Design and Development of a Walking Apparatus

Thesis submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the degree of
Master of Technology
by
Prabhakaran N
(11410317)

Under the Guidance of
Prof. S. K. Dwivedy and Prof. P.S. Robi



DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GUWAHATI
July 2013




Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati-781039, Assam, India
July 2013



CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work presented in the thesis entitled Design and Development of a
Walking Apparatus is carried out by Prabhakaran N (Roll no. 11410317) for the Master of
Technology in Mechanical Engineering with specialisation Machine Design from Indian
Institute of Technology, Guwahati under our supervision. The work has not been submitted
anywhere for the award of any other degree or diploma.



Dr. P. S. Robi
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati -781039
India
Dr. Santosha Kumar Dwivedy
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati -781039
India


Acknowledgements
During my years as a Masters student of Machine Design in Indian Institute of Technology,
Guwahati, I received tremendous support and assistance from a number of individuals.
Foremost I express my sincere gratitude to Prof S. K. Dwivedy and Prof. P. S. Robi for being
excellent thesis advisors and teaching mentors. The experience I gained from them in
formulating theories and doing experiments will be helpful in my career. I express my deep
gratitude to Department of Electronics and Information Technology (DeiTY) for funding this
project.
I would like to thank the following people:
Dr. Atanu Banerjee, Assistant Professor and Theory of Machines lab in charge for his support
and providing space to carry out project work.
Dr. Deba Kumar Sarma, workshop superintendent for his continuous support in allocating
machines.
Mr. Minesh Ch. Medhi, Mr. Upen Gohain, and Mr. Dhaneswar Khaklary, Senior Technicians
in central workshop for their help in machining.
I would also like to stress that the work presented here is the fruit of the effort of several
people, who assisted me during the last one year. Following is the list of these people and
their contribution to the project.
Mr. ArunJyoti Borgohain for his work on analytical solution, experiments and suggestions in
leg mechanism. Without his help, walking apparatus would still be in the design phase.
Mr. Subhranshu Sekar Nanda for his material purchase, machining, and fabrication work.
Ms. Bhaswaty Bordoloi for her support on everything related to purchase of electronic
components.
Mr. Himadri Mandal for his support in manufacturing components.
Mr. Ayushman Gogoi for his support on everything related to programming.
In addition I am thankful to Mr. Mansimran Singh, a final year B.Tech. student in Mechanical
Engineering Department for his valuable technical support.
Prabhakaran N


Abstract
In this project, a fully selfcontained walking apparatus for differently abled people having
difficulty in moving around is being developed. This walking apparatus is a wheelleg hybrid
system with allterrain capability which can carry a person. The principal aim is to develop a
walking chair that could replace the conventional wheel chair by providing high level of
mobility on almost all of the terrains.
The walking apparatus developed in this project will incorporate a dynamic walking motion
resulting from swinging of supports (legs) in the manner as a four legged animal. The legs on
such an apparatus will need to have two functions, to support the weight of the apparatus and
payload, and a forward motion.
In this project, literature survey for each and every aspect for the development of such
walking apparatus has been done. This survey had to be thorough because walking chair is
equivalent to a walking robot, and its design and achievement of stable walking is dependent
on numerous factors. In the first step, literature survey on commercially available all-terrain
wheel chairs was done and various mechanisms involved are thoroughly studied.
Due to the constraints imposed by complexity, time, etc. it was decided to design a first
prototype of walking apparatus for level walking gait. Based on the study of numerous leg
mechanisms and components, concept model was proposed without taking into account the
material strength of the components. Dynamic simulation was carried to analyze the stability
of the apparatus. Taking into account the details, manufacturing drawing was created and
physical scaled model was built and being tested in lab. Prototype of the walking apparatus
has demonstrated its walking capabilities on level terrain.




















Dedicated to my guides, beloved parents, and friends
i

Contents
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. iv
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
Nomenclature.................................................................................................................................. ix
Chapter 1 Introduction and Literature Review ........................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Reasons for Development of Multi-Legged Walking Machines. ..................................... 1
1.3 Survey of wheelchairs ....................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1. Commercial Wheelchairs .............................................................................................. 3
1.3.2. Early wheelchairs .......................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Literature Review ............................................................................................................. 8
1.5 Motivation for the present work ..................................................................................... 21
1.6 Objective of the present work ......................................................................................... 22
1.7 Thesis Organization ........................................................................................................ 23
Chapter 2 Preliminary concept design of walking apparatus ................................................... 24
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 24
2.2 Analysis and concept validation ..................................................................................... 24
2.2.1 Seating adjustment mechanism ................................................................................... 25
2.2.2 Steering mechanism .................................................................................................... 26
2.3 Gait analysis of preliminary walking apparatus.............................................................. 27
2.4 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 3 Leg Design by Four Bar Linkage Synthesis ............................................................ 28
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Design Targets and specifications .................................................................................. 28
3.2.1 Wheel Leg Hybrid Design .......................................................................................... 28
ii

3.2.2 Lesser Leg Inertia ........................................................................................................ 28
3.2.3 Minimum amount of actuation .................................................................................... 29
3.2.4 Mechanical design with passively stable characteristics............................................. 29
3.2.5 Actuator selection ........................................................................................................ 30
3.3 3D CAD model ............................................................................................................... 30
3.4 Position Analysis of Eight Bar Leg Mechanism ............................................................. 32
3.5 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 4 Design of Walking Apparatus ................................................................................. 44
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 44
4.2 Scaled down model and stability .................................................................................... 44
4.2.1 Stability analysis ......................................................................................................... 45
4.2.2 Gait diagram ................................................................................................................ 45
4.3 Trajectory Planning ......................................................................................................... 46
4.4 Dynamic simulation using Creo Elements/Pro ............................................................... 47
4.5 3D CAD model and FEM analysis ................................................................................. 48
4.6 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 5 Detailed design and Manufacturing ......................................................................... 50
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 50
5.2 Detailed design ............................................................................................................... 50
5.3 Manufacturing ................................................................................................................. 55
5.4 First walking apparatus assembly ................................................................................... 56
5.5 Bearing assembly ............................................................................................................ 57
5.6 Second walking apparatus assembly ............................................................................... 63
5.7 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 6 Control system ......................................................................................................... 66
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 66
iii

6.2 Single axis PID control ................................................................................................... 66
6.3 Component selection methodology................................................................................. 70
6.3.1 DC motor and leg mechanism ..................................................................................... 70
6.3.2 DC motor driver .......................................................................................................... 72
6.3.3 Optocoupler ................................................................................................................. 74
6.3.4 Optical encoders .......................................................................................................... 77
6.3.5 Flexible coupling ......................................................................................................... 82
6.3.6 Encoder with hollow shaft .......................................................................................... 85
6.3.7 Arduino Mega 2560 .................................................................................................... 87
6.4 Control modes of walking apparatus .............................................................................. 89
6.5 Operator controls ............................................................................................................ 90
6.6 Feedback system ............................................................................................................. 90
6.7 Control configuration ...................................................................................................... 90
6.8 Control circuit ................................................................................................................. 91
6.9 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 91
Chapter 7 Conclusion and future scope ................................................................................... 92
7.1 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 92
7.2 Future scope .................................................................................................................... 93
Chapter 8 References ............................................................................................................... 94
iv

List of Figures
Figure 1.1 (a) iBOT mobility system. (Courtesy, Independence Tech). (b) Tankchair.
(Courtesy, Tankchair mobility). ................................................................................................. 4
Figure 1.2 (a) Rear wheel drive. (b) Front wheel drive. (Courtesy, Callidai Motor Works). ... 4
Figure 1.3 Wheel chair with pneumatic tires. (Courtesy, Independent living technology
centre, NSW). ............................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 1.4 Photograph of the stair-climbing wheelchair rolling down stairs. (Courtesy,
Professor Shigeo Hirose, Tokyo Institute of Technology). ........................................................ 5
Figure 1.5 (a) CAD model (b) Hybrid all-terrain wheelchair. (Courtesy, University of
Pennsylvania). ............................................................................................................................ 6
Figure 1.6 Stair climbing wheelchair. (Courtesy, MIT). ............................................................ 7
Figure 1.7 Specific power versus attainable speed of various locomotion mechanisms [15]. ... 9
Figure 1.8 Leg numbering for a quadruped. ............................................................................. 11
Figure 1.9 Support pattern of a quadruped. .............................................................................. 13
Figure 1.10 (a) Stability margin and (b) Longitudinal stability margin of a quadruped. ......... 13
Figure 1.11 Quadruped creeping gaits [21]. ............................................................................. 16
Figure 1.12 (a) Gait diagram and (b) Support pattern of wave gait. ....................................... 17
Figure 1.13 Geometry of four standard obstacles. (a) a gradient (b) a ditch (c) a vertical step
(d) an isolate wall. .................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.1 Preliminary walking apparatus design. ................................................................... 24
Figure 2.2 (a) Frame made of thick plates. (b) Fringe plot of stress analysis. ......................... 25
Figure 2.3 Preliminary walking apparatus. (a) Frame. (b) Steering mechanism. .................... 25
Figure 2.4 Proposed leg arrangement. ...................................................................................... 26
Figure 2.5 (a) Proposed leg mechanism. (b) Desired foot trajectory. ..................................... 26
Figure 2.6 Workspace generated by leg mechanism. ............................................................... 27
v

Figure 3.1 Different leg configurations. (a) Forward/backward. (b) Forward/forward. (c)
Backward/forward. (d) Backward/backward. ........................................................................... 30
Figure 3.2 Leg link configuration. ............................................................................................ 31
Figure 3.3 Four position synthesis by graphical method. ......................................................... 31
Figure 3.4 Link lengths of leg mechanism. .............................................................................. 32
Figure 3.5 Link labeling and generated foot trajectory. ........................................................... 33
Figure 3.6 Workspaces generated by leg mechanism. .............................................................. 40
Figure 3.7 CAD model of leg mechanism. ............................................................................... 41
Figure 3.8 Trajectory generated by leg mechanism. ............................................................... 42
Figure 3.9 Variation of Joint torque vs. joint angle. ................................................................. 42
Figure 3.10 Variation of horizontal velocity of leg mechanism. .............................................. 42
Figure 4.1 Scaled down model of walking apparatus. .............................................................. 44
Figure 4.2 (a) Gait diagram of walking apparatus with 0.8 = | . (b) Support pattern. ............. 45
Figure 4.3 Joint angle of Legs. ................................................................................................. 46
Figure 4.4 Joint velocity of Legs. ............................................................................................. 47
Figure 4.5 Screen shot of dynamic simulation in Creo Elements/Pro. ..................................... 47
Figure 4.6 Support pattern of dynamic simulation model. ....................................................... 48
Figure 4.7 3D CAD model of walking apparatus. .................................................................... 49
Figure 4.8 (a) Boundary conditions. (b) Fringe plot of stress analysis. ................................... 49
Figure 5.1 Detailed design of walking apparatus. .................................................................... 51
Figure 5.2 Detailed design of frame. ........................................................................................ 52
Figure 5.3 Detailed design of leg mechanism. ......................................................................... 53
Figure 5.4 Detailed design showing link lengths. .................................................................... 54
Figure 5.5 (a) Machined links. (b) Aluminium frame assembly. ............................................. 55
Figure 5.6 Leg assembly with DC motor. ............................................................................... 56
Figure 5.7 First walking apparatus assembly with control circuit. ........................................... 57
vi

Figure 5.8 Bearing arrangement ............................................................................................... 57
Figure 5.9 Bearing loads. .......................................................................................................... 59
Figure 5.10 Recommended dimensions for shaft and housing in SKF bearing catalogue. ...... 61
Figure 5.11 Second walking apparatus assembly with control circuit. .................................... 63
Figure 5.12 Walking apparatuses standing together ................................................................. 63
Figure 5.13 Walking apparatus demonstrating its walking capability in lab. ......................... 64
Figure 6.1 Test setup for DC motor control ............................................................................. 66
Figure 6.2 Component layout of layout. ................................................................................... 67
Figure 6.3 Single-axis PID controller. ...................................................................................... 68
Figure 6.4 Test circuit for motor control. ................................................................................. 69
Figure 6.5 DC motor with gearbox. .......................................................................................... 70
Figure 6.6 Hercules DC motor driver. ...................................................................................... 72
Figure 6.7 Pin connection details. ............................................................................................ 74
Figure 6.8 Internal circuitry of an optocoupler......................................................................... 74
Figure 6.9 External interfacing of an optocoupler .................................................................... 75
Figure 6.10 Slotted metal disc .................................................................................................. 75
Figure 6.11 Feedback circuit with optocoupler. ....................................................................... 76
Figure 6.12 Feedback circuit mounting arrangement ............................................................... 76
Figure 6.13 Incremental encoder with shielded cable. ............................................................. 77
Figure 6.14 Working principle of line driver output ................................................................ 80
Figure 6.15 Flexible coupling for encoder. .............................................................................. 82
Figure 6.16 Types of shaft misalignment. ................................................................................ 82
Figure 6.17 Details of rotary encoder mounting. ..................................................................... 83
Figure 6.18 Encoder with hollow shaft .................................................................................... 85
Figure 6.19 Main shaft of leg mechanism. .............................................................................. 85
Figure 6.20 Hollow encoder mounting arrangement. ............................................................... 86
vii

Figure 6.21 Arduino Mega 2560 board .................................................................................... 87
Figure 6.22 Operator pendant box for controlling walking apparatus. .................................... 90
Figure 6.23 Control circuit of walking apparatus. .................................................................... 91

viii

List of Tables
Table 1.1 Design specifications of walking apparatus. ............................................................ 22
Table 5.1 Data of deep groove ball bearing, single row [33]. .................................................. 60
Table 5.2 Bearing load and life calculation .............................................................................. 61
Table 5.3 ISO tolerance limits for shafts and housings. ........................................................... 62
Table 6.1 DC motor specifications. .......................................................................................... 71
Table 6.2 Specifications of DC motor drive. ............................................................................ 72
Table 6.3 Driver connector pin functions. ................................................................................ 73
Table 6.4 Truth table for drive control operation. .................................................................... 74
Table 6.5 Ratings and specifications of encoder. .................................................................... 81
Table 6.6 Flexible coupling specifications. .............................................................................. 84
Table 6.7 Characteristics of resin coupling. ............................................................................. 84
Table 6.8 Specifications of hollow encoder. ............................................................................ 87
Table 6.9 Features of Arduino Mega 2560. .............................................................................. 89


ix

Nomenclature
p
A Projected area in
2
m
B Magnetic flux density in m A N
CPR Count per revolution
F Force in N
a
i Armature current in A
J Rotor inertia in s Nm
2

