II.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Pulses have been traditionally recognized as indispensable basic ingredient in the diets of
vast majority of vegetarian Indians as they provide a perfect mix of high biological value in
cereal based diet. Pulse production in India has been practically stagnant for the last few decades.
The cropped area as well as production is fluctuating. Considerable basic research is needed to
maximize the productivity.
2.1 Studies on manipulation of flowerin! seed settin! seed "ield and #ualit"
parameters $" %&emi%al foliar spra".
It is established and well accepted fact that normal plant growth and development is
controlled by chemicals synthesized by the plant itself. The production of these chemicals inturn
is under genetic control and these are called growth regulators. It is also apparent that synthetic
growth regulating chemicals are becoming increasingly important and valuable in the control of
crop growth. It may be possible to regulate the mobilization of metabolites during grain filling
stage by shortening the plant size and delaying the leaf senescence and thereby increasing the
yield.
There is a great deal of experimental evidence in the literature showing that endogenous
growth substances are involved in many processes which lead to growth and development.
Several scientists all over the world have conducted many investigations on the effect of foliar
application of plant growth regulators on plant growth and development physiological
biochemical and yield parameters of many crop species. !any crop species have been shown to
respond to the exogenous application of plant growth regulators. Considering their role in plants
plant growth regulators have been designated as magic chemicals which bring about an
unprecedented growth and helps in removing and circumventing many of the barriers imposed
by genetics and environmental factors. "n attempt has been made to present the impact of plant
growth regulators on plant growth and development vis--vis physiological biochemical and
yield parameters.
2.1.1 Effe%t of rowt& reulators on plant rowt& parameters
!epi#uat chloride $%PC& as a growth regulator is 'nown to suppress vegetative growth
in cotton $Cothern ()*+, -illard ()*) and .or' ()+/&.
Castro and 0ello $()+(& studied the soybean cv. %avis grown in greenhouse and sprayed
with CCC $/111 ppm& S"%2 $3111 ppm& 4"5 $(11 ppm& I"" $(11 ppm& or water at the 3
th

leaf stage. S"%2 delayed the onset of flowering reduced flowering in relation to the water
control, 4"5 reduced the time of flowering maximum flowering and increased stem dry weight
6az et al. $()+3& observed that soybean cv. Clar' with foliar sprays of 71 (11 and (71
ppm 4"5 CCC and I6" respectively at 37 and *1 to ((1 days and found an increase in plant
height. 4"5 was found to be more effective than CCC. 8igam et al. $()+3& studied the effect of
4"5 69) and CCC in groundnut and reported that except 4"5 other growth regulators increased
the number of primary and secondary branches.
0ello and Castro $()+*& conducted an experiment in soybean cv. %avis. The results
revealed that pre9flowering foliar spray of 4"5 $(11 ppm& significantly increased the plant height
$(().* cm&, while CCC $/111 ppm& reduced it to the extent of )3.+ cm. 6ruce $())1& treated
determinate soybean with 4"5 and ethephon 4"5 treatment mainly produced positive effects on
number of pods height and nodes:branch; while ethephon decreased yield and (119seed weight.

Shimano and !atsumoto $())(& conducted pot trials to study the effect of various
concentrations 4"5 on different growth stages in soybean revealed that 4"5 $(19(11 ppm&
increased the

internodal length compared with the control and 4"5 was most effective in
promoting internodal elongation when applied at floral initiation stage.
Chetti $())(& reported that the application of growth retardants viz. mepi#uat chloride
lihocin and maleic hydrazide increased the dry weight of stem leaf reproductive parts and total
dry weight as compared to control in groundnut. Chandrababu et al. $())7& reported that the
spraying of (/7 ppm mepi#uat chloride to groundnut increased the leaf area leaf dry weight
haulm weight and total plant dry weight.
<eya'umar and Thangaraj $())=& carried out studies to understand the effect of mepi#uat
chloride $((>dimethyl piperidinium chloride& on some important physiological and yield
characteristics of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea ?.&. !epi#uat chloride was sprayed at the
concentration of (11 (/7 and (71 ppm on /7 %"S $days after sowing& 57 %"S and 37 %"S
respectively and compared with CCC $/>Chloro ethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride& which was
sprayed at (11 ppm on 37 %"S. The response of the crop for both chemicals was almost similar
but varying in magnitude. "mong the treatments application of mepi#uat chloride at (/7 ppm on
57 %"S was found to be the best which reduced the shoot length and ?eaf "rea Index $?"I& and
enhanced the root length and Crop 4rowth @ate $C4@&. .ield characteristics such as total dry
matter production $T%!P& number of flowers and pod yield were also increased by the
application of mepi#uat chloride at (/7 ppm on 57 %"S. This treatment recorded the maximum
pod yield of /=(( Ag per hectare accounting for /3 B increase over CCC which is currently
recommended to improve the yield of groundnut. The results of the present investigation
indicated that foliar spray of mepi#uat chloride at (/7 ppm concentration on 57 %"S was
optimum and improved the physiological efficiency of groundnut leading to higher yield.
