1 Semiconductors

SEMICONDUCTORS AND
ELECTRONICS
INTRODUCTION
To say that the invention of

semiconductor devices was a revolution would not be an
exaggeration. Not only was this an impressive
technological accomplishment, but it paved the way for
developments that would indelibly alter modern society.
Semiconductor devices made possible miniaturized
electronics, including computers, certain types of
medical diagnostic and treatment equipment, and
popular telecommunication devices, to name a few
applications of this technology.
05 July 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 1
BASIC CONCEPTS
An atom consists of a nucleus occupied by protons
and neutrons with electrons revolving around the
nucleus. Neutrons are electrically neutral, protons
have a positive charge and electrons have a negative
charge both equal in magnitude. Thus an atom is
electrically neutral under normal conditions.
Electrons around the nucleus are grouped into energy

bands called shells. Each shell consists of one or more
energy levels called orbits. The electrons in inner
shells have lower energies while those in outer shells
have higher energies. The difference of energy
between energy levels within a shell is very small as
compared to that between two different shells. Thus
there are
05 July 2005discrete energy
Engineergaps between shells.
M S Ayubi 2
The electrons in the inner shells being nearer to the
nucleus are tightly bound to it and thus they require
greater energy to leave their positions. The electrons in
the outer shells contrarily, are loosely bound to the
nucleus thus require lesser energy to leave their
positions.
The outermost shell in an atom is called valence shell and
the electrons in this shell are called valence electrons. The
atom minus its valence shell is referred to as core of the
atom. Thus an atom can be modeled simply as a core
surrounded by the valence electrons. If sufficient energy
is provided, the valence electrons may leave the atom and
move into what is called a conduction band. The energy
absorbed by the electron is used to overcome the energy
gap between the valence band and the conduction band.
The electron in the conduction band is now a free electron
and is not associated with any particular atom.
Fermi Energy
• The highest energy an electron reached if you were to
fill the solid with the intrinsic number of electrons at
absolute zero. (No added thermal energy)
• Meaningful! There is a sea of electrons sitting beneath
this energy.
– If you bring two solids together with different
Fermi energies, the electrons will move around to
reach an equilibrium.(Foreshadowing: PN junction)
– If you try to put a lower energy electron into a
solid (at absolute zero) with a higher Fermi energy,
it won’t fit. It cannot be done due to Pauli Exclusion.
• If the highest energy electron exactly fills a band, the
Fermi Energy is near the center of the bands.
eyond 0 K: Fermi-Dirac Statistics
• Fermi Energy: The energy
state whose probability of
being occupied is exactly 1/2 .
• Electrons obey Fermi-Dirac
statistics, which describe the
probability of an electron being
present in an allowed energy
state.
• Note that if there are no
states at a given energy (i.e.,
in the band gap) there will be
no electrons, even if there is
finite probability.

A material that readily allows
electric current to flow through it is
called a conductor. In conductor
atoms the valence and conduction
bands overlap each other so that
there are a large number of free
electrons in the material supporting
the current flow.
A material that doesn’t readily
allow current to flow through it
is called an insulator. In
insulators the energy gap
between the valence band and
the conduction band is very wide
and the chances of valence
electrons crossing it over into the
conduction band and hence
becoming free are very limited.
Semiconductors lie somewhere
between conductors and insulators
in their ability to conduct electric
current. The energy gap between
their valence and conduction band
is narrower than in the insulators
but still it is wide enough to stop
electrons from crossing it over
normally. However, when supplied
with sufficient energy the valence
electrons may actually cross the
gap over and be free electrons.

ELECTRONS AND "HOLES“ in Semiconductors
At low temperatures, there is little thermal energy available to
push valence electrons across the forbidden energy gap, and the
semi-conducting material thus acts as an insulator. At higher
temperatures, though, the ambient thermal energy becomes
sufficient to force electrons across the gap into the conduction
band, and the material will conduct electricity.
When a voltage is applied to a crystal containing these
conduction band electrons, the electrons move through the
crystal toward the applied voltage. This movement of electrons
in a semiconductor is referred to as electron current flow.
There is still another type of current in a pure semiconductor.
This current occurs when a covalent bond is broken and a
vacancy is left in the atom by the missing valence electron. This
vacancy is commonly referred to as a hole. The hole is
considered to have a positive charge because its atom is
deficient by one electron, which causes the protons to outnumber
the electrons.
In the theory just described, two current carriers
were created by the breaking of covalent bonds: the
negative electron and the positive hole. These carriers
are referred to as electron-hole pairs. Since the
semiconductor we have been discussing contains no
impurities, the number of holes in the electron-hole
pairs is always equal to the number of conduction
electrons. Another way of describing this condition
where no impurities exist is by saying the
semiconductor is intrinsic. The term intrinsic is also
used to distinguish the pure semiconductor that we
have been working with from one containing impurities.

