Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
2
1 = 0
= 1, = 1, = 1
=
1 (1)
2
4(1)(1)
2(1)
=
+
1.2 Laws of Exponents
=
+
0
= 1, 0
= ()
= (
= (
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 2 of 33
1.3 Laws of Logarithms
=
= ln()
ln(
) =
ln()
=
ln(
) = ln()
ln() = ln() + ln()
ln( +) ln() + ln()
ln(
) = ln() ln()
ln( ) ln() ln()
Examples
ln(
1
1
)
=
ln()
=
+()
4
=
10.5
+
(
)
2
(
2
)
2
=
.
+ (
2
2 (
1
)
1
+
0
]
1
2
= [
(2)
2 + 1]
1
2
= (
2
2 + 1)
1
2
= [( 1)
2
]
1
2
=
ln(
(
2
+
2
)
) = (
)
ln(
2
+4 + 4) = ln( + 2)
2
= ( +)
ln (
3
6
) = ln(
2
3
) ln(6)
= [ln(
2
) +ln(
3
)] [ln(6) + ln()]
= () +() () ()
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 3 of 33
1.4 Sum of Arithmetic Series
The general formula is
=
2
(
1
+
), where
is the number of terms
1
is the first term of the series
+ 1
where is the common difference, defined as the difference between a term and the term
prior to it. This is useful when we have the first and last terms but have to find the number
of terms.
Example
= 1 + 5 + 9 ++ 41
1
= 1,
= 41 , =
41 1
4
+ 1 = 11
=
11
2
(1 +41) =
1.5 Sum of Geometric Series
Finite
The standard formula is
=
(
1)
1
=
(1
)
1
, where
is the number of terms
is the first term of the series
is the common ratio, i.e., the ratio between a term and the term prior to it
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 4 of 33
The next formula is derived from the previous formula but is easier to remember.
=
first term first omitted term
1 common ratio
The first omitted term is the term that would come after the last term if the series continued.
Example
= 1.02 + (1.02)
2
++ (1.02)
20
= 1.02, = 1.02, = 20
Using the standard formula,
=
1.02[(1.02)
20
1]
1.02 1
.
Using the alternative formula, the first omitted term is the term after (1.02)
20
, which is
(1.02)
21
. Thus,
=
1.02 (1.02)
21
1 1.02
.
Infinite
If the common ratio is between 1 and 1 (non-inclusive), then an infinite geometric series
converges to zero and its sum is finite, which equals
=
1
Example
= 0.9 + 0.9
2
+ 0.9
3
+
= 0.9, = 0.9
=
0.9
1 0.9
=
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 5 of 33
1.6 Matrix Algebra
Suppose we have a two-by-two matrix, , defined as follows:
= [
]
The determinant of is
|| = |
| =
Example
The determinant of = [
2 0
5 2
] is
|| = 2(2) 0(5) =
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 6 of 33
2 Geometry
2.1 Pythagorean Theorem
Figure 2.1
If , , and are the sides of a right triangle as shown in Figure 2.1, then
2
+
2
=
2
Example
Find in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2
2
=
2
2
= (1 +)
2
(1 )
2
= 1 + 2
2
1 + 2
2
= 4
= 4 = 2
c
a
b
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 7 of 33
2.2 Areas
Diagram Formula for Area
Rectangle & square
Figure 2.3
=
Triangle
Figure 2.4
=
1
2
Parallelogram
Figure 2.5
=
Trapezoid
Figure 2.6
= (average of and )
=
1
2
( +)
b
h
b
h
b
h
b
h
a
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 8 of 33
Circle
Figure 2.7
=
2
Examples
Figure 2.8
Area of rectangle = 2 5 =
Area of triangle
=
1
2
2 5 =
Area of parallelogram = 1 3 =
Area of trapezoid
=
1
2
(1 + 3) 2 =
Area of circle = 1
2
=
r
8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6
1
2
3
4
5
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 9 of 33
3 Differential Calculus
3.1 Basic Formulas and Rules
= 0
=
1
ln() , > 0
ln() =
1
, > 0
() +
()] =
() +
()
() =
()
sin() = cos()
cos() = sin()
Note: is a constant.