Progibb $3B& a gibberelin based vegetative growth promoter increased leaf length and
dry weight of leaves in cilantro. Progibb $(11 Cl:l& was optimum for maximizing leaf production
$@amcharan /111&.
In a field study mepi#uat chloride $!C& $( (9dimethyl piperidinium chloride& was
sprayed at pre9flowering stage on two chic'pea varieties i.e. Pusa /=( and 64 5+3 having
limited and excessive vegetative growth respectively. !C treatment in both the varieties
increased the leaf dry weight but had no effect on root and stem dry weights. 2owever in 64
5+3 number of secondary and tertiary branches and leaf area were increased. The chlorophyll
content of leaf increased with !C treatment and was maintained at higher level as compared to
control during reproductive stage. 64 5+3 showed increase in number of pods per plant pod
weight and seed weight per plant and yield per m
/
with !C treatment but no such effect was
observed in case of Pusa /=(. The study indicated that higher levels of chlorophyll content in
!C treated plants provided conditions for higher production of photosynthates which were
utilized by 64 5+3 for grain yield due to larger sin' resulting from increased branching and
more number of pods $-asni' and 6agga ())=&. Similar increase in the number of leaves
number of branches and ?"I compared to the control was also reported by Pra'ash et al. $/115&
in blac' gram.
The effect of mepi#uat chloride at different concentration on Vicia faba ?. was studied by
Da'y et al. $()))& and reported that the lowest concentration of !C $/71 ppm& caused
significant increase in most of the growth parameters while the highest concentration $(711
ppm& resulted in a reduction in these parameters.
Pra'ash $/111& studied the effect of Chamat'ar $!epi#uat Chloride, 7B& on the
germination and seedling #uality $shoot length root length dry weight& of (7 blac' gram
varieties under saline condition and reported that !9(1 and "C95/ responded well to Chamat'ar.
Pre9soa'ing treatment of 4"5 and CCC $(1 (11 /71 711 and (11 Cg:ml& on pea $cv.
"parna and "zad P9(& showed that 4"5 irrespective of concentration was effective in promoting
shoot growth while CCC at all concentrations reduced shoot growth $6ora and Sarma /11=&.
Increase in plant height nodal elongation and increase in stem diameter ?eaf area and
dry matter in soybean with the foliar application of 4"5 were reported by ?eite et al. $/115&
whereas they also noticed that foliar application of 4"5 had no effect on number of leaves stem
branches and root dry matter.
"n experiment conducted to study the effect of Planofix and Chamat'ar on blac' gram
reported the increased number of branches and leaves due to spraying of Chamat'ar as compared
to Planofix. The application of both Planofix and Chamat'ar resulted in increased ?"I S?- and
yield compared to control $Pra'ash et al. /115&.
Aothule et al. $/115& found that plant growth substances li'e 4" 8"" CCC and
salicylic acid each E (11 and /11 ppm and urea E ( and /percent when applied exogenously as
foliar spray improved morphological characters viz. plant height number of branches leaf area
total dry matter of plant and reduced the number of days to 71 per cent flowering in soybean.
4"5 E /11 ppm was found most effective in increasing plant height. Significant reduction in the
plant height number of branches and number of leaves in broadbean were also noticed by %ha'a
and "nami'a $/115& with the application of mepi#uat chloride $%PC&.
@eddy $/117& recorded that the "4@ differed significantly at =19)1 %"S in cowpea. It
was highest in mepi#uat chloride $!C& E (111 ppm& followed by !C $711 ppm&. In all the
treatments C4@ increased over control and was highest in !C $(111 ppm& at =1 %"S to )1
%"S. @4@ was significantly more in !C $(111 ppm&. "t =1 %"S the !C $(111 ppm& recorded
significantly more chlorophyll FaG chlorophyll FbG and total chlorophyll. The yield contributing
characters viz. seed yield per plant number of pods per plant seeds per pod (11 seed weight
and pod length increased significantly due to growth retardants and nipping operations. "mong
the treatments !C $(111 ppm& nipping $at one wee' after tendril formation stage& and !C $711
ppm& recorded significantly more seed yield than other treatments. "lthough !C $(111 ppm&
recorded the highest seed yield !C $711 ppm& followed by nipping $at one wee' after tendril
formation stage& were found to be economical as they recorded the highest benefit cost ratio $/;*
and /;= respectively&.