eneration and Recombination
Generation = break up of covalent bond to form electron
and hole
• requires energy from thermal or optical sources (or other
external sources)
• generation rate: G = Gth + Gopt + ... [cm−3 · s−1]
• in general, atomic density >> n, p ⇒
G ≠ f(n, p)
(supply of breakable bonds virtually inexhaustible)
Recombination = formation of bond by bringing together
electron and hole
• releases energy in thermal or optical form
• recombination rate: R [cm−3 · s−1]
• a recombination event requires 1 electron + 1
hole ⇒ R ∝ n · p
Generation and recombination most likely at surfaces where
periodic
05 July crystalline
2005 structure
Engineer is
M S broken.
Ayubi 11
Thermal equilibrium
=steady state + absence of
external energy sources
• Generation rate in thermal equilibrium: Go = f(T)

• Recombination rate in thermal equilibrium: Ro ∝ no·po
In thermal equilibrium:
Go = Ro ⇒ nopo = f(T) ni2(T)
Important consequence:
In thermal equilibrium and for a given semiconductor,
np product is a constant that depends only on temperature!
Electron-hole formation can be seen as chemical reaction:
bond ↔ e− + h+
similar to water decomposition reaction:
H2O ↔ H+ + OH−
DOPING
A semiconductor in its intrinsic form doesn’t support
PROCESS
much current due to the limited number of electron-
hole pairs. However, its conductivity can be drastically
increased by adding small amounts of selected
additives to it. These additives are called impurities
and the process of adding them to crystals is referred
to as doping .
When an impurity increases the number of free
electrons, the doped semiconductor is negative or N-
type, and the impurity that is added is known as an n-
type impurity. However, an impurity that reduces the
number of free electrons, causing more holes, creates
a positive or P-type semiconductor, and the impurity
that was added to it is known as a p-type impurity.
Semiconductors doped in this manner are referred to
as extrinsic
05 July 2005
semiconductors.
Engineer M S Ayubi 13
N-Type
The N-type impurities have 5 valence
Semiconductor
electrons and are called pentavalent
impurities. This type of impurity loses its
extra valence electron easily when added
to a semiconductor material, and in so
doing, increases the conductivity of the
material by contributing a free electron.
Notice the arsenic atom in the center of
the Ge lattice in fig. It has 5 valence
electrons but uses only 4 of them to
form covalent bonds with the Ge atoms,
leaving 1 electron relatively free in the
crystal structure. Since the N-type
semiconductor has a surplus of electrons,
the electrons are considered majority
carriers, while the holes, being fewer in
number, are the minority carriers.
Nd ≡ donor concentration [cm−3]
• If Nd < < ni, doping irrelevant
(intrinsic semiconductor) no = po = ni
• If Nd > > ni, doping controls carrier concentrations
(extrinsic semiconductor) → no = Nd po = ni2/Nd
Note: no > > po: n-type semiconductor
Example:
Nd = 1017 cm−3 → no = 1017 cm−3, po = 103 cm−3.
In general: Nd ∼ 1015 − 1020 cm−3
Chemical reaction analogy:
dissolve a bit of KOH into
water ⇒ [OH−] ↑, [H+] ↓

Current Flow in N-type Material
Current Flow in the N-type
semiconductor, or crystal, is
similar to conduction in a copper
wire. The +ve potential of the
battery will attract the free
electrons in the crystal. These
electrons will leave the crystal and
flow into the +ve terminal of the
battery. As an electron leaves the
crystal, an electron from the -ve
terminal of the battery will enter
the crystal, thus completing the
current path. Therefore, the
majority current carriers in the
N-type material (electrons) are
repelled by the -ve side of the
battery and move through the
crystal toward the +ve side of the
battery.
P-Type
Semiconductor
The P-type impurities have only 3
valence electrons and are called trivalent
impurities. This type of impurity, when
added to a semiconductor material, tends
to compensate for its deficiency of 1
valence electron by acquiring an electron
from its neighbor. Notice the indium
atom in the figure is 1 electron short of
the required amount of electrons needed
to form covalent bonds with 4
neighboring atoms and, therefore,
creates a hole in the structure. Since
the P-type semiconductor has a surplus
of holes, the holes are considered
majority carriers, while the electrons,
being fewer in number, are the minority
carriers.
Na acceptor concentration [cm−3]
• If Na > > ni, doping irrelevant
(intrinsic semiconductor) → no = po = ni
• If Na < < ni, doping controls carrier concentrations
(extrinsic semiconductor) → no = Na po = ni2/Na
Note: po > > no: p-type semiconductor
Example:
Na = 1016 cm−3 → po = 1016 cm−3, no = 104 cm−3.
In general: Na ∼ 1015 − 1020 cm−3
Chemical reaction analogy:
dissolve a bit of H2SO4 into
water ⇒ [H+] ↑, [OH−] ↓

