral curriculum that was designed to add
successive depth instead of superficial coverage of topics each year (Engelmann, Carnine, &
Steely, 1991).
The scope and sequence of most textbooks at the elementary level (K-S) cover number
concepts, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, decimals, fractions, time, money, and
measurement. Often the teacher does not begin teaching unfamiliar concepts, such as fractions,
until the tenth or twelfth week (Schmalz, 1990) as a result of following the textbook sequence.
Teachers of students with LD should assess students' math levels and use this information as a
guide along with the student's Individualized Education Program (IEP) to determine an
appropriate scope and sequence for designing an individualized instructional program. Schmalz
(1990) recommended making an outline of the topics to be covered during the year, first
introducing new topics then covering topics to which students have been exposed (e.g.,
numeration, reading and writing numbers, basic facts in addition, subtraction, multiplication). In
fact, looking at the textbook as a guide rather than a determiner of daily instruction best meets
the needs of students with LD (Schmalz, 1990).
Strengths and Weaknesses
Because textbooks are common materials in classrooms, they should be analyzed carefully in
terms of strengths and weaknesses for students with learning problems. One strength of
textbooks is their comprehensiveness. They include most of the scope and sequence of
elementary mathematics instruction (Silbert et al., 1981). Some textbooks also provide a course
and placement guide that indicates the number of days to allow for instruction in each chapter.
However, there are several weakness in textbooks. First, there is the lack of specificity
(Silbert et al., 1981); that is, they do not include specific directions or strategies for how to
present skills or correct student errors. Second, textbooks offer inadequate practice and review as
a result of the spiral curriculum design (Silbert et al., 1981) in which each mathematical concept
is expanded year after year but insufficient time is spent on concepts during each school year.
The goal of the spiral curriculum is to add depth to topics each year, but due to the amount of
concepts presented, the result is inadequate coverage of many topics year after year (Engelmann,
Carnine, & Steely, 1991). Porter (1989) reported that a large percentage of topics in mathematics
receive only brief coverage during the school year.
Third, textbook designs offer a particular instructional sequence if teachers follow a
chapter-by-chapter progression. According to Woodward (1991), textbooks favor massed
practice (concentrated practice), lack adequate distributed practice (over time and content), and
emphasize mixed practice (different skills and concepts). Inadequate practice may explain some
of the confusion and inconsistent error patterns often demonstrated by students with LD. Lack of
distributed practice does not allow for generalization and maintenance of skills, and mixed
practice, it presented too quickly, can contribute to confusion and lack of mastery.
Fourth, textbooks lack specific strategies to teach concepts and skills (Silbert et al.,
1981). This is especially problematic for students with LD who must be taught a step-by-step
plan for solving mathematical problems (Goldman, 1989). Engelmann et al. (1991) identifies six
deficiencies based on a review of evaluation results of math textbooks:
1. Insufficient instruction in prior knowledge (e.g., definitions of key terminology).
2. Rate of concept introduction is too fast.
3. Strategies in text are too general.
4. Many instructional activities are unclear.
5. Inadequate transition from guided practice to independent practice.
6. Reviews of previously learned material is sparse or omitted.
Considerations for Using Textbooks
Textbooks should be used wisely to meet the individual needs of learners. For example, the
textbook can be an excellent guide and resource for developing scope and sequence based on the
students' IEPs. The text can then be supplemented by manipulatives and daily review and
practice of previously learned skills in order to reinforce mastery. Special worksheets also can be
designed for practice instead of using the problems in the textbook. This enables the teacher to
limit the number of problems and to select problems that best cover the skill learned. Teachers
should also try to teach math units or themes (see Kataoka & Patton in this series), incorporating
a variety of materials to meet the needs of students at all skill levels. Table 1 offers questions for
teachers to consider when selecting textbooks.
Modifications for Students with Learning Disabilities
Textbooks may need to be modified to meet individual needs of students with LD. In this
respect, it is important to keep in mind the student's instructional level and IEP goals and
objectives. Students with LD must be taught specific strategies for math problem-solving. They
may need (a) extra practice to reach mastery; (b) shortened assignments, as opposed to the 30 to
50 problems given in the textbook and on worksheets; and (c) maintenance practice on
previously mastered skills to ensure continued mastery of the concept. The following five steps
can be used to modify a math unit (Silbert et al., 1981).