!u'htar $/11=& studied the effects of different levels of photoperiod and 71 ppm of 4"5
on the vegetative growth phenology and yield in cowpea. The 4"5 stimulated an increase in the
growth of cowpea enhanced its flowering and pod maturity by (97 days and increased yield
under all the photoperiods.
Hl'oca and Aantar $/11=& conducted a study to investigate the effects of dose $untreated
/7 71 *7 and (11 g a.i. ha
9(
& and stage $late vegetative early blooming and early pod filling&
of mepi#uat chloride $!C& application on the growth lodging control seed yield and yield
parameters of pea $Pisum sativum ?.& under field conditions. "pplication doses of /7 71 *7 and
(11 g a.i. ha
9(
significantly reduced stem height by 7.5 B *./ B *.7 B and =.3 B and increased
stem width by *.7 B (/.* B (/.5 B and (7.* B respectively when compared with the
untreated control and thereby reduced the tendency of the crop to lodging. Increases of the seed
yield under different application doses of !C ranged between (5.* B and /1.( B over the
untreated control. 2owever in all parameters investigated except for stem width higher
application doses of !C gave no clear advantages compared with the application dose of /7 g
a.i. ha
9(
. Seed yield was also significantly influenced by application stage of !C and application
at early blooming stage of crop !C significantly increased seed yield by ((.3 B and (1./ B
when compared with the late vegetative and the early pod filling stages respectively.
Iurthermore the interaction of application dose and stage was significant and spraying of pea
plants with /7 g a.i. ha
9(
!C at early blooming stage has the most beneficial effects on the
characters evaluated.
0asudevan et al. $/11+& observed that a significant increase in plant height number of
productive branches and seed yield $+.75 #:ha& in fenugree' sprayed with 4"5 $(11 ppm& as
foliar spray at 71 per cent flowering.
Investigations carried out to study the effect of different growth regulators viz. !epi#uat
chloride $71 and (11 ppm& / 39% $7 and (1 ppm& 8"" $/7 and 71 ppm& 4"5 $/7 and 71 ppm&
and 8itro benzene $1.( and 1./ B& in papri'a $Capsicum annuum var. longum& cv. AtPl9()
revealed that the treatment of 8"" at 71 ppm recorded the greatest fresh fruit yield the
photosynthetic yield was highest in 4"5 at /7 ppm at flowering stage. "mong the treatments for
yield per se /39% and nitrobenzene stood second and third respectively. Stomatal diffusive
resistance was found to be increased with mepi#uat chloride at (11 ppm in all the crop growth
stages. !aximum transpiration rate was observed in 4"5 treatment at all the crop growth stages
$Aannan et al. /11)&.
2.1.2 Effe%t of rowt& reulators on $io%&emi%al parameters
Plants treated with growth retardants had much dar'er leaves than those of untreated
plants $Cathey ()=3&. 2e opined that growth retardants in addition to the inhibition of cell
division caused induction of grana and initiated the development of chloroplasts.
6az et al. $()+3& observed that foliar spray of 71 (11 or (71 ppm 4"5 CCC and I"" at 37 *1
and ((1 days after sowing of soybean resulted in increased the percentage of oil and 8 content of
dried seeds. 4"5 was most effective than CCC and I"". !ishrin'y et al. $())1& noticed the
effects of 4"5 and CCC on peas and observed that 4"5 tended to increase protein content.
The application of mepi#uat chloride and lihocin in groundnut genotypes resulted in
significant increase in the chlorophyll FaG chlorophyll FbG and total chlorophyll content as
compared to control $Chetti ())(&. Aul'arni et al. $())7& noticed that the foliar application of
mepi#uat chloride $(111 ppm& at 37 %"S significantly increased the total chlorophyll content in
A6S29( hybrid and morden variety in sunflower.
%hopte and Surad'ar $())+& conducted a field experiment to study the effect of hormones
$4" and 8"" /1 ppm each& in soybean and found that the dry matter production chlorophyll
and root nodule numbers remained unaffected. "mong hormones 8"" was more effective than
4".
<eya'umar and Thangaraj $())+& indicated that mepi#uat chloride E (/7 ppm resulted in
higher amount of chlorophyll in groundnut. -asni' and 6agga $())=& observed that the
chlorophyll content of leaf increased with mepi#uat chloride as compared to control during
reproductive stage in chic'pea.