Current Flow in a P-type Material
Conduction in the P material is by
+ve holes, instead of -ve electrons.
A hole moves from the +ve terminal
of the P material to the -ve
terminal. Electrons from the external
circuit enter the -ve terminal of the
material and fill holes in the vicinity
of this terminal. At the +ve
terminal, electrons are removed from
the covalent bonds, thus creating
new holes. This process continues as
the steady stream of holes (hole
current) moves toward the -ve
terminal.
Notice in both N-type and P-type materials, current flow in
the external circuit consists of electrons moving out of the -ve
terminal of the battery and into the +ve terminal of the
battery. Hole flow, on the other hand, only exists within the
material itself.
Summary
• In a semiconductor, there are two types of carriers:
electrons and holes
• In thermal equilibrium and for a given semiconductor
nopo is a constant that only depends on temperature:
nopo = ni2
• For Si at room temperature:
ni ≅ 1010 cm−3
• Intrinsic semiconductor: pure semiconductor.
no = po = ni
• Carrier concentrations can be engineered by
addition of dopants (selected foreign atoms):
– n-type semiconductor:
no = Nd, po = ni2 / Nd
– p-type semiconductor:
po = Na, no =
ni2 / 05Na
July 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 20
PN
JUNCTION
If we join a section of N-type semiconductor material with
a similar section of P-type semiconductor material, we
obtain a device known as a PN JUNCTION. (The area
where the N and P regions meet is appropriately called the
junction.) The semiconductor should be in one piece to form
a proper PN junction, but divided into a P-type impurity
region and an N-type impurity region. This can be done in
various ways.
GROWN junction
P-type and N-type
impurities are mixed into a
single crystal. By so doing, a
P-region is grown over part
of a semiconductor’s length
and N- region is grown over
the other part (view A in
fig). 05 July 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 21
FUSED-ALLOY junction
One type of impurity is melted into a
semiconductor of the opposite type
impurity. For example, a pellet of
acceptor impurity is placed on a wafer of
N-type germanium and heated. Under
controlled temperature conditions, the
acceptor impurity fuses into the wafer to
form a P-region within it (view B in fig).
POINT-CONTACT construction
It consists of a fine metal wire, called a cat
whisker, that makes contact with a small area
on the surface of an N-type semiconductor
(view A). The PN union is formed in this
process by momentarily applying a high-surge
current to the wire and the N-type
semiconductor. The heat generated by this
current converts the material nearest the
point of contact to a P-type material (view B).
ectrostatics of p-n junction in equilibrium
Focus on intrinsic region:
Doping distribution
of abrupt p-n
junction:

What is the
carrier
concentration
distribution in
thermal
equilibrium?
First think of
two sides
separately:
Now bring them together. What happens?

Diffusion of electrons and holes from majority carrier side
to minority carrier side until drift balances diffusion.
Resulting carrier
profile in thermal
equilibrium:
• Far away from metallurgical junction: nothing happens

– two quasi-neutral regions (QNR)
• Around metallurgical junction: carrier drift must
cancel diffusion
– space-charge region (SCR)
In a
linear
scale:
Thermal equilibrium: balance between drift and

diffusion
Can divide semiconductor in three regions:
• two quasi-neutral n- and p-regions (QNRs)
• one space charge region (SCR)
built-in potential across p-n junction