2
k Torque constant of a motor in A m N
3
k Motor back . f . m . e constant in s rad V
a
L Armature inductance in H
P Stroke pitch in mm
PPR Pulse per revolution.
R Leg stroke in mm
a
R Armature resistance in ohm
b
R Stroke at break point in mm
t , T Torque in m N
a
v Armature voltage in V
b
v Back . f . m . e in V
| Duty factor of a leg.
o Bearing stress in MPa
( ) e , s O Angular velocity in s rad
1

Chapter 1
Introduction and Literature Review
1.1 Introduction
Legged locomotion has been used by biological systems for hundreds of millions of years. In
contrast, wheeled locomotion has only a history of several thousand years. Wheeled vehicles
operate better on paved surfaces than on natural terrain. According to the U.S. Army [1]
approximately half of the Earths land surface is inaccessible to wheeled or tracked
locomotion. Animals and human beings using legged locomotion have little difficulty with
most of the remaining % 50 of the land.
The artificial legged locomotion has not been utilized for transportation in the past; the most
important reason is that fully adaptive leg must be actively coordinated. This active
coordination also requires some theory which could be used as a basis for the control
algorithms which would actually perform the coordination.
1.2 Reasons for Development of Multi-Legged Walking Machines.
About % 10 of the global population, i.e. about 650 million people are differently abled.
Studies indicate that, of these, some % 10 require a wheelchair. It is thus estimated that about
% 1 of a total population or % 10 of a differently abled population need wheelchairs, which
is about 65 million people worldwide [2]. Wheelchair provision is about enabling people
with disabilities to become mobile, remain healthy and participate fully in community life.
The early wheelchairs found widespread use less than 300 years ago [3]. These simple
wheelchairs have since evolved into more complex multi-degree-of-freedom, mechanical and
electro-mechanical devices. In particular, robotic technology has been used to enhance the
quality of life of people with disabilities, primarily by enhancing a person's capability for
independent living and professional productivity.
At the present time, all wheelchairs are based on wheeled locomotion. Despite rapid scientific
and technological progress in allied disciplines, there has been very little innovation in
wheelchair design over the last 300 200 years. The folding wheelchair was invented in
2

1933, and powered wheelchairs were developed in the early s ' 1970 [4]. New materials such
as plastics, fibre-reinforced composites and beryllium-aluminium alloys have found their way
into the design and manufacture of lighter, stronger and more reliable wheelchairs. The
wheelchair industry has also benefited from the development of lighter, efficient, durable and
reliable motors, better amplifiers and controllers and most important of all superior batteries.
Wheeled locomotion are so well-established in our culture that it is natural to think that men
and animals have been forced to adopt an inferior legged locomotion scheme due to the
inability of nature to create a continuously rotating joint. However, recent research reveals
that this is an incorrect conclusion. In his book [5], Bekker cited an average speed on rough,
hard terrain of mph 10 5 for tracked locomotion, and mph 5 3 for wheeled locomotion,
while animals can reach a maximum speed of the order of mph 35 in similar conditions.
Although it is true that very heavy and powerful tanks can achieve higher speeds, it is only at
the cost of enormous power consumption and damage to the terrain. Also, for a terrain with a
inch 10 of plastic soil, the power required for propulsion is roughly ton hp 10 for a tracked
locomotion and ton hp 15 for a wheeled locomotion, but, for a legged locomotion, only
ton hp 7 for a legged walking machine.
In another book [6], Bekker applied soil mechanics approach to explain the superior mobility
of legged locomotion exhibited by animals in comparison to wheeled or tracked locomotion.
That is, a wheel or track sinks into soft soil and produces a depression out of which it is
continuously trying to climb, while legs create only discrete footprints in which any back slip
pushes up soil behind the foot which increases traction.
Moreover, comfort in transportation, or isolation from terrain irregularities, in irregular terrain
also favours legged locomotion. Above a certain level of terrain roughness it is more
comfortable to ride on horseback, than to sit in a vibrating wheeled or tracked locomotion
while both are travelling at the same speed. This comfort in transportation is also important in
autonomous locomotion which must function as instrument platforms without any vibration.
Wheeled or tracked locomotion substantially damage natural terrain by creating continuous
rut, but walking machines leave only discrete footprints [7].



3

Hence, at least five potential advantages of legged locomotion over wheeled or tracked
vehicles in rough terrain can be concluded from the above discussion. These advantages are:
1. Higher speed.
2. Better fuel economy.
3. Greater mobility.
4. Better isolation from terrain irregularities.
5. Less environmental damage.
In addition to these potential advantages as incentive to develop legged locomotion, as
mentioned above roughly % 50

of the land surface Earth is not accessible to conventional
wheeled or tracked locomotion [1].
1.3 Survey of wheelchairs
This section focuses on the survey of few commercially available powered wheelchairs, and
early wheelchairs at experimental level. Features, motivation of the design, advantages and
disadvantages of powered wheelchairs are analyzed.
1.3.1. Commercial Wheelchairs
No single model or size of wheelchair can meet the needs of all users, and the diversity
among users creates a need for different types of wheelchair. Manual wheelchairs, powered
wheelchairs, wheelchairs for temporary users, wheelchairs for long-term users, and
wheelchair for user with postural support needs are available in market. Some of the
alternatives of wheelchair are discussed here.
The iBOT shown in Figure 1.1(a) is a powered wheelchair from Independence Technology, a
Johnson & Johnson company, provides mobility on smooth, inclined, across obstacles,
uneven terrain, curbs, gravel, and soft surfaces, mobility at elevated height, ascend and
descend of stairs. Its biggest disadvantage is cost of the wheelchair is INR 000 30, 1, .
Tankchair shown in Figure 1.1 (b) is a custom off-road tracked wheelchair that can go
anywhere outdoors. Tankchair conquers streams, mud, sand, and gravel, using rubber tracks
and high-torque electric motors. With a little observation, this tracked wheelchair can be
considered to be a wheelchair which carries and lays its own road. In tankchair, the stair
climbing capability was achieved by use of the tracks. Though the tracked vehicles are known
4

for their all-terrain capabilities, such systems require very heavy duty motors to traverse even
on the flat terrain and thus are relatively bulkier.

Figure 1.1 (a) iBOT mobility system. (Courtesy, Independence Tech). (b) Tankchair.
(Courtesy, Tankchair mobility).
Figure 1.2 shows two types of wheel drive for wheelchairs in commercial use. Placing drive
wheels in rear as shown in Figure 1.2(a) will fail to climb over the obstacle, forcing the rear
wheels to just spin in place. With front-mounted drive wheels shown in Figure 1.2(b) easily
climbs over the obstacle. With one or two castor on the rear to avoid tipping over, the
maneuverability of the wheelchair around a corner is less difficult [8]. For all terrain mobility
pneumatic (air-filled) tire shown in Figure 1.3 is better than solid-rubber type due to the
shock-inhibiting effect and superior grip capability it will provide compared to its hard-rubber
counterpart.

Figure 1.2 (a) Rear wheel drive. (b) Front wheel drive. (Courtesy, Callidai Motor Works).
5


Figure 1.3 Wheel chair with pneumatic tires. (Courtesy, Independent living technology
centre, NSW).
1.3.2. Early wheelchairs
Several experimental wheelchairs have been built in the past and few alternatives are
discussed here. One innovative design proposed by Professor Shigeo Hirose [9] is shown in
Figure 1.4. A novel remotecenter mechanism moves the seat on an elliptical arc as the attitude
of the chair changes and maintains the posture of the user independent of the wheelchair
posture. A minimal degree of active control is required, which is accomplished by a simple
attitude sensor and a relatively small actuator.

Figure 1.4 Photograph of the stair-climbing wheelchair rolling down stairs. (Courtesy,
Professor Shigeo Hirose, Tokyo Institute of Technology).
6

An alternative design for a wheelchair for locomotion on uneven terrain tries to combines the
advantages of legged locomotion (versatility, adaptability) with wheeled locomotion
(reliability, superior stability). This hybrid [10] wheelchair has two powered rear wheels, two
front castors, and two legs as shown in Figure 1.5. The experimental prototype is equipped
with six DC motors, position and force sensors and an on-board computer. Its mass is
kg 28.2 without the batteries and controller, and can climb a mm 300 curb with a payload of
kg 68.2 . The powered wheels are used to navigate on a flat surface as in a conventional
wheelchair, while the legs and wheels are used to traverse uneven terrain.
In addition to enhancing the chair's mobility, the legs provide additional traction on
unprepared and slippery surfaces. The controller uses foot force information to coordinate the
actuators of the legs and wheels so that the tendency to slip is minimized.

Figure 1.5 (a) CAD model (b) Hybrid all-terrain wheelchair. (Courtesy, University of
Pennsylvania).
A stair climbing wheelchair shown in Figure 1.6 designed by Professor Ernesto Blanco moves
using an electric motor, even though, this wheelchair is not commercially available. The
approach consisted of a reclinableseat wheelchair provided with retractable, spring-loaded
spokes that comes out of the rims when the chair is tilted for climbing. The spokes in essence
behave as compliant pinions against the stairs as a rack. As a result the wheels adapt to any
type of stairs and will not slip because the static reactions are always vertical and have no
tendency to slip, besides that, they are rubber-tipped at the spokes. The tilting frames are also
provided with an additional fixed spokes wheel at the back side to facilitate climbing.
7


Figure 1.6 Stair climbing wheelchair. (Courtesy, MIT).
After analyzing the commercially available wheelchairs and wheelchairs at experimental level
some important features, advantages, disadvantages of wheelchairs and terms or design
aspects are summarized. Tracked wheels have amazing amount of traction which enables all
terrain capability and it is able to turn on its own axis. Loose, sandy pits, rocky, uneven
terrain, thick bush, and even swamps would be no problem. The main disadvantage is, of
course, the skidding and bulkiness makes it unfit for indoor purpose.
Thus from the preliminary literature survey it can be concluded that the all of the presently
available solutions have one or more issues for being the candidate of the all- terrain mobility
device. At the same time as shown in [11], [12], [13] and number of other articles in the
regime of legged robotics, legged robots can be used for traversing all of the terrains
mentioned below but this advantage comes at the cost of the precise control that is required by
such machines to balance on their own against the external disturbance forces.
Types of terrains which one encounters in day to day life have been identified as : Stairs and
soft surface like sand or wet mud, rough surface like stones and unconstructed paths, inclined
surface (ramps), slippery surfaces, narrow pathways, flat and even terrains.
As mentioned earlier, wheels are the most efficient on the flat terrain while legs have been
identified as the most convenient means for traversing the uneven terrains.
8

1.4 Literature Review
1.4.1. Locomotion
This section focuses on types of locomotion, their relative advantages and disadvantages
based on their usages, performance, speed, and stability.
Legged locomotion mechanisms are often inspired by biological systems, and are very
successful in moving through a wide area of harsh environments. Legged locomotion is more
efficient, speedy, and versatile than the one by track and wheeled vehicles when it operates on
a rough terrain, steeps stairs or avoids obstacles [7], [14].
Wheeled locomotion has good performance on a paved, flat surface and moreover control of
wheel is easy and direct. Traditionally, most wheelchairs have been equipped with wheels and
often have limitations of indoor use only. It provides a stable base on which a wheelchair can
maneuver and is easy to build. A wheel requires a relatively flat surface on which to operate.
However, in other instances the environment cannot be controlled or predicted, a wheelchair
must be able to adapt to its surroundings. Such a surrounding can be bumps, rocks, sand,
grass, which might be found outdoors, or places where wheelchair would have to step over the
obstacles such as pipes running across the path and where they have to move on
discontinuous terrain like steps which imposes high demands on legged locomotion and
preclude the use of wheels. Research into legged locomotion promises to overcome these
difficulties. The complexity of control required for a legged robot to navigate autonomously
over unfamiliar terrain has made them difficult to build.
Legs and wheels are two widely adopted methodologies utilized on the ground locomotion
platforms. After a long evolution process, most ground animals are evolved with agile and
robust legs which are capable of driving their body to move on the uneven natural terrains
smoothly and rapidly. Wheels, in contrary, are the smart human inventions specialized in
rolling on the flat ground, whose excellent performance of power efficiency and traveling
speed sets a high standard which can hardly competed by legs. Thus, a leg-wheel hybrid
platform with great mobility on both flat grounds (by wheels) and rough terrains (by legs)
seems to be on the track of future mobile platforms suitable for general indoor-outdoor
environments.
9

For locomotion concept, doesnt matter if it is wheel, leg or a different concept, there are three
core issues: stability, the characteristics of ground contact and the type of environment, as
described in [15].
A legged locomotion is well suitable for rough terrain; it is able to climb steps, to cross gaps
which are as large as its stride and to walk on extremely rough terrain where, due to ground
irregularities, the use of wheels would not be feasible. To make a legged robot mobile each
leg must have at least two degrees of freedom (DOF). For each DOF one joint is needed,
which is usually powered by one servo. Because of this a four legged robot needs at least
eight servos to travel around. Figure 1.7 shows the energy consumption of different
locomotion concepts. It strikes that the power consumption of legged locomotion is nearly
two orders of magnitude more inefficient than of wheeled locomotion on hard, flat surface
(e.g. railway wheel on steel). One reason for this is that wheeled locomotion requires in
general fewer motors than legged locomotion.

Figure 1.7 Specific power versus attainable speed of various locomotion mechanisms [15].