Da'y et al. $()))& studied the effect of Pix $!epi#uat Chloride, !C& in V. faba plants and
reported significantly higher concentration of Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll
content. Similar results were reported by <aya'umar and Thangaraj $())+& in groundnut, -asni'
and 6agga $())=& in chic'pea, Aul'arni et al. $())7& in sunflower, Aumar et al. $/115& in blac'
gram. 6angarusamy et al. $/11(& reported increased leaf chlorophyll content and soluble protein
in pigeonpea with the application of !C E (/7ppm.
The #uality of maize seeds was greatly influenced by mepi#uat chloride it was also
observed that !C increased the seed protein content by (95B over control $4ruzedev ()+3&.
Similar results were obtained in faba beans with %PC application $Sawan and Hl9 2yatemy
()+3, Aumar et al. /115&.
Senthila et al. $/115& observed that application of mepi#uat chloride at (/7 ppm
increased the contents of total soluble protein in green gram. Increase in protein content in
groundnut due to spraying of !C with 19(71 ppm was reported by <aya'umar and Thangaraj
$())+&. Similar results were also obtained by Da'y et al. $()))& and @iedell and Inglett $()+7&.
6ora and Sarma $/11=& conducted a study on the effect of 4"5 and Cycocel on pea $cv.
"parna and "zad9P9(&.Concentrations of P4@s used were (1 (11 /71 711 and (111 Jgm?
9(
.
They reported that higher concentrations of 4"5 reduced the chlorophyll content while cycocel
increased it in both the varieties. Protein content in seed was recorded highest at 711 Jgm?
9(
of
cycocel
Shinde $/1(1& reported that there was a significant increase biochemical parameters viz.
chlorophyll FaG chlorophyll FbG total chlorophyll content due to the application of P4@s viz.
Progibb $/1 31 and =1 ppm& CCC $711 and (111ppm& and TI6" $(11 and /11 ppm& in
soyabean.
2.1.' Effe%t of rowt& reulators on "ield and "ield parameters
Castro and !oraes $()+(& sprayed soybean cultivar %avis with CCC $/111 ppm&
3111 ppm $%aminozide& 4"5 $(11 ppm& and 8"" $(11 ppm& or water and found that maximum
pod weight seed number and yield with 4"5. 6asuchoudhari et al. $()+=& gave different
treatments (7 days before flowering of crop viz. defoliation $removal of 71 per cent alternate
leaves& decapitation by spray of 711 and (111 ppm 4" and /11 and 311 ppm CCC. 2e reported
that decapitation and CCC $311 ppm& significantly increased seed yield in soybean.
!orandi et al. $()+3& noticed that the effect of %PC and CCC in soybean and found
decreased dry weight in stem, while, %PC modified the pattern of dry matter partitioning by
increasing the proportion allocated to seeds. !ishrin'y et al. $())1& reported that both CCC and
4"5 increased dry matter of plant in peas.
Aamal et al. $())7& studied the effect of P4@s application at flowering and showed that
soybean yield components differently responded to P4@s application which depended on growth
regulator concentration and the cultivars. The application of 4"5 $( ppm& in soybean $cv.
Tachinagaha and Tidar& at flowering stage increased the grain yield by 7.+ per cent over the
control. This increase was mainly due to higher grain and pod number through the increase of
fertile nodes and number of pods per fertile node.
Chandrababu et al. $())7& indicated that foliar spray of (/7 ppm mepi#uat chloride at *1
%"S increased the number of mature pods and pod yield and decreased harvest index in
groundnut. Aul'arni et al. $())7& reported that (111 ppm mepi#uat chloride treatment in
sunflower has increased the seed yield number of filled seeds (119seed weight seed filling
percentage and harvest index.
Phule'ar et al. $())+& noticed that the foliar application of CCC $(111 > 5111 ppm& and
mepi#uat chloride $(111 ppm& has increased pod yield as compared to maleic hydrazide $711 9
(111 ppm& in groundnut.
<adhav $/111& stated that the application of increasing concentrations of 4"5 and 8""
increase the morphological and physiological parameters li'e C4@ @4@ 8"@ and ?"@ in
soybean which inturn led to the increased yield and yield attributes. Similarly Sar'ar et al.
$/11/& showed that double spraying of 4"5 and I"" $(11 ppm& at /1 and 3/ days after sowing
increased ?"I C4@ and 8"@ in soybean $cv.6S95&. The foliar spray of 4"5 $(11 ppm& at 51
%"S had the most regulatory effect to enhance root stem leaf and total dry matter ?"I C4@
@4@ and 8"@ in soybean $cv. P69(& $@ahman et al. /113&.