Examples
(2 + 35) = 2 + 0 =
( + 2)(2 3) =
(2
2
+ 6) = +
(
1
3
) =
(
3
) = 3
4
=
(2
1
) =
(2
0.5
0.5
) =
0.5
+ 0.5
1.5
=
ln(
10
) =
10 ln(t) = 10
1
) =
()
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 10 of 33
3.2 Chain Rule
If and are differentiable functions where =
()), then
())
()
This formula can be extended to include more than two differentiable functions. For three
functions,
=
()))
()))
())
()
Examples
(4
2
+ 5)
7
= 7(4
2
+ 5)
6
(4
2
+ 5)
= (
+)
( + )
(
1
1
2
) =
(1
2
)
1
= (1
2
)
2
(1
2
)
= (1
2
)
2
(0 2)
=
(
(1
10
) = 0
10
)
= (
10
)
(
10
)
= (
10
) (
1
10
)
=
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 11 of 33
ln(1 +
2
) =
1
1 +
2
(1 +
2
)
=
1
1 +
2
(0 + 2)
=
+
(1 + sin)
4
= 4(1 + sin)
3
(1 + sin)
= 4(1 + sin )
3
(0 + cos )
= ( +)
3.3 Product Rule
Lets define =
() and =
3.4 Quotient Rule
Lets define =
() and =
,
then
2
Tip:
It is not necessary to memorize the quotient rule, because
can be written as
1
, which
is a product. Then, we can use the product rule instead.
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 12 of 33
Example 1
(3 +1)
2
(
2
+ 2) = (
2
+ 2)
(3 + 1)
2
+(3 + 1)
2
(
2
+2)
= (
2
+ 2) 2(3 + 1)
(3 + 1) + (3 + 1)
2
2
= (
2
+ 2) 2(3 + 1) 3 + (3 + 1)
2
2
= ( +)(
+ ) +( +)
[
(4
2
3)
3
] =
[(4
2
3)
3
]
=
(4
2
3)
3
+ (4
2
3)
3
3(4
2
3)
2
(4
2
3) + (4
2
3)
3
()
=
3(4
2
3)
2
8 + (4
2
3)
3
(1)
= (
3.5 Derivative of Absolute Value Functions
We can write any absolute value function as follows:
|
()| = {
(),
() 0
(),
() < 0
Then, the derivative of the absolute value function is the derivative of its individual
components.
()| = {
(),
() > 0
(),
() < 0
The derivative may or may not be defined at
() = 0.
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 13 of 33
Example 1
|| = {
, 0
, < 0
|| = {
(), > 0
(), < 0
= {
, > 0
, < 0
The derivative is undefined at = 0.
Example 2
|
2
| = {
2
,
2
0
2
,
2
< 0
Because
2
cannot be negative, |
2
| =
2
for all . Therefore,
|
2
| = , < <
3.6 Second Derivative
The second derivative of a function is the derivative of the first derivative.
() =
())
Example
=
1
1
(
1
1
)
=
(1 )
1
= (1 )
2
(1 )
=
1
(1 )
2
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 14 of 33
2
=
)
=
[
1
(1 )
2
]
=
(1 )
2
= 2(1 )
3
(1 )
=
2
(1 )
3
3.7 Optimization
Derivatives can be used to find the maximum or minimum of a function, specifically the
local max or min. We will illustrate this application using the following examples.
Example 1
Find the local minimum of the function
() =
2
2 5.
Step 1: Take derivative of function.
() = 2 2
Step 2: Set derivative equal to zero, and solve for .
() = 2 2 = 0
= 1
If the question asks for the value of that minimizes
(1) = (1)
2
2(1) 5 = 6
The minimum value of
() is .
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 15 of 33
Step 4: Perform second derivative test (optional).
If we know for sure that 6 is the minimum and not the maximum point, then we can skip
this step. Otherwise, the second derivative test will tell us whether it is a minimum or
maximum point.
The second derivative of
() is
() = 2
If
() is positive at the value of that we calculated, then the point is a minimum point.
If
() is negative at the value of that we calculated, then the point is a maximum point.
Because
()
()
(), where
() =
()
Second Theorem
For a continuous function ,
()
= (), = constant
This is because
()
()
()]
=
() 0
=
()
A more general version of the previous equation with functions =
() and =
()
in place of and is
()
()
()
Because the lower limit of integration is not a constant, its derivative is not zero.
Furthermore, the derivatives of and are the result of the chain rule.
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 17 of 33
4.2 Basic Formulas and Rules
= +
=
+1
+ 1
+, 1
1
= ln() +
=
1
ln()
=
1
+
[
() +
()] =
() +
()
() =
()
sin() = cos() +
cos() = sin() +
Note: , , and are constants.
Examples
(5
3
+ 4)
1
0
= [
5
3+1
3 + 1
+ 4]
0
1
= [
5
4
4
+ 4]
0
1
= (
5
4
+ 4) (0 + 0)
=
(
1
2
2.3
)
3
2
= [
0.5+1
2(0.5 + 1)
+
1
2.3
2.3
]
2
3
= [ +
1
2.3
2.3
]
2
3
= (3 +
1
2.3
2.3(3)
) (2 +
1
2.3
2.3(2)
)
.