10

When the surface becomes soft, wheeled locomotion offers some inefficiency, due to
increasing rolling friction more motor power is required to move. As shows legged
locomotion is more power efficient on soft ground than wheeled locomotion, because legged
locomotion consists only of point contacts with the ground and the leg is moved through the
air. This means that only a single set of point contacts is required, so the quality of the ground
does not matter, as long as the robot is able to handle the ground. But exactly the single set of
point contacts offers one of the most complex problems in legged locomotion, the stability
problem. Advantages of legged locomotion are mobility, overcoming obstacles, active
suspension, energy efficiency, natural terrain, slippage, and jamming, environmental damage,
and average speed. Disadvantages of legged locomotion are the machine, electronic system,
control algorithms, achievable speed and cost [16].
1.4.2. Stability
Stability is a very important issue of a robot, because it should not overturn. Stability can be
divided into static and dynamic stability criterion.
Static stability means that the robot is stable, with no need of motion at every moment of
time. Static stability is explained by an easy example: a stool with three legs. Balance is
maintained as long as the centre of mass is completely within the stools footprints. This
triangle is called support polygon. The support polygon is the convex hull which is set by the
ground contact points. Of course, in case of more ground contact points, the polygon can be a
quadrangle or a pentagon or a different geometrical figure. More in general the following
must hold to support static stability: Static stability is given, when the centre of mass is
completely within the support polygon and the polygons area is greater than zero, therefore
static stability requires at least three points of ground contact [15].
To achieve statically stable walking a robot must have a minimum number of four legs [16],
because during walking at least one leg is in the air. Statically stable walking means that all
robots motion can be stopped at every moment in the gait cycle without overturning. Most
robots which are able to walk static stable have six legs, because walking static stable with
four legs means that just one leg can be lifted at the same time (lifting more legs will reduce
the support polygon to a line), so walking becomes slow [17].
11

Statically stable legged robots are intrinsically very slow machines while dynamically stable
robots are still in the very early stages of development, and they do not appear to move as fast
as robots with wheels. The total cost is another major factor for legged locomotion [16].
1.4.3. Gait Analysis
A leg is not a continuous locomotion element like a wheel. Therefore it must be lifted at the
end of its effective stroke, returned, and placed to begin another support stroke. This creates a
phasing problem, which is the problem described by the term gait. Gaits describe and
determine the speed, the direction of motion and the mobility of an animal or a walking
machine. To design a walking apparatus, a good understanding of gaits is essential. For
instance, the number of legs, the leg geometry and the performance are very much related to
the selected gait. The most crucial aspect of the design of walking apparatus is leg design and
coordination. This should be based on the results of gait analysis.
Under some conditions of motion, a certain gait is optimum. The reasons for this optimum
may be related to stability, leg structure, speed, mobility, etc [18].
Basic definitions and Theorems for Gait Analysis
The basic definitions and theorems for gait analysis used in this project are introduced in this
section. Most of these definitions were established by McGhee and his co-workers [19].
Gait is defined as a way or manner of moving on foot. In the field of legged locomotion, a
gait is defined as a repetitive pattern of foot placements [20]. A more precise description was
made in [7] as follows: A gait is defined by the time and the location of the placing and lifting
of each foot, coordinated with the motion of the body in its six degrees of freedom, in order to
move the body from one place to another.
Leg numbering

Figure 1.8 Leg numbering for a quadruped.
12

In the following discussions, the leg number of a n 2 legged animal is assigned as
1 - 2 , 5, 3, 1, n on the left side and n 2 , 6, 4, , 2 on the right side from the front to the rear.
Leg numbering for a quadruped is shown in the Figure 1.8.
Definition 1: The transfer phase of a leg is the period in which the foot is not on the ground.
The leg state of a leg in transfer phase is 1.
Definition 2: The support phase of a leg is the period in which the foot is on the ground. The
leg state of a leg in support phase is 0.
Definition 3: The cycle time T is the time for a complete cycle of leg locomotion of a
periodic gait.
Definition 4: The duty factor
i
| is the time fraction of a cycle time in which leg i is in the
support phase.
i
i
i
leg of time cycle
leg of phase support of time
= |

(1.1)
Definition 5: The leg phase,
i
| is the fraction of a cycle period by which the contact of leg i
on the ground lags behind the contact of leg 1.
Definition 6: The leg stride, is the distance the centre of gravity translates during one
complete locomotion cycle.
Definition 7: the leg stroke, R is the distance through which the foot is translated relative to
the body during the support phase.
Definition 8: The stroke pitch, P is the distance between the centres of strokes of the
adjacent legs on one side.
Definition 9: The effective body length
b
L of a n 2 legged animal or walking machine is the
distance between the centres of strokes of the front and the rear pair of legs. If all the stroke
pitches are the same, the body length is
( )P n L
b
1 = (1.2)
Definition 10: A gait is singular if any two or more events occur simultaneously during a
locomotion cycle.

13

Definition 11: A regular gait is a gait with the same duty factor for all legs.

=
= =
number leg the is
,..., 2 , 1 ,

n
n j i
j i
| | | (1.3)
Definition 12: A gait is symmetric if the motion of the legs of any right-left pair is exactly
half a cycle out of phase.
Definition 13: A support pattern of an animal or a walking machine is a two dimensional
point set in a horizontal plane consisting of the convex hull of the vertical projection of all
foot points in support phase. The contact between foot and ground is idealized to a point
contact without slip. In a real, distributed foot contact, the contact point can be interpreted as
the centre of pressure. Support polygon of a quadruped is shown in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Support pattern of a quadruped.
Definition 14: A gait is periodic if similar states of the same leg during successive strokes
occur at the same interval for all legs, that interval being the cycle time. Otherwise, it is non-
periodic gait.
Definition 15: The stability margin,
m
S is the shortest distance of the vertical projection of
centre of mass to the boundaries of the support pattern in the horizontal plane. Stability
margin of a quadruped is shown in Figure 1.10(a).

Figure 1.10 (a) Stability margin and (b) Longitudinal stability margin of a quadruped.
14

Definition 16: The front stability margin and the rear stability margin are the distances from
the vertical projection of the centre of mass to the front and rear boundaries of the support
pattern, respectively, as measured in the different of motion. The longitudinal stability margin
m
S is the shorter of the two. Longitudinal stability for a quadruped is shown in Figure
1.10(b).
Definition 17: The longitudinal gait stability margin S or the gait stability margin in brief,
for a periodic gait is the minimum of
l
S over an entire cycle of locomotion. A gait is
statically stable if 0 > S . Otherwise, it is statically unstable.
1.4.4. Gait selection
The gait selection problem depends on the following factors: condition of the terrain, stability
requirements, ease of control, smoothness of body motion, speed requirements, mobility
requirements and power requirements. Although this is a complicated problem, a general
guideline can be developed and is described below.
Since gait selection is very important on the condition of the terrain, it is helpful to define the
terrain conditions before gait selection is studied. As mentioned in [7], level ground can be
divided into many discrete cells. Each cell is about the size of a footprint, and can be
classified into either permitted cell if it is suitable for foot bearing or a forbidden cell if it is
not. This concept can be extended to a three dimensional terrain as follows: A forbidden cell
is a place on the terrain is not suitable for the placement of a foot due to weak soil structure,
steep gradient, interference between terrain and legs or body or for any other reason.
Based on this concept, any terrain can be roughly categorized into one of the following three
types. One is called perfect terrain, in which no forbidden cell exists in the planned pathway.
The second is called fair terrain, in which a few forbidden cells exist in the pathway; the user
can avoid them by simple manoeuvring of the walking apparatus, or it can negotiate the
terrain automatically. The third is called rough terrain, in which many forbidden cells exist in
the pathway. The human operator has to carefully select a few permitted cells for the
placements of the feet.
According to Definition 14, gaits are of two types: periodic and non-periodic. In general,
periodic gaits are preferable because they are easily implemented into a program.
15

If the terrain is a perfect terrain, a periodic gait can be used. Among the many periodic gaits,
wave gaits give the optimum gait stability margin. If the terrain is a rough terrain, a periodic
gait cannot be used because it lacks the ability to locate the feet exactly on the few permitted
cells. Therefore a non-periodic gait has to be used. If there is a large obstacle in the path, a
large obstacle crossing gait should be used. Large obstacle gaits are specifically designed for
different large obstacles. For some obstacles such as a typical ditch, a large obstacle gait may
be fully automated. If the terrain is a fair terrain, that is, only a few forbidden cells exist in
the pathway, continuous follow-the-leader gaits can be used because with these gaits allow
forbidden cells can be avoided and smooth body motion can be maintained.
1.4.5. Gaits for level walking
In this section, gait for level walking over perfect terrain is studied in detail. Wave gaits can
be used in a perfect terrain. Wave gaits are important for the walking apparatus because of
their optimal gait stability. A complete analysis of the gait stability margin and of the effects
on the gait stability margin of varying the stroke and the stroke pitch is discussed. Due to the
constraints imposed by complexity, time, etc. it was decided to design a first prototype of
walking apparatus for level walking gait.
Creeping gait is a pattern in which a quadruped, to walk keeping static stability, must lift and
place only one leg at each step. The possible creeping gaits of a quadruped robot can be
expressed by a series of leg numbers to show the order of foot placing. Always choosing leg 1
as the first swing leg, we can distinguish ( ) 6 ! 1 - 4 = different gaits, as shown in Figure 1.11.
The 1423 creeping gait shown in Figure 1.11(d) gives the maximum stability for walking in x
direction, and is called the crawl gait. From the order of foot placement, we can see that it is a
crawl gait (1423 creeping gait). Therefore a wave gait is the optimal crawl gait [21].
16


Figure 1.11 Quadruped creeping gaits [21].
1.4.6. Wave gait
Sun discovered [22] by numerical experimentation, that the gait stability margin of a n 2
legged regular symmetric gait is maximized by wave gait. The mathematical expression of a
wave gait for a n 2 legged animal or machine is
( ) ( ) 1 2 3 , 1 ,..., 2 , 1 ,
1 2
< s = =
+
| | | n n m m F
m
(1.4)
Where ( ) X F is the fractional part of real number X , that is, it is X modula 1, and m
denotes successive legs after leg 1 on the left side numbered from front to back. From this
definition, wave gaits for four legged animals and machines are shown as follows:
4 3 , , 4 2
3
> = = | | | n (1.5)
Figure 1.12(a) shows gait diagram for wave gaits with duty factor 4 3 = | and Figure 1.12(b)
support pattern at time 8 1 = t . The gait stability margin of a four legged gait is maximized by
a wave gait [23]. The formula for the gait stability margin is
1 4 3 and for 4 3 < < s = | | P R S (1.6)
According to [7], if the body is moved unidirectional along the longitudinal body axis, the
minimum stability margin during a full stride or walking cycle is the minimum of the
following-the rear margins immediately after feet are lifted from the rear boundary of the
support pattern and the front margins immediately before feet are placed ahead of the front
boundary. This is an important result that greatly simplifies the study of this kind of gait.
17


Figure 1.12 (a) Gait diagram and (b) Support pattern of wave gait.
According to [7], for a n 2 legged wave gait with a duty factor in the range 1 2 1 < s | , the
longitudinal gait stability margin can be determined from the following equation.
, and 3 2 if or , 2 1 If
b
R R s > s | |
( ) ( ) ( ) , 4 3 1 1 2
1
R P n S | + = (1.7)
Where, P is the pitch, R is the stroke and stroke at break point,
( ) | |P R
b
2 3 = | |
, and 3 2 If
b
R R > > |
( ) ( ) ( )R P n S 2 1 4 1 2 1 2
2
+ = | (1.8)
1.4.7. Strategies to Optimize the Gait stability
The longitudinal gait stability margin of a wave gait can be improved by two major strategies
[7]. The first is to vary the stroke only. The second is to vary the pitch and stroke
simultaneously.
The direct effects on stability of these two strategies can be seen from Equations (1.7) and
(1.8). In the case of Equation (1.7) the second term is negative for 4 3 < | . Reducing R
would increase the stability, and the maximum value is
( ) 4 3 for 1 2
max 1
< = | P n S

(1.9)



18

For 4 3 > | , increasing R would increase the stability. The maximum value becomes,
( ) ( ) ( ) 4 3 for 4 3 1 1 2
max 1
> + = | |
m
R P n S (1.10)
Where
m
R is the maximum value of R under the constraint
b m
R R s . In the first two cases,
the maximum stability situation is a singular on in which 0 = R and the walking apparatus
cannot, in fact, move. For any 0 > R , no matter how small, the vehicle can move at a speed
determined by PWM. It is a different type of singular situation from that encountered when
maximizing stability by varying | . When 1 = | , stability is maximized but the period of
transfer phase becomes zero, a case of infinite returning speed.
In the case of Equation (1.8) the second term is always negative in the range of 1 2 1 < < | .
Hence, reducing R always increases
2
S . The maximum value of
2
S is
( )P n S 1 2
max 2
= (1.11)
For 4 3 2 1 < < | , decreasing R would increase
1
S and
2
S . The maximum stability occurs at
0 = R and is the same as Equation (1.8). For 4 3 = | ,
1
S is constant. The maximum stability
is also the same as that given by Equation (1.8). For 4 3 > | , the maximum stability occurs at
the break-point
b
R .
The second strategy is to simultaneously expand the pitch and reduce the stroke. The
maximum distance that the centre of stroke of any pair of legs, can be shifted away from the
centre of mass is ( ) 2
0
R R . One way to expand the pitch is to increase the pitch of all the
legs uniformly. The result of such an expansion can be seen easily by substituting for P with
( ) ( ) 1
0 0
+ n R R P in Equations (1.7) and (1.8). The maximum stability obtained by this
method of expansion occurs at the singular condition of 0 = R , where
1
S is applied and gives
( ) ( ) | | 1 1 2
0 0 max
+ = n R P n S (1.12)
A better gain in stability can be obtained by shifting both the two pairs outward by the
maximum distance ( ) 2
0
R R . For the case of a four-legged wave gait, both pairs of legs
have to be shifted simultaneously in opposite directions to maintain symmetry.


19

1.4.8. Gaits for Irregular Terrain
In the previous section, gaits of a quadruped over level terrain were discussed. In this section,
gaits over three dimensional irregular terrains are discussed in brief. Since the variety of
irregular terrain is unlimited, the real terrain features are simplified into geometric features.
These geometric feature types chosen for study are: gradient, ditch, vertical step and isolated
wall [7]. In order to simplify the study, obstacles of simple geometry are assumed. Figure
1.13 shows the geometries of these features. Each can be described by one or two parameters.
The following assumptions are made for the simplicity of analysis [7]:
1. Every point is a permitted cell except those on a vertical surface.
2. The contact between foot and the ground is a point contact.
3. There is no slip between foot and ground.
4. All the mass of the legs is lumped into the body.
5. The motion is slow enough so that no dynamic effects need to be considered.