In a study eggplant variety CK62( was grown in a pot culture experiment. The plants were
treated with certain growth regulators two times i& at vegetative stage and ii& (7 days after ( spray $at
flowering&. The treatments included T(9control T/9A8K5 $(B& T594"5$71 ppm& T39Salicylic acid
$(11 ppm& and T79 $8itrobenzene /71 ppm&. "mong the treatments highest yield was recorded by
Salicylic acid (11 ppm $*11 grams:plant& which was 5/B higher than control yield of 751
grams:plant. This was due to high photosynthetic capacity $as evident by greater chlorophyll
flourescence enhanced nitrate reductase activity and high soluble protein content of leaves& faster
growth greater dry matter accumulation and less percentage of flower shedding. Second best
treatments were 4"5 71 ppm $//*& and 8itrobenzene /71 ppm $(5B&. 4"5 promoted early
flowering in which 71B flowering was achieved by around * days before control. Treatment with
A8K5 slightly increased the yield by around )B over control plants. "ll the treatments had
significantly increased the number of branches:plant number of flowers and fruits compared to
control. The treatments also had significantly reduced flower shedding which is a major yield
constraint in eggplant. The results suggest that yield improvement is possible with chemical
manipulation.
Pan'aj Aumar et al. $/11=& studied the influence of plant growth regulators on
determinate $<S9 557& and semi9 determinate $!"CS9(/3& soybean genotypes and revealed that
the growth retardants TI6" mepi#uat chloride and cycocel increased total dry matter production
and 6!% in both the soybean genotypes. They were more beneficial in terms of translocation of
photo9assimilates towards developing reproductive parts as compared to growth promoter
'inetin and control.
6ora and Sarma $/11=& conducted a study on the effect of 4"5 and Cycocel on pea $cv.
"parna and "zad9P9(&.Concentrations of P4@s used were (1 (11 /71 711 and (111 Jgm?
9(
.
4"5 irrespective of concentrations was most effective in promoting shoot growth. 8umber of
branches per plant was increased with both the hormones. 4"5 at /71 Jgm?
9(
produced
maximum number of pods per plant seed yield seed index and protein content in both the
varieties.
Hmongor $/11*& revealed that exogenous application of 4"5 at * days after emergence at
51 =1 or )1 mg ?
9(
significantly increased plant height first node height leaf area and leaf
number per plant nodulation plant dry matter accumulation pod length pod number:plant seed
number:pod (11 seed weight and seed yield in cowpea. Thus exogenous application of 4"5 can
be used to modify growth and development of some cowpea varieties.
" field study conducted on influence of pinching of apical bud and chemical sprays on
seed yield and #uality of fenugree' indicated that plants pinched at 51 %"S recorded
significantly highest values for productive branches $=.+)& pod length $((./3cm& number of
pods per plant $5=./5& number of seeds per pod $(*.33& test weight $3./7g& and seed yield
$+.+5#:ha& compared to plants pinched at 57 %"S 31 %"S and without pinching. "mong the
chemical sprays 4"5 $(11 ppm& followed by boron $1.(B& produced more number of productive
branches $=.=+ L =.3+ respectively& and seed yield $+.75 L +.1= #:ha respectively&. "mong
interaction effect maximum number of branches $*.(1& with more plant height $=(./1 cm& and
seed yield $).71 #:ha& was recorded with pinching at 51 %"S and 4"5 $(11 ppm& foliar spray
and was closely followed by boron $1.(B& spray. The seed #uality interms of germination vigour
index seedling dry weight speed of germination with lower HC values were also higher with
these interaction treatments $0asudevan et al. /11*&.
Influence of nitrobenzene on growth development and yield attributes of sunflower
$Helianthus annus ?.& was studied by "grawal and 4uhey $/11)&. 8itrobenzene in 7ml?
9(
(1ml?
9(

and (7ml?
9(
was given as foliar spray at different phonological crop growth stages viz. vegetative
head formation flowering and maturity stages. Kbservations on plant height number of leaves head
diameter fresh and dry weight of head @4@ ?"@ leaf area S?- total chlorophyll oil content and
yield components were estimated. The results inferred that nitrobenzene increased crop growth and
yield of sunflower at all concentrations studied over the control.
" study was conducted by Sridhar et al. $/11)& on the effect of foliar spray of
naphthalene acetic acid M8""N $71 (11 and (71 ppm& and mepi#uat chloride M!CN $711 (111
and (711& at 37 and =7 days after transplanting $%"T& on yield physiological and biochemical
parameters of bell pepper $Capsicum annuum, cv. Tarihal ?ocal&. "ll treatments significantly
increased fruit yield number of fruits average fruit weight and number of seeds. Total
chlorophyll ascorbic acid and nitrate reductase activity were also increased. Iruit yield was
significantly high $(7).+) g:plant& with double spray of !C E (71 ppm at 37 %"T and at =7
%"T followed by !C E (711 ppm at 37 %"T $(7=.3) g:plant& compared to control. Irom
economic point of view single spray of !C E 711 ppm at 37 %"T was more profitable
compared to other treatments.