Junction
Barrier
Although the N-type material has an excess of free electrons,
it is still electrically neutral. This is because the overall number
of electrons and protons in the N-type material is equal. By the
same reasoning, the P-type material is also electrically neutral.
It would seem that if we joined the N and P materials together,
all the holes and electrons would pair up. This however, is not
the case. Instead some electrons in the N material diffuse into
the P material and fill some of the holes near the junction. This
process, called junction recombination, reduces the number of
free electrons and holes in the vicinity of the junction. Because
there is a depletion, or lack of free electrons and holes in this
area, it is known as the depletion region. The loss of an electron
from the N material creates a positive ion in the N material,
while the addition of an electron to the P material creates a -ve
ion in that material. These ions are fixed in place in the crystal
lattice structure and cannot move. Thus, they make up a layer
of fixed opposite charges on the two sides of the junction.
An electrostatic field is
established across the junction
between the oppositely charged ions.
The diffusion of electrons across
the junction continues until the
magnitude of the field increases to
the extent that the N-type
electrons no longer have enough
energy to overcome it. At this point
equilibrium is established and, for all
practical purposes, the movement of
carriers across the junction ceases.
For this reason, the field created
by the +ve and -ve ions in the
depletion region is called a barrier.
This action occurs instantly when the junction is formed. Only the
carriers in the immediate vicinity of the junction are affected. The
carriers throughout the remainder of the N and P material are
relatively undisturbed and remain in a balanced condition.
PN Junction
Diode
The general purpose or
rectifier diode is a single
PN junction device with
conductive contacts and
wire leads connected to
each region.
The schematic symbol
of a PN junction diode is
shown in figure.
The vertical bar represents the cathode (N-type) since it
is the source of electrons and the arrow represents the
anode (P-type) since it is the destination of the electrons.
It makes use of the rectifying properties of a PN
junction to convert alternating current into direct current
by permitting
05 July 2005
current flow in only one direction.
FORWARD BIAS
An external voltage applied to a PN junction is called
bias. If a voltage source used to supply bias to a PN junction
is connected such that its positive terminal is connected to
the P-type material and the negative terminal is connected
to the N-type material, the bias is known as forward bias.
The +ve potential repels holes toward the junction where they
neutralize some of the negative ions. At the same time the
negative potential repels electrons toward the junction where
they neutralize some of the positive ions. Since ions on both
sides of the barrier are being neutralized, the width of the
barrier decreases. Thus, the effect of the source voltage in
the forward-bias is to overcome the barrier potential across
the junction and to allow majority carriers to cross the
junction. Current flow in the forward-biased PN junction is
relatively simple. An electron leaves the negative terminal of
the source, enters the N material, where it is the majority
carrier and moves to the edge of the junction barrier.
For Si and Ge diodes, the typical
forward voltage drop is 0.7 and
0.3 volts respectively. Forward
voltage drop remains nearly equal
for a wide range of diode
currents, meaning that diode
voltage drop is not like that of a
resistor. For most purposes of
circuit analysis, it may be assumed
that the voltage drop across a
conducting diode remains constant.
In actuality, however, things are
more complex than this.
There is an equation describing the exact current through
a diode, given the voltage dropped across the junction, the
temperature of the junction, and several physical
constants. It is commonly known as the diode equation:
05 July 2005 Id = I s (e qV d /NkT
- 1)
Id = Is (eqV d /NkT - 1)
Where, Id = Diode current in amps
Is = Saturation current in amps (typically 1 x 10-12 amps)
e = Euler’s constant (~ 2.718281828)
q = charge of electron (1.6 x 10-19 coulombs)
Vd = Voltage applied across diode in volts
N = "Nonideality" or "emission" coefficient
(typically between 1 and 2)
T = Junction temperature in degrees Kelvin 2nd
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23)
The equation kT/q describes the voltage produced within
the PN junction due to the action of temperature, and is
called the thermal voltage, or Vt of the junction. At room
temperature, this is about 26 millivolts. Knowing this, and
assuming a "nonideality" coefficient of 1, we may simplify
the diode equation and rewrite it as such:
Id = Is (eVd /0.026 -1)
Because of forward bias, the barrier
offers less opposition to the electron
and it crosses the junction into the P-
type material. The electron loses
energy in overcoming the opposition of
the junction barrier, and upon
entering the P material, combines with
a hole. The hole was produced when
an electron was extracted from the P
material by the positive potential of
the battery. The created hole moves
through the P material toward the
junction where it combines with an
electron.
In forward bias, conduction is by majority current carriers.
Increasing the source voltage will increase the number of majority
carriers arriving at the junction and will therefore increase the
current flow. If the source voltage is increased to the extent that
the barrier is greatly reduced, a high current will flow and the
junction may be damaged from the resulting heat.
REVERSE BIAS
If a voltage source is connected across the PN
junction so that its negative terminal is connected to
the P-type material, and the positive battery terminal
to the N-type material, the bias is known as reverse
bias. The negative potential attracts the holes away
from the edge of the junction barrier on the P side,
while the positive potential attracts the electrons
away from the edge of the barrier on the N side.
This action increases the barrier width because there
are more negative ions on the P side of the junction,
and more positive ions on the N side of the junction.
This increase in the number of ions prevents current
flow across the junction by majority carriers.
However, the current flow across the barrier is not
quite zero because of the minority carriers crossing
the junction.
With reverse bias, the
electrons in the P region are
repelled toward the junction
by the negative terminal of
the source. As the electron
moves across the junction,
it will neutralize a positive
ion in the N region.
Similarly, the holes in the N
region will be repelled by
the positive terminal of the
source toward the junction.
As the hole crosses the junction, it will neutralize a -ve ion
in the P-type material. This movement of minority carriers is
called minority current flow, because the holes and electrons
involved come from the electron-hole pairs that are
generated in the crystal lattice structure, and not from the
addition of impurity atoms.
Therefore, when a PN
junction is reverse biased,
there will be no current
flow because of majority
carriers but a very small
amount of current because
of minority carriers
crossing the junction.
However, at normal
operating temperatures,
this small current may be
neglected.
The PN junction is able to offer very little
resistance to current flow when forward biased but
maximum resistance to current flow when reverse
biased.
ELECTROSTATICS OF BIASED PN
JUNCTION
Bias convention for
PN junction:
V > 0 forward
bias V < 0
reverse bias
• Potential distribution across PN

junction in thermal equilibrium:
• Apply voltage to p-side with

respect to n-side:
Battery imposes a potential
difference across the PN
junction
How does potential
distribution inside junction
change as a result of bias?
V can drop across five regions :