Figure 1.13 Geometry of four standard obstacles. (a) a gradient (b) a ditch (c) a vertical step
(d) an isolate wall.
Gaits for walking on a Gradient
An idealized gradient is shown in Figure 1.13(a). It is completely described by one parameter
angle. The main difference between walking on gradient and walking on the level is that
projection of the centre of gravity onto the support pattern is shifted. If a periodic gait is
symmetric about the longitudinal and lateral body axes, the minimum front longitudinal
stability margin is same as the minimum rear longitudinal stability margin in level walking.
However, in walking up or down a gradient, the shifted projection of the centre of gravity
20

reduces the minimum longitudinal stability margin on the downhill side, and hence reduces
the gait stability margin.
There are two strategies which can be used to improve stability when walking on a gradient.
The first is to lower the walking height and/or to the body altitude. The second is to change
the beginning and the end of the stroke. Wave gait can be used because of their optimum
stability.
Ditch crossing
An idealized ditch is shown in Figure 1.13(b). It is completely described by one parameter d ,
which is the width of the ditch. The land on the two sides of the ditch is assumed to be on the
same level. The bottom of the ditch and the vertical wall are considered to be forbidden
regions. Generally speaking, there are two methods for the walking apparatus to cross the
ditch. If the ditch is relatively narrow, walking apparatus can step across it in a periodic gait.
If the ditch is wider than can be handled using a periodic gaits, a large obstacle gait can be
used. For crossing a ditch, a hexapod is more appropriate than a quadruped. Ditch crossing
capabilities can be increased by increasing the foot ranges, increasing the strokes of the front
legs and rear legs in the forward and rearward directions respectively. A small over stroke is
required so that the feet can be place alongside the adjacent feet, but a large over stroke does
not help in increasing the ditch crossing capabilities.
Vertical Step Crossing
An idealized vertical step is shown in Figure 1.13(c). It is fully defined by one parameter V ,
which is the step height. Crossing a step is more complicated than crossing a ditch. According
to the general approach, the foot ranges in the vertical direction, which are called the vertical
ranges should be high enough to climb and descend the vertical step.
Isolated Wall Crossing
A general configuration of an isolated wall is shown in Figure 1.13(d). An isolate wall is
defined by two parameters: the thickness U and the vertical height V . In general, an isolated
wall crossing, or a wall crossing in brief, is a combination of a step ascent and descent. For
crossing a ditch, a hexapod is more appropriate than a quadruped. If the thickness is sufficient
for two pairs of feet to be supported on the top simultaneously, the wall crossing is exactly the
same as step ascent followed by descent.
21

1.5 Motivation for the present work
Conventional wheelchairs are difficult to manoeuvre in constrained spaces because they only
have two degrees of freedom (forward/backward movement and steering). However,
motorized wheelchairs with sophisticated controls are well-suited locomotive on prepared
surfaces, most are unable to overcome common obstacles like steps and curbs. A wheelchair
that climb up and down any flight of stairs has remained an open research and development
issue over the past couple of decades and most of the solutions are not appropriate for
unstructured outdoor terrains.
One approach to improving the mobility of a wheelchair by an order of magnitude involves
the use of legs instead of wheels as locomotion elements. Advances in robotics have made it
possible to build and control legged machines. It is not difficult to imagine wheelchairs with
legs climbing slopes, stepping over obstacles and walking on uneven terrain. To make it more
attractive, a different methodology can be considered such as constructing a walking
apparatus with reduced number of degrees of freedom and compact mechanism leg system.
Therefore, carefully attention can be paid on a mechanism design of the leg system and
actuation system. Mechanism dimension, workspace, actuating torque should be designed and
optimized in depth.
Even before the potential advantages cited above were understood, inventors attempted
legged locomotion. In the mid s ' 1950 , a number of research groups started to study and
develop walking machines in a systematic way. About a decade later, walking machines
began to be designed and built by different group in laboratories. Although some of these
machines were able to walk in laboratories and demonstrate some mobility in controlled
conditions, none exhibits any of the advantages mentioned in Section 1.2 in a practical sense.
The reasons for this slow progress mainly arise from the complexity of leg coordination
control, the limited understanding of walking gaits and the lack of the development of
practical machine legs. However, based on previous research efforts and modern technologies
in robotics and in microcomputers, a major improvement in legged locomotion has been
accomplished.
22

1.6 Objective of the present work
In this project, a fully selfcontained walking apparatus for differently abled people having
difficulty in moving around is being developed. This walking apparatus is a wheelleg hybrid
system with allterrain capability which can carry a person. The principal aim is to develop a
walking chair that could replace the conventional wheel chair by providing high level of
mobility on almost all of the terrains.
Before starting the design of any kind of machines or device, it is important to define its
objectives and specifications. For a first prototype of walking apparatus, initial specifications
were vague. During the design process, they are gradually adjusted and finally determined.
The design specifications of the walking apparatus are given in Table 1.1. In order to achieve
this goal, studies in the areas of control, coordination and gait, leg geometry, and power
transmission and actuation are in progress to lay a proper theoretical foundation for the design
of walking apparatus. Other studies including development of a sensing systems, is also in
progress to support this design.
Table 1.1 Design specifications of walking apparatus.
Dimensions
mm 550 in length
mm 740 in width
mm 500 in height
Terrain adaptability
Surface unevenness : mm 114
Gradient: ( ) 37 % 75 75%
Stairs: riser ( ) min mm 170 ,
tread ( ) min mm 300
Speed hr km 5 - 3 cruise speed
Payload:
kg 75
Mobility:
Ditch crossing:
Vertical step crossing:

23

- Analyzing the concept design of preliminary walking apparatus.
- Leg design by four bar linkage synthesis.
- Developing a 3D CAD model of walking apparatus.
- Dynamic simulation of developed model.
- Detailed design and manufacturing of walking apparatus.
- Developing a control system for walking apparatus.
- Testing of walking apparatus.
1.7 Thesis Organization
Chapter 2 presents the analysis and concept validation of preliminary walking apparatus.
Chapter 3 presents the leg design by four bar linkage and synthesis. Position analysis,
analytical equations, dynamic analysis of leg mechanism is presented.
Chapter 4 presents the design of walking apparatus. Dynamic simulation, FEM analysis of
walking apparatus is presented.
Chapter 5 presents detailed design, manufacturing and assembly of components.
Chapter 6 presents the control system and selection methodology for components used in
control system of the walking apparatus.
Chapter 7 highlights the conclusions and scope for future work.








24

Chapter 2
Preliminary concept design of walking apparatus
2.1 Introduction
Proposed preliminary concept design of walking apparatus is a wheel-leg hybrid design for
indoor and outdoor use. It consists of four legs to overcome rough terrains in uncontrolled
environments, while four wheels are provided for locomotion over level terrain. Figure 2.1
shows 3D CAD model created from the 2D drawings, using Creo Elements/Pro.

Figure 2.1 Preliminary walking apparatus design.
2.2 Analysis and concept validation
Analysis was done for design validation based on general design conditions, body geometry,
strength and static gait analysis. Plates were used for walking apparatus structure as shown in
Figure 2.2(a) and its mass is around kg 38 . A bulky walking apparatus will increase the
specific energy consumption, and manufacturing cost. Tubes can be used to reduce mass and
energy consumption in moving self weight. Stress analysis was done to analyze the stress
induced due to payload carried by the walking apparatus. Figure 2.2(b) shows fringe plot of
25

stress distribution in the frame. Maximum stress is MPa 45 and that of minimum is
kPa 0.03 and is throughout the frame which shows poor utilization of material.

Figure 2.2 (a) Frame made of thick plates. (b) Fringe plot of stress analysis.
2.2.1 Seating adjustment mechanism
Seating adjustment mechanism consists of truncated sphere shown in Figure 2.3(a) is used to
create a ball and socket joint in order to maintain comfort posture of the user even though the
walking apparatus is in inclined position. A truncated sphere is difficult to manufacture, ball
joints which are readily available in market can be used instead.

Figure 2.3 Preliminary walking apparatus. (a) Frame. (b) Steering mechanism.

26

2.2.2 Steering mechanism
Figure 2.3(b) shows steering mechanism of the walking apparatus which consists of rack and
pinion mechanism. Using rack and pinion mechanism for steering will increase complexity in
maintaining meshing, it can be replaced with a simple link mechanism and moreover steering
mechanism is not suitable for indoor use.

Figure 2.4 Proposed leg arrangement.
Figure 2.4 shows arrangement of legs in the proposed walking apparatus and these legs are
driven by a single motor. Front legs are connected to a single shaft and rear legs are connected
to another shaft. Both these shafts are parallel to each other and are driven by motor through
spur gear arrangement. Use of single motor to power all legs may be suitable for straight line
walking gait, but for a turning gait, each leg should have different duty factor and each leg has
to cover different distance. Leg mechanism cannot be steered just like a wheel because leg
mechanism needs selective foot placing for stability of the walking apparatus. So, steering
mechanism is not suitable for this arrangement.

Figure 2.5 (a) Proposed leg mechanism. (b) Desired foot trajectory.
27


Figure 2.6 Workspace generated by leg mechanism.
2.3 Gait analysis of preliminary walking apparatus
Preliminary leg mechanism consists of eight links which is shown in Figure 2.5(a). Figure
2.5(b) shows the desired workspace which consists of two distinct portions, support phase
( )
3 2 1
H H H which is a straight line portion and transfer phase ( )
1 4 3
H H H . Figure 2.5(b) shows
workspace generated by the proposed leg mechanism, having horizontal stride of mm 54 and
vertical lift of mm 11 . This workspace is too small for a legged locomotion to have a better
mobility over irregular terrain. There is no significant straight-line portion which will result in
vertical motion of the frame and may be uncomfortable for a user. Since, stroke of leg
mechanism is too small, stability of the walking apparatus is high, almost immobile but speed
of the walking apparatus will be very low.
2.4 Summary
Analysis of preliminary walking apparatus was done with respect to basic considerations in
geometry. Few shortcomings were identified in the support structure, seating arrangement,
steering and leg mechanism. To overcome these shortcomings, it was decided to make some
design modifications in leg mechanism and walking apparatus geometry.



28

Chapter 3
Leg Design by Four Bar Linkage Synthesis
3.1 Introduction
In this project, literature review on some fundamental issues of a practical walking apparatus
was done, which are performance requirements, gaits and body geometry. A major part is the
kinematic design of the leg mechanisms, as well as of the overall geometry of walking
apparatus because both energy efficiency and mobility are closely related to leg geometry. In
order to support the design of the leg geometry, an analysis of walking gaits and mobility, and
an understanding of control and coordination is necessary.
The leg design is the most crucial aspect of walking apparatus since it also strongly influences
the mobility, the energy efficiency, the speed and the control algorithms of the apparatus.
Further, type of leg mechanism, number of legs, leg configuration, walking apparatus
geometry is very important. In this context, a through literature survey of leg mechanisms,
walking apparatus geometry was done. The leg design, like any other design, should be based
on the design specifications. The design specifications of leg were modified continually
during the design process due to increasing understanding of gait and mobility of a
quadruped. Hence, leg geometries were designed and modified according to different
specifications at different stages.
3.2 Design Targets and specifications
3.2.1 Wheel Leg Hybrid Design
As stated in the Section 1.4.1, wheels are the most efficient means of traversing a flat-terrain;
one must take the advantage of wheels efficiency on flat terrain along with the legs
capability to traverse on irregular terrains.
3.2.2 Lesser Leg Inertia
First and the foremost requirement for a walking apparatus to be an efficient locomotion
platform on the rough terrain is its ability to balance itself against the external un-modelled
29

surfaces. Even on the flat ground the stable walking can be effectively achieved only if
precise control is done at each point of time. In preliminary design for slow walking generally
leg dynamics are ignored and the dynamic forces created by them are treated as disturbances
to this control model. Thus more is the mass and inertia of such legs more is their dynamic
effects and more is the disturbance which may ultimately lead to instability. Lesser leg inertia
is an important factor for stability of the walking apparatus, and to achieve higher walking
speed.
3.2.3 Minimum amount of actuation
It is generally one of the most desirable properties for the mechanical design of a robot
because it ultimately leads to lower weight, lesser cost and many other advantages. At the
same time with the decrease in the number of actuators for driving the mechanism, its total
DOF falls down which leads to the reduction in the dimension of the search space for
different trajectories and motion of one joint is dependent on the other joints. Leg design by
four bar linkage [24] is an example of such mechanisms. For this walking apparatus, four legs
each having one DOF accounting for the total of four actuators was decided. However, it was
decided to use different actuators for driving the wheels.
3.2.4 Mechanical design with passively stable characteristics
It is the known fact that for balancing the legged robots, it requires a precise actuation control
and stability criterions must be satisfied. However there exists a class of legged robots [25],
[26] which either employs no actuation or the minimum amount of actuation, to achieve
energy efficient and yet the stable walk. For this walking apparatus, it is intended to use the
mechanical features of such robots so that the system could have the inherent stability by
virtue of its natural dynamics only. In this context, it was shown in [27] that even though the
four possible configurations of the leg attachments are there, crossed one in Figure 3.1(a) has
been found to be advantageous in suppressing the unnecessary pitching motions of robot
trunk. Moreover, if observed clearly the configuration in Figure 3.1(a), it is actually the leg
configuration of most of the commonly seen digitigrades biological quadrupeds like dogs,
cats etc. This configuration has already been applied to various successful quadruped projects
like [28], [29]. Another advantage of this as shown in [28] is that it increases the average area
of the support polygon, which ultimately leads to higher stability during a 3-foot support
(crawl) gait.
30


Figure 3.1 Different leg configurations. (a) Forward/backward. (b) Forward/forward. (c)
Backward/forward. (d) Backward/backward.
Before starting the mechanical design, it was necessary to decide the number of joints
required for each leg of the quadruped to attain sufficient locomotion capabilities. For level
walking gaits one DOF configuration is enough.
3.2.5 Actuator selection
While brushless DC motors and harmonic gear drive are widely used in the field of robotics,
they are too expensive to be used in walking apparatus. It was proposed to use armature
controlled brushed DC motors with spur gearbox for each axis of scaled down models.
Details of DC motor control are discussed in the Section 6.3.1.
3.3 3D CAD model
After analyzing the leg mechanism of proposed preliminary walking apparatus, it was decided
to make some modifications. Synthesis of a planar one DOF eight bar mechanism shown in
Figure 3.2 was done. This path generator consists of only lower pairs; the continuous rotation
of the shorter link OA (crank) provides forward and backward motion of the coupler point B,
generating ovoid path as shown in Figure 2.5(b). Kinematic dimensions of leg were
determined using graphical method using four position synthesis as shown in Figure 3.3.
These four positions represent extreme point
4 3 2 1
H and , H , H , H of desired gait as shown in
Figure 2.5(b). Since the actuators must run off batteries, and there are severe restrictions on
how large the apparatus can be, utmost care has to be in choosing a leg mechanism and
dimensions of the leg mechanism.