2.1.( Effe%t of enot"pe on rowt&! $io%&emi%al! "ield and #ualit" parameters.
Kne hundred cowpea genotypes were evaluated for eleven metric characters to #uantify the
genetic diversity existing among them by using !ahalanobis %/ statistics. The genotypes fell into
eleven clusters. "mong the eleven #uantitative characters studied (119seed weight contributed
maximum $*7.*5B& towards divergence followed by plant height $+./+B& and seed yield $=.51B&.
Cluster 0I had minimum days to first flower opening and days to maturity and also had maximum
number of pods per plant pod length number of seeds per pod and seed yield. Cluster IO exhibited
lowest means for seed yield (11 seed weight number of seeds per pod pod length primary
branches and plant height. The genotypes from Cluster 0I and IO which have high and low cluster
means for the majority of the characters are suggested as parents for hybridization $4irish et al.
/11(&.
%eshpande et al. $/1(1& experimented with //7 germplasm collections of cowpea
including local types for evaluation for high test weight desirable seed and pod features
earliness and resistance to Cowpea rust $romyces vignae& Cowpea !osaic 0irus $C!0& and
Cercospora leaf spot along with C(7/ $chec'&. The results of the investigation revealed that
fifteen of the accessions showed bold seeds $test weight P (1g&. "ccession number IC/1/)5/
and IC/3*357 showed extra bold seeds $test weight P(3g& and also bold pods. Some of the
accessions identified against earliness are IC/1(1+* IC/1(1)) IC/1/*1* and IC/1/*1) $=+9*7
days maturity&. Such of the superior germplasm lines identified for earliness multiple disease
resistance bold seed $(11 seed weight P (/g& and desirable seed features would be further useful
in Cowpea breeding program as parents.
The potentials of cowpea I/ generation arising from crosses made from 77 exotic parental
lines were studied by !oalafi et al. $/1(1&. I( lines derived from the crosses were advanced to I/
lines in the glass9house and the segregating I/ families were further evaluated in the field with
their parental lines. The following data were collected from the progeny; number of pods per
plant (11 seed9weights fodder yield grain yield and harvest index. 8umber of pods per plant
(11 seed9weight and harvest index showed higher significant differences. The I/ lines obtained a
significant increase in number of pods per plant as compared to their parents thus indicating the
potentials of progeny for higher pod production. 2arvest index for I/ lines varied between 1.(=
and 1.=1 $dual9purpose type&.
6ou'ar et al. $/1((& conducted a trial to develop and deploy cowpea varieties with higher
nutritional value a. "s a first step in the enhancement of mineral content in cowpea grains
several germplasm lines $(73(& of different origins were collected and the grains were analysed for
protein and nine mineral contents. The data generated from the chemical analysis were subjected to
the Qmixture of normal distributionsGG clustering method which distributed the cowpea lines into
nine groups. 4roups 4* and 4) contained (*3 genotypes and these were characterized by high
mineral concentrations. The mean nutritional content values for group 4) were /3.*B for protein
and 7+.) 3(.7 ((1* /(5/ (7/+/ and 7==3 mg:'g for Ie Dn Ca !g A and P respectively. Kn
the other hand the 5=5 lines ma'ing up groups 4/ 45 and 4= showed low amounts of nutrients in
their grains. Some of the lines in 4* and 4) would be good as parents to use in breeding
programmes that aimed at developing nutrient9dense cowpea varieties.
Kladejo et al. $/1((& conducted a study with an objective to determine the
interrelationships among the physiological traits of thirty cowpea cultivars and identify suitable
traits for indirect selection for improved crop yield. @esults showed significant genotype
differences for all phenological and morphological traits except grain yield and associated yield
components. 4rain yield was positively correlated with all morphological traits except the two
peduncle traits and negatively correlated with flowering traits. IT)+9(5(9( was the best cultivar
based on multiple traits and was identified as the ideal cultivar that can be used as a reference
chec'.