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 18 of 33
2
5
10
1
= [
2
5
ln()]
1
10
=
2
5
[ln(10) ln(1)]
.
(
3
+ 3
5
)
0.1
0
= [
3
3
+
3
5
5 ln(3)
]
0
0.1
= (
3(0.1)
3
+
3
5(0.1)
5 ln(3)
) (
1
3
+
1
5 ln(3)
)
.
4.3 Integration by Substitution
Integration by substitution is the reverse of the chain rule. We use integration by
substitution if the integrand looks like it is the result of the chain rule.
Example 1
2
2
2
1
Notice that 2 is the derivative of
2
. So, we make the substitution =
2
. Then, we
convert the variable of integration from to .
The relationship between and comes from the derivative of =
2
, i.e., = 2 .
We convert the limits of integration by substituting them into =
2
:
Lower limit: = 1
1
= 1
Upper limit: = 2
2
= 4
Therefore,
2
2
2
1
=
4
1
= [
]
1
4
=
1
4
.
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 19 of 33
Example 2
2
( + 3)
4
8
1
Identify the substitution = + 3, where = 3. Then, we have = .
The new limits of integration are:
Lower limit: = 1 + 3 = 4
Upper limit: = 8 + 3 = 11
Therefore,
2
( + 3)
4
8
1
=
2( 3)
4
11
4
= (2
3
6
4
)
11
4
= [
2
2
2
+
6
3
3
]
4
11
= [
1
2
+
2
3
]
4
11
=
1
11
2
+
2
11
3
+
1
4
2
2
4
3
.
Example 3
(1 +)
3
9
4
Identify the substitution = 1 +, where = 1.
Then, we have =
1
2
, so that = 2 = 2( 1) .
The new limits of integration are:
Lower limit: = 1 +4 = 3
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 20 of 33
Upper limit: = 1 +9 = 4
Therefore,
(1 +)
3
9
4
=
1
3
2( 1)
4
3
= 2
2
2 +1
3
4
3
= 2 (
1
2
2
+
3
)
4
3
= 2 [ln() + 2
1
2
2
]
3
4
= 2 (ln(4) +
2
4
1
2 4
2
) 2 (ln(3) +
2
3
1
2 3
2
)
.
4.4 Integration by Parts
Integration by parts is the reverse of the product rule.
Integrating both sides of the equation,
() = +
= +
Then, the integration by parts formula is
=
In general, integration by parts is applicable if the integrand is a product of two terms, one
of which becomes zero when differentiated repeatedly.
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 21 of 33
Example 1
0
The first step is to identify and , where is the term to be differentiated, and is the
term to be integrated. In this example
= , =
Then, we find and .
= , =
Next, we apply the integration by parts formula as follows:
0
= [ (
)]
0
0
= [
]
0
]
0
= [
]
0
= (0 0) (0 1)
=
Example 2
(3
2
+ 1)
10
0
The first step is to identify and , where is the term to be differentiated, and is the
term to be integrated. In this example
= (3
2
+ 1), =
10
Then, we find and .
= 6 , = 10
10
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 22 of 33
Next, we apply the integration by parts formula as follows:
0
= [(3
2
+ 1) (10
10
)]
0
6 (10
10
)
0
= [10
10(3
2
+ 1)]
0
+ 60
10
0
To evaluate the integral in blue, we use integration by parts a second time.
= , =
10
= , = 10
10
10
0
= [ (10
10
)]
0
10
10
0
= [10
10
]
0
[100
10
]
0
= [10
10
100
10
]
0
= (0 0) (0 100)
= 100
In our final step,
0
= [(3
2
+ 1) (10
10
)]
0
+ 60(100)
= 0 1 (10) + 6,000
= ,
4.5 Tabular Integration
Integration by parts can sometimes be messy to evaluate, which makes it prone to errors,
especially when it needs to be done more than once. Tabular integration is an alternative
to integration by parts that keeps our calculations organized. Besides, it takes less time and
is less prone to errors.
Tabular integration is best explained with examples. We will rework the two previous
examples to show that integration by parts and tabular integration are equivalent.
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 23 of 33
Example 1
0
The first step is to choose the term that would be differentiated if were to do integration by
parts, i.e., . We write this term in the first row of the first column of the table (see Table
4.1). In this example, this term is . Then, we differentiate repeatedly until we get zero,
while writing down each derivative in a column. The derivative of is 1, and the derivative
of 1 is 0.