1. Prioritize the objectives of the unit and set mastery levels.
2. Select problem-solving strategies.
3. Construct teaching formats for major skills and for preskills when necessary.
4. Select practice examples.
5. Design worksheets or select pages of the text to provide review of previously taught
skills.
MATHEMATICS MATERIALS
Many mathematics materials (e.g., workbooks, kits, duplicating masters, computer software,
specific skill programs, or programs for low achievers) are available for teaching mathematical
skills and concepts. Mathematics materials may be used to supplement (e.g., provide additional
practice or reinforcement of a skill) the general education textbook for students with LD, or they
may be the main source for the lesson. When teaching to the needs of the learner, teachers should
consider the student's IEP goals and objectives and the student's interest level to determine
appropriate materials. This section focuses on commercially-prepared materials and includes
scales to evaluate materials and computer software.
Mathematics Kits
Mathematics kits usually include a teacher's guide, workbooks or duplicating masters, scope and
sequence charts, and in some cases, manipulatives. Most kits focus on a specific skill (e.g., basic
facts, time, measurement, money). Kits are useful for introducing a lesson or unit, supplementing
textbook lessons, remediation, extended practice, or enrichment activities. Some kits also can be
used in a math learning center.
Specific Skill Programs
Specific skill programs focus on a related group of skills (e.g., addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, fractions). Some programs are carefully planned while others are a
collection of worksheets for extra practice (Silbert et al., 1981). There are strengths and
weaknesses in using specific skill programs. A strength of specific skill programs is that they are
likely to include adequate practice for mastery (Silbert et al., 1981). Weaknesses include lack of
comprehensiveness (Silbert et al., 1981) and limited review of skills previously taught. In
addition, when using specific skill programs, teachers must ensure that the program's skills
match school district curricular requirements (Silbert et al., 1981).
Programs for Low Achievers
Programs for low achievers are designed for students who are having difficulty or who are likely
to have difficulty in school (Silbert et al., 1981). Teachers should be careful when using these
programs because some programs are well constructed while others are not (Silbert et al., 1981).
For example, some programs jump from one skill to the next without a scope and sequence.
Others do not give adequate directions, specific step-by-step strategies, or concrete examples for
students to follow. Silbert et al. (1981) found that programs for the lowest performing students
were the least effective. However, since the late 1970s program construction has improved.
Authors of these programs have focused on presenting skills in a clearer, more concise format
(Silbert et al., 1981).
Silbert et al. (1981) developed an Instructional Materials Rating Scale (see Table 2)
designed to assist classroom teachers in selecting appropriate instructional materials.
Instructional materials are rated in four areas: strategy, sequence, examples, and practice and
review.
Computer Software Programs
Computer software programs in mathematics can be used for teaching skills and processes (e.g.,
numeration, basic facts, decimals, fractions, money, measurement, geometry, algebra), drill and
practice, simulations, and problem-solving. Some programs present skills in a game format,
which is motivating for students, and most provide immediate feedback and the opportunity for
self-correction. In addition, many programs keep a record of student performance. Teachers
should view software programs before student use to ensure that the programs are appropriate for
individual student needs. Directions should be clear on how to use the program and a system for
monitoring student progress should be available. Table 3 provides questions teachers should
consider when selecting software.
MANIPULATIVES
Manipulatives can be used to teach a variety of topics (e.g., place value, decimals, fractions,
measurement, geometry, algebra) by providing meaningful practice opportunities and getting
students actively involved in learning. Manipulative aids can help children understand and
develop mental images of mathematics concepts (Dunlap & Brennan, 1979); that is, they give
students a concrete basis from which abstract thinking may develop. Thus, instruction should
begin with concrete experiences to assist students in understanding an abstract concept (Dunlap
& Brennan, 1979), transition to semi-concrete materials, and then to abstract symbols (i.e.,
numbers) (Dunlap & Brennan, 1979; Mercer, 1992; Miller & Mercer, 1993). Miller and Mercer
(1993) determined that students need up to seven lessons using manipulatives (concrete) and
pictures (semi-concrete) before being able to transfer learning to abstract-level problems.
Research indicates that the goal of mathematical curricular activities is to build stepwise
associations through practice experiences so the learner does not always need manipulatives and
is able to think about the set of experiences (Miller & Mercer, 1993). As instructional planning
occurs, teachers should consider levels of learning, grade level usage, and recommendations for
using manipulatives.