6asaran et al. $/1((& evaluated nine cowpea $Vigna unguiculata ?.& genotypes for grain
yield and agronomic parameters. 4enotypes were evaluated for plant height first pod height
from ground branches number per plant main branch diameter pod length seed number per
pod thousand seed weight and seed yield. The results indicated that the effect of genotype was
significant $PR1.17& for many of the traits studied. ?ine 4( had the highest plant height $(//.3
cm&. Seed number per pod was higher in line 4( $).)& than in other genotypes. Thousand seed
weight ranged between (5+.* and /55./ g. Seed yield ranged from (1(1 to (3/1 'g ha9(. The
highest seed yield $(3/1 'g ha9(& was obtained in cultivar Aaragoz.
2.2 Studies on t&e effi%a%" of pre)sanitation inse%ti%idal spra" under field %ondition on
stora$ilit" of %owpea seeds.
Cowpea suffers heavy losses due to bruchids $Callosobruchus chinensis&. It is also
'nown as pulse beetle. "lthough mainly it is a pest of storage but its infestation may start from
the field itself during the pod development stage. The extent of infestation varies from one
agroclimatic region to another and also with the variety of the crop being grown.
The literature pertaining to the biology field infestation and control of stored product
insects in general and Callosobruchus chinensis $?.& in particular was reviewed and presented in
separate sections.
2.2.1 Field infestation of %rops $" stored pests
The studies indicate that many stored grain pests infestation starts in the field and get carried into
the storage. Kften the extent of infestation has been found to be appreciably high in storage
conditions
" field infestation study of corn revealed significantly high infestation level by flour
beetle Cathartrus cassia $7*.*( B& and rice weevil !itophilus oryzae $?.& $/+.1/ B&
$Cartwright ()5)&.
Iloyd et al. $()7)& studied the damage to corn by rice weevil $!.oryzae& in ?ouisiana and found
that it suffered (1 per cent 'ernel damage during harvest time. This was gradually increased
during storage. Sntil !ay it was (* per cent and in <uly the average 'ernel damage was more
than 51 per cent.
4iles and "shman $()*(& studied the incidence of maize weevil $!itophilus zeamais
!ots.& in maize ears in the standing crop and also during storage in Aenya. It was estimated that
3/ per cent of the tightly sheathed ears were infested compared to 7( and 53 per cent of the
loosely and open sheathed ears respectively.
The flight habit of the maize weevil $!. zeamais& was studied by Chernut $()*/&. 2is
study indicated that the weevil does not move from a released point to the field beyond a
distance of 1./7 mile. 2e also stated that after the field is infested there may be maize weevil
movement from the field bac' to the storage area.
The angumois grain moth $!itotroga cerealella Kliv.& and the maize weevil $!. zeamais&
have been recorded infesting standing crops of paddy and maize. !. cerealella was found in both
paddy and maize while !. zeamais was recorded from maize crop only $Singh et al. ()*+&.
2owlader et al. $()++& investigated the pre9harvest infestation of paddy by stored grain
pests in 6angladesh. Paddy ear heads were drawn from fields located at various distances from
paddy stores at different times before !. cerealella emerged. 8o insects emerged from samples
collected (/ days before harvest but their numbers increased to around one per cent per spi'elet
on the day before harvest.
2.2.2 Field infestation of pulse %rop $" pulse $eetle
!orstat $()(/& reported the presence of "ruchus ornatus 6ohemann in lablab bean and
cowpea field in 0enezuela. @amarao and Aasergode $()(*& recorded "ruchus chinensis on field
bean $#olichos lablab& in the field.
6ridwell $()(+& reported a bruchid similar to "ruchus ornatus which he called as
%olichos weevil in field bean field and he also made field observations of eggs on the field. 2e
recorded "ruchus theobromae in red gram field and found it to breed successfully in the store.
Iletcher $()(+& reported the infestation of cowpea pods by C. chinensis in India and he
recorded that the pod infestation was about /95 per cent. 4hosh $()5*& from 6urma reported that
"ruchus phaseoli $Iab.& infested both in store and in cowpea fields. Ssman and Puttarudraiah
$()77& recorded "ruchus chinensis infesting fieldbean crop in the field.
%avies $()7)& reported that in Sganda C. chinensis and C. maculatus infest cowpea
greengram and pigeon pea pods in the field. Prevett $()=(& found that the field infestation of
cowpea by C. maculatus and "ruchus atrolineatus $Iab.& 5.7 and (.) per cent respectively. 2e
recorded *.7 3./ mean number of eggs of C. maculatus and ". atrolineatus per pod respectively.
"ruchus pisorum $?.& is a serious pest on peas and oviposits on the young pods. The
maximum of two eggs were found per pod and the infestation of pods in peas was about 5.3 per
cent $@eichart ()=3&.
" study by 6indra and <o'hmola $()=*& indicated that the per cent infestation of "ruchus
spp. in pigeonpea varied from (./ to (1./ per cent with a mean of 7.(7 per cent on pod basis and
the percentage of infestation on seed basis varied from 1.3 to 1.+.