Figure 3
Figure 3
3.3 Four po
31
3.2 Leg link
sition synth

k configurat
hesis by grap
tion.
phical methhod.


3.4
After
for th
check
and
deriv
one c
one p
is the
below
horiz
shaft
OAB
Positio
r obtaining
he link conf
ked. Furthe
the accurac
ving analyti
complete ro
parameter is
e angle of t
w. u repre
zontal line.
t) respective
BDO, EBD
n Analysi
kinematic d
figuration s
er graphical
cy of graph
ical solution
otation of th
s needed to
the main sh
esents angl
In the Figu
ely. To carr
D, OAFEDO
F
is of Eigh
dimensions
shown in Fi
l analysis o
hical analy
n for the leg
he main sh
completely
haft
a
u . All
le of links
ure 3.5, OD
ryout analy
O, and OAF
Figure 3.4 L
32
ht Bar Leg
with the he
igure 3.2 tra
of this leg m
sis is limit
g mechanis
haft. For a o
y define the
l the links l
s in the co
D and OA
ytical solutio
FHIDOare
Link lengths
g Mechan
elp of AutoC
ajectories w
mechanism
ted. These
sm to trace
one degree
e positions o
engths are k
ounter cloc
A are the gr
on for this
considered.
s of leg mec
nism
CAD, To in
with various
is burdens
difficulties
the trajecto
of freedom
of all links.
known from
kwise dire
round and t
leg mechan
.

chanism.
ncrease the
s link length
some, time
can be ov
ory generate
m leg mecha
The param
m the Figur
ction with
the driver l
nism four cl
workspace,
hs has to be
consuming
vercome by
ed by it for
anism, only
meter chosen
re 3.4 given
respect to
links (main
losed loops
,
e
g
y
r
y
n
n
o
n
s
33


Figure 3.5 Link labeling and generated foot trajectory.
Equations for solving the loop OABDO
Loop closure equations are
0 cos cos cos cos = + + +
d c b a
d c b a u u u u
(3.1)
0 sin sin sin sin = + + +
d c b a
d c b a u u u u

(3.2)
Equations (3.1) and (3.2) can be written as
( )
d c a b
d c a b u u u u cos cos cos cos + + =

(3.3)
( )
d c a b
d c a b u u u u sin sin sin sin + + =

(3.4)
34

As the values of
a
a u cos and
d
d u cos are known,
Letting
1
cos cos A d a
d a
= + u u and
2
sin sin A d a
d a
= + u u
Equations (3.3) and (3.4) becomes
c b
c A b u u cos cos
1
=

(3.5)
c b
c A b u u sin sin
2
=

(3.6)
Squaring and adding both sides of Equations (3.5) and (3.6), one gets
c c
c A c A c A A b u u sin 2 cos 2
2 1
2 2
2
2
1
2
+ + + + =

(3.7)
c
c A A b
A A
c c
2
sin cos
2 2
2
2
1
2
2 1

= + u u

(3.8)
Multiplying and dividing by
2
2
2
1
A A + , Equation (3.8) becomes
c
c A A b
A A
A A
A
A A
A
c c
2
sin cos
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+
u u

(3.9)
Letting | cos
2
2
2
1
1
=
+ A A
A

and | sin
2
2
2
1
2
=
+ A A
A

1
2
cos
sin
tan
A
A
= =
|
|
|

(3.10)
Thus Equation (3.8) can be written as
( )
2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
sin sin cos cos
A A c
c A A b
c c
+

= + u | u |

(3.11)
( )
2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
cos
A A c
c A A b
c
+

= u |

(3.12)
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
cos
A A c
c A A b
c
u |

(3.13)
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
cos
A A c
c A A b
c
| u

(3.14)
35

Similarly, Equations (3.1) and (3.2) can written as
( )
b d a c
b d a c u u u u cos cos cos cos + + =

(3.15)
( )
b d a c
b d a c u u u u sin sin sin sin + + =

(3.16)
From the above two equations,
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
cos
A A b
b A A c
b
| u

(3.17)
Where,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

1
2 1
tan
A
A
|
Equations for solving the loop EBD
Here the loop EB is a structural subchain and the loop closure equations are
0 cos cos cos = + +
f c e
f c e u u u

(3.18)
0 sin sin sin = + +
f c e
f c e u u u

(3.19)
Equations (3.18) and (3.19) can be written as
f c e
f c e u u u cos cos cos =

(3.20)
f c e
f c e u u u sin sin sin =

(3.21)
Squaring and adding both sides of Equations (3.20) and (3.21), one gets
( )
f c
cf f c e u u + + = cos 2
2 2 2

(3.22)
( )
cf
f c e
f c
2
cos
2 2 2

= u u

(3.23)
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

cf
f c e
c f
2
cos
2 2 2
1
u u

(3.24)



36

Writing Equations (3.18) and (3.19) as
e c f
e c f u u u cos cos cos =

(3.25)
e c f
e c f u u u sin sin sin =

(3.26)
Squaring and adding both sides of Equations (3.25) and (3.26), we get
( )
e c
ce e c f u u + + = cos 2
2 2 2

(3.27)
( )
ce
e c f
e c
2
cos
2 2 2

= u u

(3.28)
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

ce
e c f
c e
2
cos
2 2 2
1
u u

(3.29)
As BED Z and
e
u is known, we can write
( ) BED
q e
Z = u u
BED
e q
Z =u u

(3.30)
Equations for solving the loop OAFEDO
The loop closure equations are
0 cos cos cos cos cos = + + + +
d q j g a
d f j g a u u u u u

(3.31)
0 sin sin sin sin sin = + + + +
d q j g a
d f j g a u u u u u

(3.32)
Equations (3.31) and (3.32) can be written as
( )
j d q a g
j d f a g u u u u u cos cos cos cos cos + + + =

(3.33)
( )
j d q a g
j d f a g u u u u u sin sin sin sin sin + + + =

(3.34)
Letting
1
cos cos cos M d f a
d q a
= + + u u u and
2
sin sin sin M d f a
d q a
= + + u u u
Thus Equations (3.33) and (3.34) becomes
j g
j M g u u cos cos
1
=

(3.35)
j g
j M g u u sin sin
2
=

(3.36)
37

Squaring and adding on both sides of Equations (3.35) and (3.36), one gets
( )
j j
M M j j M M g u u sin cos 2
2 1
2 2
2
2
1
2
+ + + + =

(3.37)
j
j M M g
M M
j j
2
sin cos
2 2
2
2
1
2
2 1

= + u u

(3.38)
Multiplying and dividing by
2
2
2
1
M M + , Equation (3.38) becomes
j
j M M g
M M
M M
M
M M
M
j j
2
sin cos
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+
u u

(3.39)
Letting cos
2
2
2
1
1
=
+ M M
M
and sin
2
2
2
1
2
=
+ M M
M
,
1
2
cos
sin
tan
M
M
= =

(3.40)
Thus Equation (3.39) can be written as
2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
sin sin cos cos
M M j
j M M g
j j
+

= + u u

(3.41)
( )
2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
cos
M M j
j M M g
j
+

= u

(3.42)
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
cos
M M j
j M M g
j
u

(3.43)
Similarly by writing Equations (3.35) and (3.36) as
g j
g M j u u cos cos
1
=

(3.44)
g j
g M j u u sin sin
2
=

(3.45)




38

One gets
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
cos
M M g
g M M j
g
u

(3.46)
Where,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

1
2 1
tan
M
M

Equations for solving the loop OAFHIDO
0 cos cos cos cos cos cos = + + + + +
d n l p g a
d n L p g a u u u u u u

(3.47)
0 sin sin sin sin sin sin = + + + + +
d n l p g a
d n L p g a u u u u u u

(3.48)
Equations (3.47) and (3.48) can be written as
( )
l d p g a n
L d p g a n u u u u u u cos cos cos cos cos cos + + + + =

(3.49)
( )
l d p g a n
L d p g a n u u u u u u sin sin sin sin sin sin + + + + =

(3.50)
Let
1
cos cos cos cos P d p g a
d p g a
= + + + u u u u and
2
sin sin sin sin P d p g a
d p g a
= + + + u u u u
Then Equations (3.49) and (3.50) becomes
l n
L P n u u cos cos
1
=

(3.51)
l n
L P n u u sin sin
2
=

(3.52)
Squaring and adding on both sides of Equations (3.51) and (3.52), one gets
l l
L P L P L P P n u u sin 2 cos 2
2 1
2 2
2
2
1
2
+ + + + =

(3.53)
L
L P P n
P P
l l
2
sin cos
2 2
2
2
1
2
2 1

= + u u

(3.54)
Multiplying and dividing by
2
2
2
1
P P + , Equation (3.54) becomes
L
L P P n
P P
P P
P
P P
P
l l
2
sin cos
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+
u u

(3.55)
39

Letting | cos
2
2
2
1
1
=
+ P P
P
and | sin
2
2
2
1
2
=
+ P P
P

Thus Equation (3.55) can be written as
( )
L
L P P n
P P
l l
2
sin sin cos cos
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1

= + + u | u |

(3.56)
( )
2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
cos
P P L
L P P n
l
+

= u |

(3.57)
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
cos
P P L
L P P n
l
| u

(3.58)
Where,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

1
2 1
tan
P
P
|
Similarly by writing Equations (3.51) and (3.52) as
n l
n P L u u cos cos
1
=

(3.59)
n l
n P L u u sin sin
1
=

(3.60)
One can get
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
cos
P P n
n P P L
n
| u

(3.61)
Now for any value of
a
u , the coordinate of the end point K can be calculated by solving the
following equation.
r l p g a x
r
L
p g a K u u u u u cos cos
2
cos cos cos + + + + =

(3.62)
r l p g a y
r
L
p g a K u u u u u sin sin
2
sin sin sin + + + + =

(3.63)
Where,
2
3t
u u + =
l r

Figure 3.5 shows the trajectory of point K for one complete rotation of driver link OA (main
shaft).


40


After deriving the analytical equations for position analysis, trajectories by varying all the link
lengths were plotted with the help of MATLAB as it is necessary to design an optimum leg
geometry which provides the required working volume for greater mobility. Few generated
trajectories are as shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Workspaces generated by leg mechanism.
41


Figure 3.7 CAD model of leg mechanism.
After obtaining kinematic dimensions for optimum workspace with the help of MATLAB, 3D
CAD model of leg was created as in Figure 3.7 using Creo Elements/Pro. All parts are
modelled as per the dimensions. Creo Elements/Pro package consists of part and assembly
options. Individual parts are modelled in part module and then parts are assembled in assembly
module.
Using this model, position analysis was done to get the path generated shown in Figure 3.8 by
the leg mechanism. Since the generated path approximately reproduces Figure 2.5(b), the
resulting movements of legs can typify walking. But the workspace having a horizontal stride
of mm 130 and vertical lift of mm 90 is too less, for uneven terrain and stair case climbing.
Advantage of this leg mechanism is that its stroke is short enough to ensure static stability.
Once, dimensions of the link lengths are finalized, dynamic analysis of the leg mechanism
was carried out. Motor torque (joint torque) required to rotate the crank was found using Creo
Elements/Pro. Plot of torque vs. crank angle is shown in Figure 3.9, and the minimum torque
requirement for actuation is found to be m - N 3 . Apart from gait, higher link lengths (which
increase the ground clearance) and less joint torque, this leg mechanism is having some
drawbacks such as coupled kinematics, and less workspace, and varying horizontal velocity as
shown in Figure 3.10. From the Figure 3.10 one can conclude that, to achieve uniform
horizontal velocity, motor speed has to be varied continuously.

42


Figure 3.8 Trajectory generated by leg mechanism.

Figure 3.9 Variation of Joint torque vs. joint angle.

Figure 3.10 Variation of horizontal velocity of leg mechanism.
43

3.5 Summary
In this chapter, the design of leg geometry for walking apparatus using linkage synthesis was
presented, and an eight bar leg was designed. Analytical solution for position analysis was
presented. Leg geometry was able to generate desired workspace. Position and dynamic
analysis of leg mechanism was carried out to find the trajectory generated and the torque
requirement of leg mechanism.

44

Chapter 4
Design of Walking Apparatus
4.1 Introduction
In this section, the overall walking apparatus geometry is designed to meet the objectives.
After deciding the leg geometry, it is necessary to decide where and how to fix the legs. At
this stage decisions are made on strength, material selection, size, shape, and spatial
compatibility.
4.2 Scaled down model and stability

Figure 4.1 Scaled down model of walking apparatus.
After finalizing the leg mechanism dimensions as shown in Figure 3.4, a scaled down model
of walking apparatus was created using Creo Elements/Pro which is shown in Figure 4.1.
Walking apparatus consists of a rectangular frame and four legs. Frame is the load carrying
and supporting member of the walking apparatus. All the four legs of the walking apparatus
are aligned to each other and rigidly fixed to the frame, each at every corner of the frame. As
it was decided to use four leg configuration with wave gait, for initial prototype of the
walking apparatus, stability of the walking apparatus was analyzed based on wave gait for
level walking.
45

4.2.1 Stability analysis
For a quadruped, number of legs, 4 2 = n
Stroke pitch of walking apparatus, mm 437 = P
Leg stroke of walking apparatus, mm 130 = R
Cycle time of leg mechanism, s 8 . 3 = T
Time during support phase, s 3 = t
Duty factor of the leg mechanism,
8 . 0
8 . 3
3
leg of time cycle
leg of phase support of time
= = =
i
i
i
|
Stability margin,
( ) ( ) ( )R P n S | 4 3 1 1 2
1
+ =
( ) ( ) ( ) mm 8 138 8 . 0 4 3 1 437 1 2 2
1
= + = S
As mentioned in Section 1.4.7 Stability analysis shows that walking apparatus is stable as
1
S
is positive. This stability margin is just an indication that walking apparatus is stable.
4.2.2 Gait diagram
Figure 4.2 shows the gait diagram of walking apparatus with duty factor, 0.8 = | . In which
1423 leg pattern of crawl gait can be observed clearly. For a fraction of time, all four legs are
supporting the trunk intermittently, which increases the stability of the walking apparatus.

Figure 4.2 (a) Gait diagram of walking apparatus with 0.8 = | . (b) Support pattern.
46

4.3 Trajectory Planning
To obtain the desired walking motion, joints actuator must be manipulated in a particular
fashion. The relationship of the desired joint angle with time is called its trajectory.
Developing the trajectory for the walking apparatus is a must. There are different methods
developed so far. One way to generate trajectory is Offline Trajectory Generation. Whole
trajectory is planned offline before the motion and the feedback control loops are added to
track the desired motion like Huang [31] et al. Takanishi et al. [32] developed the offline
trajectory. Data points have been generated for a speed of hr km 0.5 using Creo Elements/Pro.
Trajectories are planned according to data points generated. Figure 4.3 shows joint angle of
legs. Figure 4.4 shows joint velocity of legs.