• metal/p-QNR contact
• p-QNR
• SCR
• n-QNR
• metal/n-
QNR contact In
which region does V drop
most?
Essentially, all applied voltage
drops05across
July 2005 SCR: Engineer M S Ayubi 38
V-I
characteristics
ofFora Forward
 PN Bias
JUNCTION
The forward current If is
zero when the voltage across
the Si PN junction is zero.
Increasing the bias voltage
Vf has very little effect on
If until Vf reaches 0.7 volts
(barrier potential) at the
knee of the curve.
Beyond this point, Vf remains nearly steady at 0.7 volts
while If increases rapidly. The normal operation for a
forward biased PN junction is above the knee of the curve.
Increasing Vf far above the barrier potential causes a very
high If that can effectively damage the PN junction.
For Reverse Bias
When the reverse voltage Vr across the PN junction is
zero, there is no reverse current Ir. Increasing Vr has
very less effect on Ir until Vr reaches what is called the
breakdown value Vbr. Beyond this point Ir increases very
rapidly while the voltage across the PN junction increases
very little above Vbr. Break down, with some exceptions, is
not a normal mode of operation for most PN junction
devices as the high Ir generates considerable heat that can
damage the PN junction.
Temperature Effects on the V-I Characteristics
For a forward biased PN junction, as temperature
increases, the forward current If increases for a given
value of forward bias voltage Vf.
For a reverse biased PN junction, as temperature
increases, the reverse current Ir increases for a given
value of reverse voltage Vr. Ir approximately doubles for
every05 July
102005
o
C rise in temperature.
-I characteristics (cont.)
PN Junction current equation:
I = Io(eqV/kT − 1)
Physics of forward bias:
• potential difference
across SCR reduced by V ⇒
minority carrier injection in
• minority carrier diffusion through QNR’s
QNR’s
• minority carrier recombination at surface of QNR’s
• large supply of carriers available for injection
⇒ I ∝ eqV/kT
Physics of reverse bias:
• potential difference across SCR
increased by V ⇒ minority carrier
extraction from QNR’s
• minority carrier diffusion through QNR’s
• minority carrier generation at surface of
QNR’s • very small supply of carriers available
for extraction ⇒ I saturates to small value
I-V characteristics
I = Io(eqV/kT − 1)
Key dependences of PN junction current:

I = qAn2i( 1/Na Dn/Wp − xp + 1/Nd Dp/Wn − xn)
(eqV/kT − 1) • I ∝ n2iN (eqV/kT −1) ≡ excess minority
carrier concentration at edges of SCR – in forward bias: I ∝
n2i/N eqV/kT : the more carrier are injected, the more
current flows – in
reverse bias: I ∝ −n2i/N : the minority carrier
concentration drops to negligible values and the
current saturates • I ∝ D: faster diffusion ⇒
more current • I ∝ 1/WQNR:
shorter region to diffuse through ⇒ more current
Diode
Characteristics
For every device there are defining characteristics that industry has
found to be useful when describing them. Even for such a simple device
as a diode there are many hundreds of types that have been specifically
designed for:
Switching Rectifying Power High frequency Low leakage
Properties:
Si or Ge, determines the voltage drop across the diode and the
drift current.
Maximum reverse voltage, PRV (peak reverse voltage) or
PIV (peak inverse voltage).
If, maximum forward current.
Junction capacitance, reverse recovery time.
Capacitance depends on the size and geometry of the junction,
the capacitance can be thought of as in parallel with the
junction.
A large If typically means a large junction capacitance: what
happens if you try to use this diode at high frequencies?
emperature Sensitivity of Diodes
The current through a forward
biased diode is a function of
temperature and thus a diode can
be used as a temperature sensor.
We have two choices, constant
current or constant voltage.
I = Io(eeV/kT −1)
In constant current mode,
dV/dT ~ k/e ~0.002 V/°C.

Meter Check of a Diode
Since we know that a diode is essentially nothing more than a
one-way valve for electricity, it makes sense we should be able
to verify its one-way nature using a DC (battery-powered)
ohmmeter. Connected one way across the diode, the meter
should show a very low resistance. Connected the other way
across the diode, it should show a very high resistance ("OL" on
some digital meter models):

Diode Ratings
 In addition to forward voltage drop (VF ) and
peak inverse voltage (PIV), there are many other
ratings of diodes important to circuit design and
component selection. Semiconductor manufacturers
provide detailed specifications on their products
-diodes included- in publications known as
datasheets.
Datasheets for a wide variety of semiconductor
components may be found in reference books and
on the internet. A typical diode datasheet will
contain figures for the following parameters:

Maximum repetitive reverse voltage = VRRM, the
maximum amount of voltage the diode can
withstand in reverse-bias mode, in repeated
pulses. Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
Maximum DC reverse voltage = VR or VDC, the
maximum amount of voltage the diode can
withstand in reverse-bias mode on a continual
basis. Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
Maximum forward voltage = VF , usually specified
at the diode's rated forward current. Ideally, this
figure would be zero: the diode providing no
opposition whatsoever to forward current. In
reality, the forward voltage is described by the
"diode equation.“
Maximum (average) forward current = IF the
(AV ),
maximum average amount of current the diode is able to

conduct in forward bias mode. This is fundamentally a
thermal limitation: how much heat can the PN junction
handle, given that dissipation power is equal to current
(I) multiplied by voltage (V or E) and forward voltage is
dependent upon both current and junction temperature.
Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
Maximum (peak or surge) forward current = IFSM or
IF(surge), the maximum peak amount of current the diode
is able to conduct in forward bias mode. Again, this
rating is limited by the diode junction's thermal
capacity, and is usually much higher than the average
current rating due to thermal inertia (the fact that it
takes a finite amount of time for the diode to reach
maximum temperature for a given current). Ideally, this
figure would be infinite.
Maximum total dissipation = PD, the amount of power (in watts)
allowable for the diode to dissipate, given the dissipation (P=IE)
of diode current multiplied by diode voltage drop, and also the
dissipation (P=I2R) of diode current squared multiplied by bulk
resistance. Fundamentally limited by the diode's thermal
capacity (ability to tolerate high temperatures).
Operating junction temperature = TJ , the maximum allowable
temperature for the diode's PN junction, usually given in degrees
Celsius (0C). Heat is the "Achilles' heel" of semiconductor
devices: they must be kept cool to function properly and give
long service life.
Storage temperature range = TSTG, the range of allowable
temperatures for storing a diode (un-powered). Sometimes given
in conjunction with operating junction temperature (TJ ), because
the maximum storage temperature and the maximum operating
temperature ratings are often identical. If anything, though,
maximum storage temperature rating will be greater than the
maximum operating temperature rating.

Thermal resistance = R(θ ), the temperature difference
between junction and outside air (R(θ )JA) or between junction
and leads (R(θ )JL) for a given power dissipation. Expressed in
units of degrees Celsius per watt (0C/W). Ideally, this figure
would be zero, meaning that the diode package was a perfect
thermal conductor and radiator, able to transfer all heat energy
from the junction to the outside air (or to the leads) with no
difference in temperature across the thickness of the diode
package. A high thermal resistance means that the diode will
build up excessive temperature at the junction (where it is
critical) despite best efforts at cooling the outside of the diode,
and thus will limit its maximum power dissipation.
Maximum reverse current = IR, the amount of current through
the diode in reverse-bias operation, with the maximum rated
inverse voltage applied (VDC). Sometimes referred to as leakage
current. Ideally, this figure would be zero, as a perfect diode
would block all current when reverse biased. In reality, it is
very small compared to the maximum forward current.

Typical junction capacitance = CJ , the typical amount of
capacitance intrinsic to the junction, due to the depletion region
acting as a dielectric separating the anode and cathode
connections. This is usually a very small figure, measured in the
range of picofarads (pF).
 Reverse recovery time = trr, the amount of time it takes for a
diode to "turn off" when the voltage across it alternates from
forward-bias to reverse-bias polarity. Ideally, this figure would
be zero: the diode halting conduction immediately upon polarity
reversal. For a typical rectifier diode, reverse recovery time is
in the range of tens of microseconds; for a "fast switching"
diode, it may only be a few nanoseconds.
Most of these parameters vary with temperature or other
operating conditions, and so a single figure fails to fully describe
any given rating. Therefore, manufacturers provide graphs of
component ratings plotted against other variables (such as
temperature), so that the circuit designer has a better idea of
what the device is capable of.
Load
Lines
What is the current through the
diode?
A traditional means of finding the
operating point of a non-linear
circuit is through load lines.
The object is to partition the circuit into a set of
sources and a load and then to simultaneously find solutions
for both.
Of course the same end can be achieved by knowing the
equation for operation of the non-linear element.
While load lines are not really that useful in designing
circuits, you see them often and they are useful in
developing a physical intuition of how circuits operate.