Levels of Learning
Dunlap and Brennan (1979) devised a sequence of three steps that enable student to transition
from concrete to abstract instructional procedures and assist teachers in determining when
students are ready to move the next level. The 3 steps are listed below.
Step 1 Enactive or Concrete Level
The student manipulates objects to correspond with mathematics symbols.
The student interprets mathematical symbols and manipulates objects to illustrate the
problem.
Step 2. Iconic or Semi-Concrete Level
The student interprets pictures of sets and relates to mathematical symbols.
The student interprets mathematical symbols and creates pictures of sets.
Step 3. Symbolic or Abstract Level
The student understands mathematical symbols presented alone.
At the enactive or concrete level the teacher works with the student to create a mental
picture of a given concept, using blocks or other counters to solve a number sentence given
orally.Next, the student solves number sentences with manipulative objects. At this point,
textbook exercises can be solved with the use of manipulatives. Once the student develops an
understanding at this level, instruction moves to the semi-concrete level where the student uses
pictures of sets to solve mathematical problems. Then, the student can take mathematical
sentences and draw pictures to illustrate the sets. After the student has mastered this level, he or
she is ready to move to the highest level of representation, the abstract or symbolic level. Here
the student can read a mathematical sentence, form a mental picture, and obtain the correct
answer. If a student is having difficulty with a concept, it may be necessary to reteach--moving
the student through the levels of learning again to ensure skill comprehension.
Grade Level Usage
Although many teachers recognize that manipulatives are appropriate for primary-level
mathematics (Williams, 1986), they often fail to recognize that manipulatives are beneficial at all
age levels. Research indicates that manipulative objects are effective at middle school and high
school levels. Specifically, Driscoll (cited in Kennedy, 1986) stated that manipulatives not only
help children in intermediate grades develop new concepts, but can also be used to provide
remediation on nonmastered skills. According to Driscoll If there is any risk related to the use
of manipulatives in these grades, it derives from their being ignored or abandoned too quickly
(p. 7). Manipulatives are a useful tool in teaching pre-algebra and algebra. Students sometimes
fail to see the big picture due to the many skills required for success in algebra, but through the
use of manipulatives the teacher can teach students to understand algebraic concepts and
relationships (Williams, 1986). There are also commercial materials designed to teach higher
level math concepts. For example, Creative Publications Alternative Algebra for grade 7
through college uses manipulative-based assignments to involve students actively in developing
and understanding algebraic concepts. This is also a good resource for developing themes in
algebra.
Guidelines
1. The manipulatives must support the lessons objectives.
2. The maniuplatives must accurately illustrate the actual mathematical process being
taught.
3. More than one manipulative should be used to introduce a process.
4. The manipulative must involve moving parts or be something that is moved to
illustrate a process.
5. Orient students to the manipulatives and corresponding procedures.
6. Plan for the use and fading out of manipulatives as students gain an understanding of
the concept.
7. Learning comes not from the object themselves, but from the students physical
actions with the objects.
9. The manipulative must be used individually by each student.
10. A direct correlation must exist between the process illustrated by the manipulative
and the process performed with pencil and paper.
11. Assist students in building self-monitoring skills (e.g., teach them how to learn)
(Dunlap & Brennan, 1979, p. 90; Ross & Kutz, 1993, p. 256).
These guidelines can be used by mathematics teachers in the general education classroom
and by special educators who work with students with LD. It is important to keep in mind that
students learn at different paces. Some may be ready to move on to the abstract level of thinking
while others require concrete instruction. Manipulatives do not automatically lead to
understanding; it is how they are used that is important (Baroody, 1989). Also, manipulatives
must be carefully chosen to ensure the developmental appropriateness and provide a successful
learning experience for the student (Baroody, 1993). In addition, teachers must avoid
withdrawing manipulative aids too quickly because students with LD may have difficulty
making connections to semi-concrete and abstract levels (Kelly et al., 1990). Further, when using
manipulatives with students with LD it is important to maintain structured situations to assist
students in organizing their thinking to allow them to see relationships or follow the
computational procedure.
CONCLUSION
Teachers must understand math concepts and their logical teaching sequence (Mercer, 1992). A
variety of textbooks, materials, and manipulatives are available for teaching mathematics.
However, it is imperative that teachers examine the goals and objectives on student IEPs and use
this information when selecting textbooks, materials, and manipulatives. Following the
guidelines presented here and making modifications, where necessary, can assist the teacher in
providing appropriate instruction. Textbooks should be used as guides, supplemented with other
materials including manipulatives, when appropriate.