Next, we write the term that would be integrated if we were to do integration by parts in
the first row of the second column. This term is
. Then, we integrate
repeatedly
until we have the same number of rows in both columns.
Then, we draw diagonal lines from the first row of the first column to the second row of the
second column, and from the second row of the first column to the third row of the second
column. If we had more rows, we would continue drawing lines in this matter until we get
to the last row of the second column.
The next step is to label the lines with alternating signs, starting with + for the first line.
We multiply the terms that are connected by the lines and then multiply by 1 if the line has
a plus sign, or 1 if the line has a minus sign. We do the same for each pair of terms and
add them to get the indefinite integral.
+
1
Table 4.1
Therefore,
0
= [+1 (
) + (1) 1
]
0
= [
]
0
= (0 0) (0 1)
=
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 24 of 33
Example 2
(3
2
+ 1)
10
0
The term to be differentiated is 3
2
+ 1. The term to be integrated is
10
.
3
2
+ 1
10
+
6
10
10
6
100
10
+
0
1000
10
Table 4.2
Using Table 4.2,
(3
2
+ 1)
10
0
= [+1 (3
2
+1) (10
10
) + (1) 6 100
10
+ (+1) 6 (1000
10
)]
0
= [10(3
2
+ 1)
10
600
10
6000
10
]
0
= 0 0 0 + 10 + 0 + 6,000
= ,
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 25 of 33
5 Multivariate Calculus
5.1 Partial Derivatives
When taking the partial derivative of a multivariate function with respect to a variable, ,
we treat all other variables as constants.
Partial derivative of
,
(, ) with respect to
,
(, )
Partial derivative of
,
(, ) with respect to
,
(, )
Second order partial derivative of
,
(, )
with respect to
,
(, ) =
,
(, ))
Second order partial derivative of
,
(, )
with respect to
,
(, )
Second order partial derivative of
,
(, )
with respect to and
,
(, ) =
,
(, ))
,
(, ) =
,
(, ))
,
(, ) =
2
,
(, )
Example 1
,
(, ) =
2
(
2
) =
Treat as constant.
(
2
) =
Treat as constant.
2
(
2
) =
(2) =
Differentiate
with respect to .
Treat as constant.
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 26 of 33
2
(
2
) =
(
2
) =
Differentiate
with respect to .
Treat as constant.
2
(
2
) =
(
2
) =
Differentiate
with respect to .
Treat as constant.
2
(
2
) =
(2) =
Differentiate
with respect to .
Treat as constant.
2
(
2
) =
2
(
2
) Order of differentiation is reversible.
Example 2
,
(, ) =
2
2
++3
2
(
2
2
++3
2
) =
2
2
++3
2
(2
2
+ + 3
2
)
=
2
2
++3
2
(4 + + 0)
= ( +)
++
(
2
2
++3
2
) =
2
2
++3
2
(2
2
+ + 3
2
)
=
2
2
++3
2
(0 + +6)
= ( +)
++
2
(
2
2
++3
2
) =
[(4 + )
2
2
++3
2
]
=
2
2
++3
2
(4 +) + (4 +)
(
2
2
++3
2
)
=
2
2
++3
2
(4 + 0) + (4 +)
2
2
++3
2
(4 + + 0)
=
++
+ ( +)
++
2
(
2
2
++3
2
) =
[( + 6)
2
2
++3
2
]
=
2
2
++3
2
( + 6) + ( + 6)
(
2
2
++3
2
)
=
2
2
++3
2
(0 + 6) + ( + 6)
2
2
++3
2
(0 + + 6)
=
++
+ ( +)
++
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 27 of 33
5.2 Double Integration
We often use double integrals to calculate probabilities and moments. When evaluating
double integrals, we always start with the inner integral and work our way out to the outer
integral. There are two cases to consider:
Case 1: Region of integration is rectangular.
Case 2: Region of integration is not rectangular.
Case 1
In the first case, double integrals are easier to evaluate. Besides, the order of integration is
reversible without the need to redefine the limits of integration. In mathematical notation,
this means
,
(, )
=
,
(, )
Figure 5.1 shows a rectangular region of integration.
Figure 5.1
x 0 c d
y
a
b
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 28 of 33
Example
Integrate the following function over the shaded region in Figure 5.2.
,
(, ) =
2500
, 0 < < 10, 0 < < 10
Figure 5.2
If we chose as the variable for the inner integral, then the double integral is
2500
6
2
7
1
Starting from the inside out, the inner integral is with respect to , so we treat as a
constant when performing the inner integral. Also, after performing the inner integral, we
substitute the limits into , not , because the inner integral is with respect to . Once we
evaluate the inner integral, the double integral becomes a single integral that we evaluate
in the usual way.