The load line approach.
Consider the 1k resistor to be a load of
the diode.
Plot the current through the resistor as
a function of the diode voltage. Note this
is simple since the resistor is now
sandwiched between 2 voltage sources.
Once the diode curve has been drawn (perhaps from a data sheet), then
we can explore the circuit to find an operating point. Since the resistor is
linear we know that the VI curve will be a line and thus we only need to
locate two points. It is easiest to find the points where the non-linear
device is strongly on and off. Note that these points do not need to be
reachable by a circuit.
With the diode off, the full voltage drop is across the diode and the
current is zero. With the diode perfectly conducting, there is no voltage
drop across it and the current is only limited by the resistor.
The operating point is simply the overlap of these two curves. It can now
easily be seen what happens to the operating point as:
Increase the voltage ⇒ load line moves up.
Increase the resistance ⇒ slope of the load line changes.
Zener Diode
Zener diode is a special type of diode that
can handle breakdown without failing
completely. When forward-biased, zener
diodes behave much the same as standard
rectifying diodes: they have a forward
voltage drop which follows the "diode
equation" and is about 0.7 volts.
In reverse-bias mode, they do not conduct until the
applied voltage reaches or exceeds the so-called zener
voltage, at which point the diode is able to conduct
substantial current, and in doing so will try to limit the
voltage dropped across it to that zener voltage point. So
long as the power dissipated by this reverse current does
not exceed the diode's thermal limits, the diode will not be
harmed. Zener diodes are manufactured with zener
voltages ranging anywhere from a few volts to hundreds of
volts.05 July 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 54
This zener voltage changes slightly with temperature, and
like common carbon-composition resistor values, may be
anywhere from 5 percent to 10 percent in error from the
manufacturer's specifications.
However, this stability
and accuracy is
generally good enough
for the zener diode to
be used as a voltage
regulator device in
common power supply
circuit:
Please take note of the zener diode's orientation in the
above circuit: the diode is reverse-biased, and intentionally
so. If we had oriented the diode in the "normal" way, so
as to be forward-biased, it would only drop 0.7 volts, just
like a regular rectifying diode.
If we want to exploit this diode's reverse breakdown
properties, we must operate it in its reverse-bias mode.
So long as the power supply voltage remains above the
zener voltage (12.6 volts, in this example), the voltage
dropped across the zener diode will remain at
approximately 12.6 volts.
Like any semiconductor device, the zener diode is sensitive
to temperature. Excessive temperature will destroy a zener
diode, and because it both drops voltage and conducts
current, it produces its own heat in accordance with
Joule's Law (P=IE). Therefore, one must be careful to
design the regulator circuit in such a way that the diode's
power dissipation rating is not exceeded. Interestingly
enough, when zener diodes fail due to excessive power
dissipation, they usually fail shorted rather than open. A
diode failed in this manner is easy to detect: it drops
almost zero voltage when biased either way, like a piece of
wire.05 July 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 56
Summ
ary
•According to the classical Bohr model, the atom is
viewed as having a planetary-type structure with
electrons orbiting at various distances around the
central nucleus.
•The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and
neutrons. The protons have a positive charge and the
neutrons are uncharged. The number of protons is the
atomic number of the atom.
•Electrons have a negative charge and orbit around the
nucleus at distances that depend on their energy level.
An atom has discrete bands of energy called shells in
which the electrons orbit. Atomic structure allows a
certain maximum number of electrons in each shell.
These shells are designated 1, 2, 3, and so on. In their
natural state, all atoms are neutral because they have
an equal number of protons and electrons.
•The outermost shell or band of an atom is called the
valence band, and electrons that orbit in this band are
called valence electrons. These electrons have the
highest energy of all those in the atom. If a valence
electron acquires enough energy from an outside source
such as heat, it can jump out of the valence band and
break away from its atom.
•Semiconductor atoms have four valence electrons.
Silicon is the most widely used semiconductive material.
•Materials that are conductors have a large number of
free electrons and conduct current very well. Insulating
materials have very few free electrons and do not
conduct current under normal circumstances.
Semiconductive materials fall in between conductors and
insulators in their ability to conduct current.
•Semiconductor atoms bond together in a symmetrical
pattern to form a solid material called a crystal. The
bonds that hold a crystal together are called covalent
bonds. Within the crystal structure, the valence electrons
that manage to escape from their parent atom are called
conduction electrons or free electrons. They have more
energy than the electrons in the valence band and are free
to drift throughout the material. When an electron breaks
away to become free, it leaves a hole in the valence band
creating what is called an electron-hole pair. These
electron-hole pairs are thermally produced because the
electron has acquired enough energy from external heat to
break away from its atom.
•A free electron will eventually lose energy and fall back
into a hole. This is called recombination. But, electron-hole
pairs are continuously being thermally generated so there
are always free electrons in the material.
•When a voltage is applied across the semiconductor,
the thermally produced free electrons move in a net
direction and form the current. This is one type of
current in an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor.
•Another type of current is the hole current. This
occurs as valence electrons move from hole to hole
creating, in effect, a movement of holes in the
opposite direction.
•An n-type semiconductive material is created by
adding impurity atoms that have five valence
electrons. These impurities are pentavalent atoms. A
p-type semiconductor is created by adding impurity
atoms with only three valence electrons. These
impurities are trivalent atoms.