Figure 4.3 Joint angle of Legs.
47


Figure 4.4 Joint velocity of Legs.
4.4 Dynamic simulation using Creo Elements/Pro
A four DOF model of walking apparatus was used for dynamics simulation as shown in
Figure 4.5. This model is used to test the trajectories on computational model before testing
them on the real robot. It is used to simulate the walking apparatus motion on level floor. All
the parts are considered as rigid and four servomotors were used for each axis. Angular
position for servomotors was given through splines generated through data points. It can be
observed that the desired trajectory works perfectly in dynamic simulation of walking
apparatus. Captured frames of dynamic simulation are shown in Figure 4.6. Video of dynamic
simulation is included in CD.

Figure 4.5 Screen shot of dynamic simulation in Creo Elements/Pro.
48


Figure 4.6 Support pattern of dynamic simulation model.
4.5 3D CAD model and FEM analysis
After finalizing the dimensions of leg, the overall walking apparatus geometry must be
designed to meet the objectives. Figure 4.7 shows 3D CAD model of walking apparatus.
Stress analysis was done on this CAD model using Creo Elements/Pro. A Load of N 274 is
applied. Load is applied as a pressure load on the top surface of the frame. Three dimensional
tetrahedron element was used for meshing. Figure 4.8(a) shows the meshed geometry and
applied boundary conditions. Figure 4.8(b) shows fringe plot of stress distribution in the
walking apparatus. Maximum stress is induced in leg geometry and the value of stress is too
less ( ) MPa 7.5 . Reason for this poor utilization of material is due to the fact that all the
dimensions are decided based on manufacturing feasibility.
49


Figure 4.7 3D CAD model of walking apparatus.

Figure 4.8 (a) Boundary conditions. (b) Fringe plot of stress analysis.
4.6 Summary
Based on the study of numerous leg mechanisms and components, concept model was
proposed. Scaled down model of the walking apparatus was created using Creo Elements/Pro.
Stability analysis was carried out. Trajectory planning was done for all four axes of walking
apparatus. Dynamic simulation was carried to analyze the stability of the apparatus. FEM
analysis was carried out for stress analysis.
50

Chapter 5
Detailed design and Manufacturing
5.1 Introduction
In this section, the design of walking apparatus is brought to the stage of a complete
engineering description. Missing information is added on the arrangement, form, dimensions,
tolerances, surface properties, materials, and manufacturing processes of each part. This
results in a specification for each special purpose part and for each standard part to be
purchased from suppliers. Detailed engineering drawing suitable for manufacturing are
prepared. Assembly drawings and assembly instructions was also determined.
5.2 Detailed design
After finalizing all the dimensions of walking apparatus, detailed drawing with proper fits and
tolerances for all parts of the walking apparatus was created using Creo Elements/Pro. These
detailed drawings were used for manufacturing the prototype. Appropriate tolerances are
included on dimensions of a part to limit the permissible variations in size because it is
impossible to repeated manufacture a part exactly to a given dimension. A small tolerance
will result in greater ease of interchangeability of parts and less play or chance of vibrations in
moving parts [35]. However, this is achieved at an increase cost of manufacture. Final CAD
model of walking apparatus is shown in Figure 4.7. Detailed design of walking apparatus is
shown in Figure 5.1. Detailed design of frame is shown in Figure 5.2. Detailed design of leg
mechanism is shown in Figure 5.3. Figure 5.4 shows link lengths of the leg mechanism. It was
decided to use hollow aluminium extrusions for load bearing members and solid aluminum
extrusions for leg mechanism. Aluminium material was chosen because of their light weight
and non-corrosive property.

51


Figure 5.1 Detailed design of walking apparatus.
52


Figure 5.2 Detailed design of frame.
53


Figure 5.3 Detailed design of leg mechanism.
54


Figure 5.4 Detailed design showing link lengths.
55

5.3 Manufacturing
Fasteners and aluminium extrusions were purchased. Frame assembly was carried out in
Theory of Machines (TOM) lab and the machining of links for leg mechanism was carried out
in central workshop. Final assembly of walking apparatus was carried out in Theory of
Machines lab. Links used for leg mechanism is shown in Figure 5.5(a) and the frame in
Figure 5.5(b).

Figure 5.5 (a) Machined links. (b) Aluminium frame assembly.
Frame assembly consists of four 1 hollow aluminium extrusions. Aluminium extrusions were
first cut to the required lengths. Holes required for fastening were drilled. Extrusions were
joined together using 1 aluminum L angles as shown in Figure 5.5(a).
Apart from links and frame some other components like mounting block, support pin, pin,
shafts, lock bush required for walking apparatus has been manufactured. All the links were
assembled according to the drawing and tested individually for proper working. Leg assembly
with DC motor is shown in Figure 5.6.

56


Figure 5.6 Leg assembly with DC motor.
5.4 First walking apparatus assembly
Finally, assembly of walking apparatus was completed with assembling all the four legs to the
aluminum frame. For proper working of actual walking apparatus, fits and tolerances for each
component are very crucial. This is on account of the fact that however accurately the two
mating parts are manufactured with reference to dimensional tolerances, the two parts cannot
be assembled if the geometrical tolerances are not met with. Running fit, location fit, wring fit
were selectively used for few mating parts. Geometric tolerances were specified only where
they are essential, i.e., keeping in view functional requirements, interchangeability and
probable manufacturing circumstances. But while machining in workshop, none of the
tolerances were maintained and it resulted in interference of links and workspace for each leg
was not the same for all the legs. Figure 5.7 shows the assembly of first walking apparatus.
57


Figure 5.7 First walking apparatus assembly with control circuit.
5.5 Bearing assembly

Figure 5.8 Bearing arrangement
In first walking apparatus main shafts were directly mounted to mounting blocks but in
second walking apparatus bearings are used for mounting the main shaft of the leg
mechanisms to reduce loss due to friction. In this section, the selection of right bearing as well
as the calculation of bearing arrangement is discussed. Bearing arrangement of the main shaft
is shown in Figure 5.8, which does not only consist of rolling bearings, but includes the
58

components associated with the bearings such as the shaft and mounting block. The lubricant
is also a very important component of the bearing arrangement because it has to prevent wear
and protect against corrosion so that the bearing can deploy its full performance.
To design a rolling bearing arrangement it is necessary
- to select a suitable bearing type
- to determine a suitable bearing size,
but this is not all. Several other aspects have to be considered, such as
- a suitable form and design of other components of the arrangement
- appropriate fits and bearing internal clearance or preload
- holding devices
- adequate seals
- the type and quantity of lubricant
- installation and removal methods, etc.
Available space:
One of the principal dimensions of a bearing is the bore diameter and is predetermined by the
main shaft diameter. According to the design, inner diameter of the bearing should not be less
than mm 12 . This constraint is imposed by the inner diameter of the hollow encoder that has
to be assembled in the same main shaft. Another space constraint is imposed by mounting
block which is having a thickness of mm 20 .
Load:
Magnitude of load: Ball bearings are mostly used where loads are light or moderate. Direction
of load: Deep groove ball bearings can accommodate some axial loads in addition to radial
loads. In the bearing arrangement, radial load acting on bearings is shown in Figure 5.9.
59


Figure 5.9 Bearing loads.
Misalignment:
Angular misalignments between the main shaft and mounting block occur, for example, when
the shaft bends (flexes) under the operating load, when the bearing seats in the mounting
block are not machined properly. Rigid bearings, i.e. deep groove ball bearings cannot
accommodate any misalignment, or can only accommodate very minor misalignments, unless
by force. Since both the bearings are fitted to mounting block using a through bore as shown
in Figure 5.8, there is no chance of misalignment exceeding the permissible limits.
Speed:
The permissible operating temperature limits the speed at which rolling bearings can be
operated. The highest speeds can be achieved with deep groove ball bearings, when loads are
purely radial. In this case, maximum speed of the main shaft is 60 rpm.
Stiffness:
The stiffness of a rolling bearing is characterized by the magnitude of the elastic deformation
(resilience) in the bearing under load. Generally, this deformation is very small and can be
neglected.
Integral seals:
The selection of a seal is of vital importance to the proper performance of the bearing. SKF
supplies bearings with integral shields that can provide an economic and space-saving
solution. A large number of sizes are available for deep groove ball bearings. All bearings
with integral seals on both sides are filled with a grease of appropriate quality and quantity. In
our application, grease packed bearing with seal on both sides is necessary, to avoid regular
maintenance.
60

Calculation:
Considering all the above principles of bearing selection, a deep groove ball bearing with
designation 2Z - 61901 is suitable for this application. The letter Z 2 in bearing designation
represents, seal on both sides. Table 5.1, provides the datas of the selected bearing. Table 5.2
shows the calculations of bearings.
Table 5.1 Data of deep groove ball bearing, single row [33].
Principal
dimensions (mm)
Basic load ratings
(mm)
Speed ratings
(mm)
Designation
d D B
Dynamic
C
Static
0
C
Reference
speed
Limiting
speed
SKF explorer
bearing
12 24 6 2.25 0.98 67000 32000 2Z - 61901
Motor torque, m - N 3.7 = T
Eccentric distance, mm 14 = r
Radial load, N 266.16 = P
Load on bearings, N 247.15 N, 3 . 513
2 1
= = R R










61

Table 5.2 Bearing load and life calculation
Bearing 1 Bearing 2
Radial load,
r
F kN 5133 . 0
1
= R kN 2415 . 0
2
= R
Axial load,
a
F kN 0 kN 0
hour Revolution
3600 3600
Equivalent dynamic bearing load,
a r
YF XF P + =
kN 5133 . 0 kN 2415 . 0
Equivalent static bearing load,
r
F P =
0

kN 5133 . 0 kN 2415 . 0
Bearing life
6
3
10
F
C
L
|
.
|

\
|
=
revolution 10 84
6
revolution 10 88
6

hr 23400 24400
day hour 11 At year 5 year 6

Figure 5.10Recommended dimensions for shaft and housing in SKF bearing catalogue.

62

Figure 5.10, shows the recommended dimensions of main shaft, housing and spacers used in
mounting arrangement. It is important to note that recommended fillet dimensions should be
followed for manufacturing a shaft, otherwise there is a chance of bearing misalignment and
thereby increases the residual torque of the leg assembly.
Fits and tolerance:
In order to prevent ball bearing inner rings from turning (creeping) on the shaft, wring fit is
preferred. For a normally loaded ball bearing with cylindrical bore, k4 tolerance for the shaft
having diameters in the range of mm 17 to 10 can be used. For ball bearing in mounting
block, and for ball bearings with axially located outer ring, K5 tolerance is preferred [33],
[34].
Table 5.3 ISO tolerance limits for shafts and housings.
Shaft diameter Bore diameter
12k4
12.001
12.006
24K5
24.001
23.992
Mounting the bearings:
For a ball bearing, the ring that is to have the tighter fit should generally be mounted first. The
seat surface should be lightly oiled with thin oil before mounting. If the fit is not too tight,
small bearings may be driven into position by applying light hammer blows to a sleeve placed
against the bearing ring face. The blows should be evenly distributed around the ring to
prevent the bearing from tilting or skewing.
63

5.6 Second walking apparatus assembly

Figure 5.11 Second walking apparatus assembly with control circuit.
Due to above mentioned problems; another walking apparatus was made with proper fits and
tolerance to maintain the required functionality of walking apparatus. Final assembly of
second walking apparatus with another control circuit is shown in Figure 5.11. Figure 5.12
shows two walking apparatus standing together in TOM lab. Video of the prototype walking
on level floor is included in CD. Some design modifications were implemented in second
walking apparatus. To increase the stability of the walking apparatus, it was decided to
increase the support polygon by using the leg configuration shown in Figure 3.1(a).

Figure 5.12 Walking apparatuses standing together
64

This walking apparatus is a four legged vehicle designed for sustained locomotion on level
terrain and can carry a payload of kg 20 . Even though, it is a wheel-leg hybrid system,
wheels are yet to be incorporated. Second prototype of walking apparatus was completed.
Programming and tuning of the system is in progress. Figure 5.13 shows the walking
apparatus demonstrating its body motion via leg coordination of the four supporting legs in an
indoor test.

Figure 5.13 Walking apparatus demonstrating its walking capability in lab.
The walking apparatus is not, in its present configuration, an autonomous vehicle. User has to
provide supervisory commands and, specifically speed and direction of movement of walking
apparatus. The walking apparatus system will, in its fully developed configuration, have three
operating modes which are explained in detail in Section 6.4.



65

5.7 Summary
Manufacturing the designed components of walking apparatus is a critical aspect in this
project. For first walking apparatus, manufacturing has been downplayed, or even ignored
completely. As a result interference between links of leg mechanism, different leg lengths,
and lateral play of whole leg mechanism was observed in first walking apparatus and made it
difficult to implement controls. Manufacturing difficulty in central workshop was the major
hindrance in carrying out this project. Lot of external factors like, component availability,
material availability in Guwahati is an added problem. This problem has forced to create the
second one, and delayed the progress of this project. Second walking apparatus has
demonstrated its body motion via leg coordination of the four supporting legs while
performing level walking.
66

Chapter 6
Control system
6.1 Introduction
Control of DC motors is necessary in walking apparatus; this can be achieved by controlling
armature current by varying the voltage. Since multiple DC motors are used for traction,
controller should coordinate all DC motors; this can be achieved by close looped system
involving feedback. For straight-line gait closed looped control is not important but for
turning gait and stair climbing gait, it is a necessity due to the fact that each leg will have
different duty cycle. For low cost control, microcontroller is an obvious choice.
6.2 Single axis PID control

Figure 6.1 Test setup for DC motor control
When the trajecotory of the whole walking apparatus is planned. The trajectories for each
joint is determined which means that for any duration of walking time interval, the joint angle
67

values are known. The target of this controller is to track these joint angles precisely. Also
some times, joint velocities are tracked instead of joint angles. Simple Proportional-Integral
Derivative (PID) or PI can be used to achieve this.
Before incorporating the control system in walking apparatus, all the subsystems like
controller, motors, drives, and encoders, etc. were tested before hand by doing experiments.
Figure 6.1 shows the test setup for DC motor control. It consists of Arduino Mega 2560
microcontroller board, DC motor driver, DC motor with gear box, incremental encoder, and a
potentiometer and other discrete components. This test setup was made to analyze single axis
PID control and particularly to test the DC motor driver. Figure 6.2 shows the layout of
various components used in this circuit and control circuit diagram for this test arrangement is
shown in Figure 6.4.
Arduino microcontroller board is used as controller. Two output pins are used to feed signal
to driver to change the direction of motor rotation. One PWM output is used to control the
voltage output of driver. Current sense is used to measure armature current of DC motor.