REFERENCES
Baroody, A. J. (1989). One point of view: Manipulatives don't come with guarantees.
Arithmetic Teacher, 37(2), 4-5.
Baroody, A. J. (1993). Introducing number and arithmetic concepts with number sticks.
Teaching Exceptional Children, 26(1), 6-11.
Carnine, D. (1991). Curricular interventions for teaching order thinking to all students:
Introduction to the special series. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 261-269.
Cawley, J. F., Fitzmaurice-Hays, A. M., & Shaw, R. A. (1988). Mathematics for the
mildly handicapped. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Dunlap, W. P., & Brennan, A. H. (1979). Developing mental images of mathematical
processes. Learning Disability Quarterly 2, 89-96.
Engelmann, S., Carnine, D., & Steely, D. G. (1991). Making connections in mathematics.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(5), 292-303.
Goldman, S. R. (1989). Strategy instruction in mathematics. Learning Disability
Quarterly, 12, 43-55.
Hammill, D. D., & Bartel, N. R. (1990). Teaching students with learning and behavior
problems (6th ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Kelly, B., Gersten, R., & Carnine, D. (1990). Student error patterns as a function of
instructional design: Teaching fractions to remedial high school students and high school
students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 23-29.
Kennedy, L. M. (1986). A rationale. Arithmetic Teacher, 33(6), 6-7.
Mercer, C. D. (1992). Students with learning disabilities (4th ed.). New York: Merrill.
Miller, S. P., & Mercer, C. D. (1993). Using data to learn about concrete-semiconcrete-
abstract instruction for students with math disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research &
Practice, 8(2), 89-96.
Porter, A. (1989). A curriculum out of balance: The case of elementary school
mathematics. Educational Researcher, 18(5), 9-15.
Ross, R., & Kurtz, R. (1993). Making manipulatives work: A strategy for success.
Arithmetic Teacher, 40(5), 254-257.
Schmaltz, R. (1990). The mathematics textbook: How can it serve the standards?
Arithmetic Teacher, 14-16.
Silbert, J., Carnine, D., & Stein, M. (1981). Organizing mathematics instruction.
Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Williams, D. E. (1986). Activities for algebra. Arithmetic Teacher, 33(6), 42-47.
Woodward, J. (1991). Procedural knowledge in mathematics: The role of the curriculum.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(4), 242-250.
UPDATED REFERENCES
Ainsa, T. (1999). Success of using technology and manipulatives to introduce numerical
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Computers in Mathematics & Science Teaching, 18, 361-369.
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Special Education, 18, 66-81.
Heuser, D. (2000). Mathematics workshop: Mathematics class becomes learner centered.
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Table 1. Questions to Consider when Selecting Textbooks
1. Are lessons and activities presented in a clear, step-by-step format?
2. Does the textbook include specific directions for presenting skills?
3. Are strategies offered to correct student errors?
4. Does the pace of textbook instruction need to be modified?
5. Does the scope and sequence need to be modified to meet student needs?
6. Does the textbook require supplemental materials for additional practice?
7. Does the textbook transition from guided practice to independent practice?
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Table 2. Instructional Materials Rating Scale
Name of Program _______________________________________________________________
Year _______________ Area Examined ______________________________________
I. Strategy Poor Excellent
A. Presentation of the strategy by the teacher is carefully
specified to ensure clarity and maintain consistency for
related problem types.
B. Presentation of the strategy is designed for systematic
transition from a highly structured presentation to a less
structured one.
II. Sequence
A. All preskills are taught sufficiently prior to introduction of the
strategy to allow for development of mastery of the preskill.
B. A problem type is not introduced until students have been
taught a strategy to solve problems of that type.
III. Example Selection
A. A mix of current and previous problem types is provided.
IV. Practice and Review
A. Sufficient examples are presented to enable students
to master new skills.
B. Sufficient review of skills is included to facilitate retention.
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Stein/Silbert/Carnine, DESIGNING EFFECTIVE MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION 3/E,
1997. Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey.
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Table 3. Computer Software Guidelines
Software Program ________________________________ Cost _________
1 Does it have a student management system?
2. Does it print, view, and delete records?
3. Does it have adjustable speeds?
4. Does it provide a range of difficulty levels?
5. Does it have sound control?
6. Does it allow teachers to add math problems?
7. Does it provide immediate feedback?
8. Does it provide individual practice?
9. What are the instructional design features?
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