•The process of adding pentavalent or trivalent
impurities to a semiconductor is called doping.
•The majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor are
free electrons acquired by the doping process, and the
minority carriers are holes produced by thermally
generated electron-hole pairs. The majority carriers
in a p-type semiconductor are holes acquired by the
doping process, and the minority carriers are free
electrons produced by thermally generated electron-
hole pairs.
•A PN junction is formed when part of a material is
doped n-type and part of it is doped p-type. A
depletion region forms starting at the junction that is
devoid of any majority carriers. The depletion region
is formed by ionization.
•There is current through a diode only when it is forward-
biased. Ideally, there is no current when there is no bias nor
when there is reverse bias. Actually, there is a very small
current in reverse bias due to the thermally generated minority
carriers, but this can usually be neglected.
•Avalanche occurs in a reverse-biased diode if the bias voltage
equals or exceeds the breakdown voltage.
•A diode conducts current when forward-biased and blocks
current when reversed-biased.
•The forward-biased barrier potential is typically 0.7 V for a
silicon diode and 0.3 V for a germanium diode. These values
increase slightly with forward current.
•Reverse breakdown voltage for a diode is typically greater than
50 V.
•An ideal diode represents an open when reversed-biased and a
short when forward-biased.
PN JUNCTION
APPLICATIONS
Half-Wave
The PN junction diode can be used to convert AC into DC
Rectifier
as it conducts when forward biased and doesn’t conduct
when reverse biased. If we place this diode in series with
a source of AC power, the diode will be forward and
reverse biased every cycle.
Since in this situation current
flows more easily in one
direction than the other,
rectification is accomplished.
The simplest rectifier circuit
is a half-wave rectifier which
consists of a diode, an ac
power source, and a load
resister.
During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, the top of the
transformer is positive w.r.t ground. The diode is forward biased
and current flows through the circuit. When this current flows
through the load resistor, it develops a negative to positive voltage
drop across it, which appears as a positive voltage at the output
terminal.
When the AC input goes negative, the top of the transformer
becomes negative w.r.t ground. The diode becomes reverse biased
and minimum current flows through the diode. For all practical
purposes, there is no output developed across the load resistor
during the negative alternation of the input signal.
Since only the positive half-cycles appear at the output this
circuit converted the AC input into a positive pulsating DC voltage.
The frequency of the output voltage is equal to the frequency of
the applied AC signal since there is one pulse out for each cycle of
the ac input. For example, if the input frequency is 60 hertz, the
output frequency is 60 pulses per second (pps).
If the diode connections are reversed, a negative output voltage
is obtained.

ll Wave Rectifier
If we need to rectify AC power so as to obtain the full use of both
half-cycles of the sine wave, a full-wave rectifier circuit configuration
must be used.
Center-tap Design
This design uses a
transformer with a
center-tapped
secondary winding and
two diodes. This
circuit's operation is
easily understood one
half-cycle at a time.
Consider the first half-cycle, when the source voltage
polarity is (+) on top and (-) on bottom. At this time, only
the top diode is conducting; the bottom diode is blocking
current, and the load "sees" the first half of the sine
wave, positive on top and negative on bottom.
Only the top half of
the transformer's
secondary winding
carries current
during this half-
cycle:
During the next half-cycle, the AC polarity reverses. Now,
the other diode and the other half of the transformer's
secondary winding carry current while the portions of the
circuit formerly carrying current during the last half-cycle
sit idle.
The load still
"sees" half of a
sine wave, of the
same polarity as
before: positive on
top and negative on
bottom:
One disadvantage of this full-wave rectifier design is the
necessity of a transformer with a center-tapped secondary
winding. If the circuit in question is one of high power, the
size and expense of a suitable transformer is significant.
Consequently, the center-tap rectifier design is seen only
in low-power applications.
Full Wave Bridge Design
The full-wave bridge rectifier design is built around a
four-diode bridge configuration.

Current directions in the full-wave bridge rectifier circuit
are as follows for each half-cycle of the AC waveform:
Positive
half cycle
Negative
half cycle

Diode
The basic diode switch is shown
Switch
in figure. When the input to
this circuit is at zero potential,
the diode is forward biased
because of the zero potential on
the cathode and the positive
voltage on the anode. The diode
conducts and acts as a straight
piece of wire because of its
very low forward resistance.
In effect, the input is directly coupled to the output resulting in zero
volts across the output terminals. Therefore, the diode, acts as a
closed switch when its anode is positive with respect to its cathode.
If we apply a positive input voltage (equal to or greater than the
positive voltage supplied to the anode) to the diode’s cathode, the
diode will be reverse biased. In this situation, the diode is cut off and
acts as an open switch between the input and output terminals.
Consequently, with no current flow in the circuit, the positive voltage
on the diode’s anode will be felt at the output terminal.
ltage Regulator
Zeners are diodes that have
variable resistance.
Specifically, zeners have a
constant current output over
a range of input voltages.
Thus, by providing a
constant current to a circuit,
zeners can be used as
voltage regulators.
A simple voltage regulator.
Poor ripple suppression,
requires a zener with high
power rating, and variations
with load impedance.

1 Semiconductors

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SEMICONDUCTORS AND

To say that the invention of

Electrons around the nucleus are grouped into energy

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• Generation rate in thermal equilibrium: Go = f(T)

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Focus on intrinsic region:

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Now bring them together. What happens?

• Far away from metallurgical junction: nothing happens

Thermal equilibrium: balance between drift and

built-in potential across p-n junction

• Potential distribution across PN

• Apply voltage to p-side with

V can drop across five regions :

Key dependences of PN junction current:

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maximum average amount of current the diode is able to

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