Figure 6.2 Component layout of control circuit.
A common approach to axis control is that is in use in many commercial robots is singleaxis
PID control [36], [37]. In this setup potentiometer is used to set the desired reference input
68

( ) t r that we would like the joint variable to follow. Here the joint variable ( ) t q is motor shaft
rotation angle. Let ( ) t e represent the tracking error at time t is ( ) ( ) ( ) t q t r t e = . Ideally, ( ) t e
is identically zero, but in practice it varies from zero, particularly when the reference input
( ) t r changes rapidly. A common technique for controlling an axis is to employ independent
controllers, one for each axis, as follows:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t e K dt t e K t e K t
D
t
I P
+ + =
}
0
t (6.1)
Figure 6.3 shows the block diagram representation of single axis PID controller used for
learning and as well as testing circuit components, and effectiveness of control. The
expression for in Equation (6.1) is called control law. It produces a torque set point that
serves input to set the PWM level of the controller PWM output. This PWM signal fed as
input to the driver. Driver controls the motor torque by varying the armature winding voltage
a
v . The load for the PID controller in walking apparatus is leg mechanism. The load on each
axis of walking apparatus changes rapidly.

Figure 6.3 Single-axis PID controller.
69

V
i
n
G
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Figure 6.4 Test circuit for motor control.
70

6.3 Component selection methodology
6.3.1 DC motor and leg mechanism

Figure 6.5 DC motor with gearbox.
The DC motor and the gearbox that are used in the walking apparatus is shown in Figure 6.5.
The motors used in the walking apparatus are low torque but high speed motors. Therefore
gearbox is necessary to convert the output of the motor to low speed and higher torque. The
The motor basically consists of a coil, the armature coil which is free to rotate. This coil is
located in the magnetic field provided by a permanent magnet. With constant magnetic field
from permanent magnet, if the motor is controlled by adjusting the armature voltage
a
v , it is
called as armature-controlled motor [36], [38]. The current,
a
i in the armature generates a
torque T and it is proportional to
a
i B . Hence
a
i B k T
1
= . Since, for the armature-controlled
motor, B is constant, then
a
i k T
2
= . Since the armature is rotating in magnetic field, back
e.m.f.,
b
v is generated proportional to the angular velocity, eof the armature and e
3
k v
b
= .
The armature circuit can be considered to be a resistance
a
R in series with an inductance
a
L .
We have,
a a
a
a b a
i R
dt
di
L v v + = (6.2)



71

Two equations that describe the conditions occurring in armature-controlled motor are
e
3
k
dt
di
L R i v
a
a a a
+ = (6.3)
a
i k
dt
d
J T
2
= =
e
(6.4)
The equation relating the output e with input
a
v to the system by eliminating,
a
i
( )
( )| |
2
k
sJ s
s i
a
O
= (6.5)
( )
( )| |
| | ( ) s k R sL
k
sJ s
s V
a a a 3
2
+ +
O
= (6.6)
To analyze single-axis PID control, system should be modelled first. To develop a dynamic
model of the motor, motor characteristics like inductance, resistance, torque constant, speed
constant of armature should be provided by supplier. According to the torque and speed
requirement, DC motor with gearbox shown in Figure 6.5 from Robokits was selected.
Specification of the motor provided by the supplier is given in the Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 DC motor specifications.
Stall torque m N 3.72
Output shaft speed rpm
60
Input voltage V 12
Stall current A max 7.5
Base motor speed rpm
18000
Reduction 1 : 270
Shaft diameter mm 6
Power W 23.41
72

6.3.2 DC motor driver

Figure 6.6 Hercules DC motor driver.
The drive can be considered as the heart of the whole system. It controls the speed, torque,
direction, and resulting power of the DC motor. Digital control provides precise output of
both motor speed and torque. The whole process starts at the speed reference, and then
controller determines what the output voltage should be to operate the motor at desired speed.
Accordingly PWM signal is fed to the drives input, output voltage to motor from drive varied
corresponding to PWM signal. The current sensor monitors the output current and current
reference corrections can be made on the basis of the torque requirements of the motor.
Table 6.2 Specifications of DC motor drive.
Model Hercules
Supplier Nex Robotics
Operating voltage V 6 to 16
Continuous output current A 20
Peak output current A 30
Maximum PWM frequency kHz 20
Current sense A mV
0.13
73

According to the specifications listed in the Table 6.1, DC motors used in walking apparatus,
operating voltage is V 12 , and stall current is A 7.5 Maximum frequency of PWM outputs of
Arduino Mega 2560 controller is kHz 30 . After considering all the necessary factors,
Hercules DC motor drive was bought from Nex robotics. Specification of the DC drive is
listed in Table 6.2 above. Figure 6.7 shows the pin connection details of the driver and
functions of the pins are listed in Table 6.3. Table 6.4 shows the truth table for control
operations.
Table 6.3 Driver connector pin functions.
Pin No. Legend Function
1.
GND Ground
2.
IN 1 Logic input for the motor direction
3.
DG 1 Diagnostic pin; Normally HIGH but LOW, if overloaded
4.
PWM Used to feed PWM to control motor speed
5.
DG 2 Diagnostic pin; Normally HIGH but LOW, if overloaded
6.
IN 2 Logic input for the motor direction
7.
CS Current sensor output
8.
NC Not connected
9.
NC Not connected
10.
NC Not connected
11.
OUT 2 (B) Output 2 for the motor
12.
OUT 1 (A) Output 1 for the motor
13.
VCC Motor supply, V 16 to 6
14.
GND Ground
74

Table 6.4 Truth table for drive control operation.
Mode of operation IN 1 IN 2 OUT 1 (A) OUT 2 (B) CS
Brake 1 1 H H N.A.
Clockwise (CW) 1 0 H L Yes
Counter clockwise (CCW) 0 1 L H Yes
Brake 0 0 L L N.A.
Note: In all above cases logic 0 and logic 1 on PWM pin will turn off or turn on the
MOSFETs.

Figure 6.7 Pin connection details.
6.3.3 Optocoupler

Figure 6.8 Internal circuitry of an optocoupler.
Figure 6.8 shows the internal circuitry of the optocoupler. The optocoupler contains an photo
diode and a phototransistor. The photo diode can be powered from the input pins and is kept
75

on all time. If the light is interrupted so that it cannot reach the phototransistor, the
phototransistor turns off: when the light can reach it, the phototransistor switch turns on. The
external interfacing of the optocoupler is shown in Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9 External interfacing of an optocoupler
When the phototransistor is on, the output is high ( ) V 5 ~ ; when the phototransistor is off, the
output is low ( ) V 0 ~ . Therefore, reading the output tells the light being interrupted.To the
motor shaft, a slotted metal disc is attached through which light can pass. When the motor
rotates, causing the disc to rotate, light passes through and is interrupted so that a pulse train
is generated at the output. By counting the pulses, the rotation of the motor shaft can be
determined. Figure 6.10 shows a slotted metal disc that will give 30 CPR. By using a slotted
disc with the transmitter receiver optical pair, motor shaft rotation can be determined.

Figure 6.10 Slotted metal disc
Before installing the feedback circuit in walking apparatus, circuit has to be tested to check
whether the circuit is generating pulse and the generated pulse is counted by Arduino board.
76

Initially a simple circuit consisting only of optocoupler was built on bread board as shown in
Figure 6.9 with a O 300 resistor in series with the photodiode and a O k 10 resistor as a pull-
up resistor which is connected to the phototransistor collector. The expected voltage output of
the optocoupler is V 5 ~ , if output is high and V 0 ~ , if low. But the actual output voltage
was not varying enough and was around V 5 . Since, Arduino board reads input pin logic as
HIGH, if the voltage is above V 2.2 and as LOW, if the voltage is below V 1.5 . To have
enough voltage variation, O k 10 resistor was replaced with O M 10 and the voltage output
was varying between V 1 and V 3 . To feed the optocoupler output to Arduino board, Op-
Amp is used as a voltage comparator to convert the optocoupler output into a square pulse of
V 5 . A potentiometer is used to set the voltage reference level.

Figure 6.11 Feedback circuit with optocoupler.

Figure 6.12 Feedback circuit mounting arrangement
Figure 6.11 shows a developed optocoupler circuit for position feedback. The feedback circuit
was fixed to the frame of the walking apparatus and slotted metal disc attached to the motor
shaft as shown in Figure 6.12. Circuit consists of an operational amplifier (Op-Amp) used as
Frame
77

voltage comparator and a potentiometer mounted on general purpose PCB. After testing the
circuit, it was found that CPR is exceeding 30 due to noise in the optocoupler signal. It was
decided to use optocoupler feedback because of low cost and ease of mounting. This option
was then scrapped due to less resolution of 30 CPR and presence of noise in the signal.
6.3.4 Optical encoders

Figure 6.13 Incremental encoder with shielded cable.
An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a result of a linear or an angular
displacement. Position encoders can be grouped into two categories: incremental encoders
that detect changes in rotation from some datum position and absolute encoders which give
the actual angular position.
Figure 6.13 shows an incremental rotary encoder for the measurement of angular
displacement of the motor shaft. A beam of light passes through slots in a disc and is detected
by a suitable light sensor. When the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by the sensor
with the number of pulses being proportional to the angle through which the disc rotates. The
angular position of the disc, and hence the shaft rotating it, can be determined by the number
of pulses produced since some datum position. In practice, three concentric tracks with three
sensors are used. The inner track has just one slot and is used to locate the home position of
the disc. The other two tracks have a series of equally spaced slots that go completely round
the disc but with the slots in the middle track offset from the slots in the outer track by one-
half the width of the slot. This offset enables the direction of rotation to be determined. In a
clockwise direction the pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner. In the anti-clockwise
direction they lag. The resolution is determined by the number of slots in the disc.
78

Specifications of optical encoder based on which encoder is chosen are:
- Type of encoder
- Counts per revolution (CPR)/Pulse per revolution (PPR)
- Number of channels
- Type of output
- Type and size of shaft
Type of encoder
The incremental encoder gives feedback on relative motion (rotation) of a motor shaft (i.e.,
how much the motor shaft has rotated). Therefore when it is powered on, it gives the feedback
that how much the motor shaft has moved since the starting time. However, if the power is
turned off and then turned on again, it is not possible to detect the position of motor shaft.
With absolute encoders, angular position of motor shaft can be determined as soon as the
encoder is turned on. Absolute encoder gives an output in the form of a binary code or gray
code of several digits, each such code representing a particular angular position. For four legs
with an 8 bit encoder at each motor shaft, the number of inputs required for communication is
32. But the number of IOs available in Arduino board is 54 which narrows the choice of
encoder to incremental encoder.
Counts per revolution (CPR)/ Pulse per revolution (PPR)
Incremental encoders provide a specific number of equally spaced pulses per revolution. With
360 pulses occurring with one revolution then, since one revolution is a rotation of 360 , the
resolution is = 1 360 360 . On the other hand when more resolution is needed, its possible
for the counter to count the leading and trailing edges of the pulse train from one channel,
which doubles ( ) 2 the number of pulses counted for one rotation. For a two channel
encoder, counting both leading and trailing edges of both channels will give 4 resolution.
Since counting of pulses is done by accumulating values in an integer, it is important to check
CPR is not exceeding the range of value that can be stored in an integer assigned in controller.
On the Arduino Mega 2560 board, an integer stores a 16 bit (2byte) value. This yields a
range of 32,767 to 768 , 32 (minimum value of
15
2 and a maximum value of 1 2
15
).So,
incremental encoder with 360 or 3600 CPR are good options.
A common approach to control that is in use in many commercial robots is PID control,
where an axis variable will follow a reference input and the difference between reference
79

input and axis variable is called tracking error. As motor torque is a function of error, stability
in motor control will be less, because axis variable will never be equal to reference input due
to truncation error. It should be noted that an encoder having 360 CPR is selected to avoid
problem in controlling the angular position of motor shafts which arises due to truncation
error. For example, an encoder having 512 CPR will have of a resolution of 703125 . 0 which
makes it difficult to handle multiples of 703125 . 0 without truncation error.
Number of channels
A single channel output is useful for applications where sensing the direction of movement is
not important. For walking apparatus application direction sensing is required, hence two
channel output is used, with two channels 9udegrees out of phase. This is useful for motors
of each leg that has to reverse, or must maintain net position when the walking apparatus is
standing still. For example, any jerk or vibration in walking apparatus while stopped could
cause a unidirectional encoder to produce a stream of pulses that would be erroneously
counted as motion. The controller would not be fooled when two channel output is used.
An incremental encoders output indicates motion. To determine position, its pulses must be
accumulated by a counter in controller. The count is subject to loss during a power
interruption or corruption by electrical transients. When starting up, all the four legs of
walking apparatus must be driven to a reference or home position to initialize the position
counters. For this purpose some incremental encoders also produce another signal known as
the marker,index, or Z channel. This signal, produced once per revolution of a shaft
encoder is often used to locate a specific position, especially during a homing sequence.
Type of output
Another consideration when selecting the proper encoder output are noise and cable length,
which are inter-related. Longer cable runs are more susceptible to noise as they become larger
antennas and pick up noise. In cases like this, Shielded, twisted-pair cable with a low
capacitance-per-foot is a must to ensure the square-wave pulse leaving the encoder doesnt
become saw-toothed after travelling the distance to the controller end. Of course, all of
these considerations are an arguable point if the controller being used wont accept the
encoder output chosen.
80