Prabha'ara $()*)& recorded that the field infestation by bruchids was maximum in redgram $5.55
B& followed by fieldbean $/.1 B& greengram $(./= B& cowpea $(.1 B& and horsegram $1.7 B&
while on blac'gram and soybean no infestation were noticed.
Studies by Ahanvil'ar and %alvi $()+3& on the carryover of C. chinensis from field to
store revealed a very low level of field infestation which when carried over to the storage caused
heavy grain losses.
Patnai' $()+3& observed that three species of pulse beetle viz. C. maculatus, C. chinensis
and C. theobromae infesting standing pigeonpea crop. The extent of pod damage ranged from
1.35 to /.*+ per cent and 1.5/ to /./3 per cent in varieties of 2.**9/(= and Aarti'a respectively.
It was also found that C. chinensis emerged from the variety $arti%a in greater numbers.
The pulse beetles C. maculatus and C. chinensis were found to attac' mungbean and
soybean in the field. "lthough the infestation started in the field before harvest serious damage
was found only in storage. There were some differences in the morphological characters of the
adults collected from the field and storage $Promsatit ()+=&.
Shiv $()+*& recorded C. chinensis and C. theobromae infesting the pods of the standing
crop of pigeonpea varieties. The extent of pod damage varied from /.1 to 3.1 per cent with a
mean pod damage of (.3 per cent.
2.2.' *ontrol of field infestation
Information on the use of insecticides in control of bruchids under field condition is rather very
scanty. "vailable information does indicate that stored grain pests infestation of field crops can
be controlled only to a certain extent.
Ahanvi'ar and %alvi $()+3& studied the field infestation of greengram by C. maculatus
and its control by using insecticides viz. %usting with (1 per cent 62C and (1 per cent carbaryl
and spray solution of 1.17 per cent malathion 1.17 per cent monocrotophos 1.17 per cent
cypermethrin and 1.17 per cent endosulfan. 6ased on the eggs laid per (11 pods and subse#uent
adult emergence they concluded that insecticidal application failed to reduce the carryover of the
pest from field to store even with two sprays at an interval of (7 days starting from 31 days after
sowing.
Aul'arni $())1& conducted an experiment of field infestation of fieldbean by C.
theobromae and its control. 2e tried with nine insecticides which were applied only once when
the pods turned yellow colour. 6ased on the observations /1 days after spraying on the per cent
holed pods he recorded that the minimum per cent of damaged was /1.5 $#uinolphos& and
maximum was 5=.= $monocrotophos& which were followed by 5(.= 5(./ /).1 /).1 /=.( /5.+
and //./ per cent for dimethoate chlorpyriphos fenvalerate methyl parathion endosulfan and
malathion respectively. 2owever none of the insecticides were able to prevent field infestation
completely.
Sjagir and Chaudhary $())*& studied the field efficacy of ten insecticides viz.,
cypermethrin deltamethrin dimethoate fenvalerate fluvalinate malathion methyldemeton
monocrotophos teflubenzuron and triazophos against major insect pests of mungbean. Hach
insecticide was applied twice first at seedling stage and second at flowering stage of the crop.
Kn the basis of pest population stemfly infestation pod borer damage grain yield and
benefit:cost ratio cypermethrin monocrotophos methyldemeton dimethoate malathion and
fenvalerate were effective whereas deltamethrin fluvalinate teflubenzuron and triazophos were
not effective.
@avindra $())+& carried out trials to control the field infestation of cowpea by pre9harvest
spraying of insecticides namely #uinolphos at 1.17 per cent and malathion at 1.17 per cent
concentration. The study showed that spraying of malathion at both matured green pod and
yellow pod stage was effective in controlling the field infestation of pulse beetle and such an
insecticidal treatment resulted in completely preventing the grain damage $1.11 B& this also
resulted in the harvested produce being free from grain infestation.
Sara et al. $/113& evaluated under field condition for the efficacy of plant products as
insecticides against cowpea beetle Callosobruchus maculatus on stored cowpea. They reported
that leaf powder of &icus e'asperata caused a decrease in both the percentage of infested beans
and the number of emerged beetles.
Aawu'i et al. $/117& evaluated the effectiveness of two synthetic insecticides
$cypermethrin and fenitrothion& and three plant9based insecticides for the control of
Callosobruchus spp. They reported that cowpea sprayed with insecticides registered significantly
lower damage than the unsprayed cowpea with minor differences among the insecticides
efficacy. Insecticide application did not significantly reduce Callosobruchus spp. field infestation
except during the first season of /115.