2500
6
2
7
1
= [
2
5000
]
=2
=6
7
1
=
5000
(6
2
2
2
)
7
1
x 0 1 7
y
2
6
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 29 of 33
=
32
5000
7
1
=
16
5000
[
2
]
1
7
=
16
5000
(7
2
1
2
)
= .
If we evaluate the same double integral in the reverse order of integration, we will get the
same answer.
2500
7
1
6
2
= [
2
5000
]
=1
=7
6
2
=
5000
(7
2
1
2
)
7
1
=
48
5000
6
2
=
24
5000
[
2
]
2
6
=
24
5000
(6
2
2
2
)
= .
Case 2
In the second case, double integrals are trickier. They are reversible, but the limits of
integration have to be redefined. We will demonstrate this with the following example.
Example 1
Integrate the following function over the shaded region in Figure 5.3.
,
(, ) =
(+)
, > 0, > 0
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 30 of 33
Figure 5.3
Step 1: Draw a diagram that satisfies all the constraints.
In this example, the diagram has been given. However, on the exam, you often have to
draw your own diagram. The constraints of the region are > 0, > 0, and + < 2.
The region that satisfies these constraints is the shaded region in Figure 5.3.
Note that Step 2 and Step 3 can be interchanged.
Step 2: Choose one variable for the outer integral.
If we choose , then the limits of the outer integration would be the minimum and
maximum value of in the region. From the diagram, we see that the minimum value of
is 0 and the maximum value of is 2. Thus, the lower limit is 0 and the upper limit is 2.
(
,
(, ) )
2
0
Likewise, if we choose , then the limits of the outer integration would be the minimum
and maximum value of in the region, which are 0 and 2, respectively.
(
,
(, ) )
2
0
x 0 1 2
y
1
2
y
x
y
=
2
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 31 of 33
Both integrals will produce the same answer, but the variable that you choose for the outer
integration will determine the order of integration; so you should choose the variable that
will not require separating the region of integration, if possible.
Step 3: Determine the limits of the inner integral.
The third step is to define the rest of the integral. The variable for the inner integral will
automatically be the variable not chosen for the outer integral. For example, if we chose
for the outer integral, then the inner integral will be with respect to .
To determine the limits of integration when the integration is on , draw a line parallel to
the -axis that cuts across the region of integration, as shown in Figure 5.4. The limits are
the -coordinates of the intersection points of the vertical line that was just drawn and the
top and bottom bounds of the region.
Figure 5.4
In this example, the lower limit is = 0 because the vertical line intersects the lower
bound at 0. Similarly, the upper limit is = 2 because the vertical line intersects the
upper bound at 2 . Since the vertical line can be drawn at any arbitrary location within
the range of values of , we always express the -coordinates in terms of , or the variable
chosen for the outer integral. Therefore, our double integral is
x 0 1 2
y
1
2
y
x
y
=
2
y = 2 x
y = 0
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 32 of 33
(
,
(, ) )
2
0
= (
,
(, )
2
0
)
2
0
On the other hand, if we chose for the outer integral, then the inner integral will be for the
variable . In this case, we draw a line parallel to the -axis that cuts across the region,
shown below in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5
We determine the limits of integration in the same way as before except the limits are now
the -coordinates of the intersection points of the horizontal line and the left and right
bounds of the region, expressed in terms of . In this example, the horizontal line
intersects the left bound at = 0 and the right bound at = 2 . Therefore, our double
integral is
(
,
(, ) )
2
0
= (
,
(, )
2
0
)
2
0
Step 4: Evaluate the double integral.
The last step is to evaluate the double integral. There are 2 possible orders of integration,
or . Regardless, we always start with the inner integral and work our way out.
x 0 1 2
y
1
2
y
x
y
=
2
x = 2 y
x = 0
Prerequisites for Exam P/1
Page 33 of 33
We will start with the case.
(
,
(, )
2
0
)
2
0
= (
(+)
2
0
)
2
0
= [
(+)
]
=0
=2
2
0
= [
(+2)
(+0)
]
2
0
= (
2
+
)
2
0
= [
2
]
0
2
= (2
2
2
) (0
0
)
=
Next, we will show that the case produces the same answer.
(
,
(, )
2
0
)
2
0
= (
(+)
2
0
)
2
0
= [
(+)
]
=0
=2
2
0
= [
(2+)
(0+)
]
2
0
= (
2
+
)
2
0
= [
2
+
]
0
2
= (2
2
2
) (0
0
)
=