E
n
c
o
d
e
r
m
a
i
n

c
i
r
c
u
i
t

Figure 6.14 Working principle of line driver output
As the name implies, line drivers actively force the output high or low, therefore being able to
both sink and source current from the load as illustrated in Figure 6.14. The main advantage
of the line driver is its ability to push higher current through the cable, enabling longer cable
runs. Although a line driver can be used in a single-ended format (i.e. push-pull output), they
are most commonly used with complementary or differential signals. The use of the
differential signal, when used with shielded, twisted-pair cabling, is important when using
longer cable runs or in high-noise environments.
Type and size of shaft
Encoders come with two types of shaft, solid and hollow. For an encoder with solid shaft has
to be connected mechanically to the rotating shaft through a flexible coupling. Encoders with
hollow shaft can be directly mounted on the shaft without flexible coupling. Another
convenience in using an encoder with hollow shaft is that, it can be mounted to output shaft of
the gearbox and thereby avoiding error involved in backlash. Size of the motor shaft is
another important factor to be considered. Since, diameter of the motor shaft is 6 mm, further
the choice is restricted to encoder having same shaft diameter 6 mm.
After considering all the above mentioned factors, CWZ6C E6B2 model which is a general
purpose encoder with external diameter of mm 40 was selected for testing purpose. Figure
6.13 shows the selected encoder. Specifications of the selected encoder are listed in the Table
6.5 below.
Installation and wiring
The method of coupling the encoder to the drive shaft is important because of possible errors
or stresses which can be introduced. In case of encoder with solid shaft, it is very important to
ensure that the axis of an encoder and that of a connecting shaft are aligned both angularly
and radially within the permissible limits imposed by the flexible couplings. If the above
81

alignments are beyond the permissible limits there will be an undue mechanical load on the
bearings of the encoder, which will lead premature bearing failure. These are illustrated in
Figure 6.16. In case of encoder with hollow shaft, runout of the driving shaft will affect the
encoder. Electrical noise should be minimized to prevent improper counts. Proper wiring and
grounding of shielded cable are essential for the proper operation of encoder as mentioned
earlier.
Table 6.5 Ratings and specifications of encoder.
Model CWZ6C E6B2
Make Omron
Encoder type Incremental
Input voltage 5 V
Shaft diameter mm 6
Current consumption mA max 80
CPR 1000
Output phases A, B, and Z
Output configuration NPN, opencollector output
Suitable coupling C06B E69








82

6.3.5 Flexible coupling

Figure 6.15 Flexible coupling for encoder.
These couplings are used when the driver and driven shafts are coaxial, since it is difficult to
align the driver and driven shafts perfectly on the same axis. Further, elastic deformation
cause additional misalignments between the two coaxial shafts. A certain amount of flexibility
is built into the couplings to compensate for these errors. Supplier of the couplings provides
data on the permissible misalignments between two shafts for a particular coupling.
The motor shaft and encoder are coupled directly using the coupling. The following kinds of
errors shown in Figure 6.16 can be compensated by using the flexible couplings.
(a) Radial misalignment ( )
(b) Angular misalignment ( ) o
(c) Axial shift ( ) o

Figure 6.16 Types of shaft misalignment.
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Figure 6.17 shows the use of flexible couplings for connecting an encoder and a DC Motor
shaft. This coupling behaves like a rigid element in the direction of rotation. In the axial and
angular directions, however, they have elastic properties. Misalignments caused by fitting
errors or other influences can be compensated by these elastic properties.

Figure 6.17 Details of rotary encoder mounting.
After considering all the factors, such as diameter of the motor shaft ( ) mm 6 and diameter of
the encoder shaft ( ) mm 6 , C06B E69 model flexible coupling having inner diameter mm 6
was selected which is shown in Figure 6.15. Typical values of permissible misalignments for
the selected coupling model are given in the Table 6.6.
It is very important to ensure that the axis of the encoder and that of a connecting motor shaft
are aligned both angularly and radially within the permissible limits imposed by the flexible
couplings. Generally, the greater the misalignment, the quicker the coupling will fail. A
coupling will last indefinitely if there is no misalignment. Table 6.7 shows some characteristic
of the selected coupling.








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Table 6.6 Flexible coupling specifications.
Model number C06B E69
Make Omron
Material Resin
Inner diameter mm 6
Outer diameter mm 15
Length mm 22
Radial misalignment, mm max 0.25
Angular misalignment, o degree max 5
Axial shift, o mm max 0.5
Allowable torque m - N 0.8
Torsion rigidity rad m - N
7
Table 6.7 Characteristics of resin coupling.
Advantages Disadvantages
- Low cost.
- Easy shaft alignment while mounting,
- Lightweight and low moment of inertia,
placing a smaller load on the drive
system.
- Low torsion rigidity and thus not
suitable for high resolution.
- Mounting is possible even if the shafts
are greatly misaligned, which can cause
damage from fatigue over long periods
of application.
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6.3.6 Encoder with hollow shaft

Figure 6.18 Encoder with hollow shaft
In case of test arrangement shown in Figure 6.1, there was no constraint in choosing the type
of encoder shaft. But for walking apparatus leg design, either motor with inbuilt encoder has
to be selected or encoder with hollow shaft that can be mounted directly to the motor gearbox
output shaft. For choosing a motor with inbuilt encoder, motor specification and encoder
resolution which suits the requirement is not available in India. Backlash problem comes into
picture, if we select motor with inbuilt encoder. For example, if the gearbox is having 1
backlash and reduction ratio of 1 : 270 , for encoder having CPR 90 , 62 pulse will be counted
without any rotation of the leg joint axis. In order to avoid this backlash problem and due to
flexibility in choosing encoder resolution regardless of the motor selection, encoder with
hollow shaft is appropriate for this application. Another convenience in using an encoder with
hollow shaft is that, hollow encoder shaft can be mounted over the leg main shaft and encoder
body can be mounted to mounting block using flexible mounting bracket.
Bore diameter of encoder shaft is another important factor to be considered. Leg main shaft is
having a hole of diameter mm 6 to fit motor shaft as shown in Figure 6.19 and in order to
reduce the bearing stress in mounting hole of coupling screw, main shaft diameter has to be
maximized. Encoder with maximum bore diameter of hollow shaft is mm 12 .

Figure 6.19 Main shaft of leg mechanism.
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Bearing stress calculation
Motor torque, m - N 3.7 = T
Force on bearing area, ( ) ( )
-3
10 4.5 7 . 3 5 . 0 = F
N 11 . 411 =
Projected area,
2 6
10 9 m A
p

=
Bearing stress, MPa 45 10 9 11 . 411
6
= =

o
After considering all the factors mentioned in Section 6.3.4, and due to severe space
constraint in mounting the encoder, 5 L 6 360 12 E40H model was selected which is
shown in Figure 6.18. Specifications of the selected encoder are listed in the Table 6.8 below.
Figure 6.20 shows the mounting arrangement of hollow encoder with DC motor and leg main
shaft. Since, walking apparatus consists of four legs; four encoders are required (one encoder
for each axis).

Figure 6.20 Hollow encoder mounting arrangement.





87

Table 6.8 Specifications of hollow encoder.
Model 5 L 6 360 12 E40H
Make Autonics
Encoder type Incremental
Input voltage V 5
Shaft type Hollow
Bore diameter mm 12
CPR 360
Output phases
Z and Z, , B B, , A A,
Output configuration Line driver
6.3.7 Arduino Mega 2560

Figure 6.21 Arduino Mega 2560 board
The Arduino board used in this project is shown in the Figure 6.21. Arduino board is based on
the powerful ATmega2560 microcontroller and has 54 digital input/output pins (of which 14
can be used as PWM outputs), 16 analog inputs, 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection,
a power jack, and a reset button. RESET button on Arduino is to re-run the loop in burned
code from start.
Arduino board has a USB port for communicating with a computer and can be programmed
with the Arduino software which consists of a standard programming language compiler and
88

comes preburned with a bootloader. USB port is also used to supply power input to the
Arduino board for its working and to generate the required PWM signals.
Features of Arduino Mega 2560
Communication: The ATmega2560 provides serial communication of board with the PC.
The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to
and from the board.
Input and Output: Each of the 54 digital pins on the Mega can be used as an input or output,
using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. Voltage level for these pins is
V 5 . Each pin can be either a source or a sink with a maximum current of mA 40 .
The Mega 2560 has 16 analog inputs, each of which provides 10 bit of resolution (i.e., 1024
different values). By default they measure from ground to V 5 .
PWM: 2 to 13 and 44 to 46. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.
External Interrupts: 2 (interrupt 0), 3 (interrupt 1), 18 (interrupt 5), 19 (interrupt 4), 20
(interrupt 3), and 21 (interrupt 2). These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a
low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for
details.
Power: The Arduino Mega can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically.
VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source.
5V and 3V3 V 3.3 supply and V 5 supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum
current draw is mA 40 .
GND: Ground pins.
Programming: The Arduino Mega can be programmed with the Arduino software. The
ATmega2560 on the Arduino Mega comes pre-burned with a boot loader that allows
uploading new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. Arduino
programs are written in C or C++. Table 6.9 summarizes the features of Arduino Mega 2560
microcontroller board.


89

Table 6.9 Features of Arduino Mega 2560.
Microcontroller ATmega2560
Operating voltage V S
Input voltage(recommended) V 7 to 12
Input Voltage(limits) V 6 to 20
Digital I/O pins 54 (of which 14 provide PWM output)
Analog input pins 16
DC current per I/O pin mA 40
Clock speed MHz 16
Dimension mm 15 53 108
6.4 Control modes of walking apparatus
In order to obtain an overall understanding of the gaits for walking apparatus, it is helpful to
understand the control organization of the machine. The control scheme of walking apparatus
is supervisory control instead of individual leg control. That is, the user only controls the
general motion of the walking apparatus, a problem of from one to four degrees of freedom,
and leaves other details, such as the control of individual legs and the coordination of the
motion of the legs, to a microcontroller.
There are three control modes; the first mode is the manual mode. This mode is used to check
all the four leg mechanisms. Although, the mode is manual but, still leg motions requires
extensive microcontroller control.
The second mode is auto mode. It is the advanced control mode of the two. It just requires a
push of a button, either forward or reverse to move the walking apparatus in the desired
direction.
The third mode is homing mode, and is for referencing to a special mechanical position.
Walking apparatus is set to this mode immediately, when the speed knob is rotated to switch
90

on the walking apparatus. Once, all legs reaches home position, the walking apparatus is set to
auto mode. This mode is important for the coordination of all the four legs. If there is no
coordination between the legs in auto mode, walking apparatus has to be switched off and
then on for homing the legs.
6.5 Operator controls

Figure 6.22 Operator pendant box for controlling walking apparatus.
User of the walking apparatus interacts with the control system through operator control box.
The operator pendant box shown in Figure 6.22 consists of nine switches and a knob. The
user can set the speed of the walking apparatus using the knob provided at the top of the
operator pendant box. With forward and reverse switches, user can steer the walking
apparatus. The operator receives information through LEDs. These are provided in operator
control box, as shown in Figure 6.22.
6.6 Feedback system
A total of four incremental encoders are used in walking apparatus. One encoder is mounted
on the main shaft of the leg mechanism. Position feedback is used from legs in support phase
for the purpose of coordination.
6.7 Control configuration
Control is the most crucial aspect of walking apparatus design because of its complexity. The
legs are responsible for keeping the rider in a stable posture and in a legged system, stability
91

must be maintained actively. There are two portions of cycle in which the foot is in contact
with the ground, and out of contact with the ground. When the foot is on the ground, the
primary control parameter is position. When the foot is off the ground, it is controlled to
follow a pre-planned velocity and so the position and velocity become the important control
variables. Whichever leg touches down the ground, coordination between those legs is very
important. Velocity of each axis when it is off the ground to maintain the required duty factor
| otherwise walking apparatus will be unstable.
6.8 Control circuit

Figure 6.23 Control circuit of walking apparatus.
Figure 6.23 shows the control circuit of walking apparatus. It consists of a microcontroller,
four encoders, and four DC motor drives. Whole system is powered by a 12 V battery.
Features of all these components were already discussed in previous chapters. Control circuits
for walking apparatus have been developed and were made according to the diagrams.
6.9 Summary
Basic circuit for position control of four motors is implemented. Sensing systems has to be
implemented for foothold selection in rough terrains.
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Chapter 7
Conclusion and future scope
7.1 Conclusion
In the present work, analysis of preliminary concept model of walking apparatus has been
carried out. Analysis of preliminary walking apparatus shows some shortcomings in the
support structure, seating arrangement, steering and leg mechanism. Keeping in mind these
shortcomings a eight bar leg mechanism was designed. Kinematics dimensions of links were
determined by graphical method using four-position synthesis. Position and dynamic analysis
of leg mechanism was carried out using Creo Elements/Pro to determine the workspace
generated and torque required to drive the leg mechanism. The overall walking apparatus
geometry is designed to meet the objectives. After deciding the leg geometry, it was decided
where and how to fix the legs. Decisions were made on strength, material selection, size,
shape, and spatial compatibility. Based on the study of numerous leg mechanisms and
components, concept model was proposed. Scaled down model of the walking apparatus was
created using Creo Elements/Pro. Stability analysis was carried out. Trajectory planning was
done for all four axes of walking apparatus. Dynamic simulation was carried to analyze the
stability of the apparatus. FEM analysis was carried out for stress analysis. In detailed design,
the design of walking apparatus was brought to the stage of a complete engineering
description. Missing information is added on the arrangement, form, dimensions, tolerances,
surface properties, materials, and manufacturing processes of each part. This resulted in a
specification for each special purpose part and for each standard part to be purchased from
suppliers. Detailed engineering drawing suitable for manufacturing were prepared. Assembly
drawings and assembly instructions was also determined. Manufacturing the designed
components of walking apparatus is a critical aspect in this project. For first walking
apparatus, manufacturing has been downplayed, or even ignored completely. As a result
interference between links of leg mechanism, different leg lengths, and lateral play of whole
leg mechanism was observed in first walking apparatus and made it difficult to implement
controls. This problem has forced to create the second walking apparatus. Selection
methodology of the major components required for walking apparatus was done.
Programming for controlling the walking apparatus was done. PID control was used to control
93

the position of each leg. Second walking apparatus has demonstrated its body motion via leg
coordination of the four supporting legs while performing level walking.
7.2 Future scope
- One more degree of freedom can be added to each leg, to adapt gaits for irregular terrain.
- Wheel locomotion can be implemented for traversing level surfaces.
- Gaits for walking irregular terrains like gradients, ditch crossing, vertical step crossing,
isolated wall crossing can be implemented further. Short range sensors can be used to
provide terrain information for foothold selection.
- The Omni-directional motion characteristics can be implemented to incorporate turning
abilities.
- As the encoders cost is around % 30 of total cost of the walking apparatus, encoders can
be replaced with cost effective optocouplers.
- Noise in the optocoupler signal can be removed by incorporating a signal conditioning
circuit.

94

Chapter 8
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