Basic R E

MATHS
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1
Number system :
( i ) Natural numbers : The counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, .... are called Natural Numbers. The set
of natural numbers is denoted by N. Thus N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ....}.
( i i ) Whole numbers : Natural numbers including zero are called whole numbers. The set of
whole numbers is denoted by W. Thus W = {0, 1, 2, .........}
( i i i ) Integers : The numbers ... 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 .... are called integers and the set is
denoted by I or Z. Thus I (or Z) = {.. 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3...}
Note : (a) Positive integers I
+
= {1, 2, 3 ....} = N
(b) Negative integers I
= {....., 3, 2, 1}.
(c) Non-negative integers (whole numbers) = {0, 1, 2, ......}.
(d) Non-positive integers = {......, 3, 2, 1, 0}.
( i v ) Even integers : Integers which are divisible by 2 are called even integers.
e.g. 0, 2, 4,.......
( v ) Odd integers : Integers which are not divisible by 2 are called odd integers.
e.g. 1, 3, 5, 7......
( vi ) Prime numbers : Natural numbers which are divisible by 1 and itself only are called prime
numbers.
e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, ........
( vi i ) Composite number : Let 'a' be a natural number, 'a' is said to be composite if, it has atleast
three distinct factors.
e.g. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15 .........
Note : (i) 1 is neither a prime number nor a composite number.
(ii) Numbers which are not prime are composite numbers (except 1).
(iii) '4' is the smallest composite number.
(iv) '2' is the only even prime number.
( vi i i ) Co-prime numbers : Two natural numbers (not necessarily prime) are called coprime, if there
H.C.F (Highest common factor) is one.
e.g. (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 4), (3, 10), (3, 8), (5, 6), (7, 8) (15, 16) etc.
These numbers are also called as relatively prime numbers.
Note : (a) Two prime number(s) are always co-prime but converse need not be true.
(b) Consecutive natural numbers are always co-prime numbers.
( i x) Twin prime numbers : If the difference between two prime numbers is two, then the numbers
are called twin prime numbers.
e.g. {3, 5}, {5, 7}, {11, 13}, {17, 19}, {29, 31}
Note : Number between twin prime numbers is divisible by 6 (except (3, 5)).
Basics
MATHS
2
( x) Rational numbers : All the numbers that can be represented in the form p/q, where p and q
are integers and q = 0, are called rational numbers and their set is denoted by Q. Thus
Q = {
q
p
: p, q e I and q = 0}. It may be noted that every integer is a rational number since it can
be written as p/1. It may be noted that all recurring decimals are rational numbers.
Note : Maximum number of different decimal digits in
q
p
is equal to q, i.e.
9
11
will have maximum of 9 different
decimal digits.
( xi ) Irrational numbers : The numbers which can not be expressed in p/q form where p, q e I and
q = 0 i.e. the numbers which are not rational are called irrational numbers and their set is
denoted by Q
c
. (i.e. complementary set of Q) e..g. 2 , 1 + 3 etc. Irrational numbers can not
be expressed as recurring decimals.
Note : e ~ 2.71 is called Napier's constant and t ~ 3.14 are irrational numbers.
(xi i ) Real numbers : Numbers which can be expressed on number line are called real numbers.
The complete set of rational and irrational numbers is the set of real numbers and is denoted
by R. Thus R = Q Q
C
.
All real numbers follow the order property i.e. if there are two distinct real numbers a and b then
either a < b or a > b.
Note : (a) Integers are rational numbers, but converse need not be true.
(b) Negative of an irrational number is an irrational number.
(c) Sum of a rational number and an irrational number is always an irrational number
e.g. 2 + 3
(d) The product of a non zero rational number & an irrational number will always be an irrational
number.
(e) If a e Q and b e Q, then ab = rational number, only if a = 0.
(f) Sum, difference, product and quotient of two irrational numbers need not be a irrational number
or we can say, result may be a rational number also.
( xi i i ) Complex number : A number of the form a + ib is called a complex number, where a,b e R
and i = 1 . Complex number is usually denoted by Z and the set of complex number is
represented by C. Thus C = {a + ib : a, b e R and i = 1 }
Note : It may be noted that N c W c I c Q c R c C.
Example # 1 : Express the following rational numbers in the form of
q
p
, ( where p, q e I )
(i) 0.1 2 (ii) 23 5 . 1
Solution : (i) Let x = = 0.1222.......
10x = 1. 2 ........(i)
100x = 12. 2 .......(ii)
90x = 11 x =
90
11
(so x is a rational number)
MATHS
3
(ii) Let x = 23 5 . 1
10x = 23 . 15
1000x = 1523 . 23
990x = 1508 x =
990
1508
=
495
754
(so x is a rational number)
Self practice problems :
(1) Express the following in form of
q
p
, where p, q e I and q = 0
(i) 18 . 0 (ii) 6 1 . 0 (iii) 23 4 . 0
Answers : (1) (i)
11
2
(ii)
6
1
(iii)
990
419
Divisibility test :
S.No.
Divisibility
of
Test
1 2 The digit at the unit place of the number is divisible by 2.
2 3 The sum of digits of the number is divisible by 3.
3 4 The last two digits of the number together are divisible by 4.
4 5 The digit of the number at the unit place is either 0 or 5.
5 6
The digit at the unit place of the number is divisible by 2 & the sum of all
digits of the number is divisible by 3.
6 8 The last 3 digits of the number all together are divisible by 8.
7 9 The sum of all it's digits is divisible by 9.
8 10 The digit at unit place is 0.
9 11
The difference between the sum of the digits at even places and the sum
of digits at odd places is 0 or multiple of 11. e.g.1298, 1221, 123321,
12344321, 1234554321, 123456654321
Example # 2 : Consider a number N = 2 1 P 5 3 Q 4
(i) Number of ordered pairs (P, Q) so that the number N' is divisible by 9, is
(A) 11 (B) 12 (C) 10 (D) 8
(ii). Number of values of Q so that the number N is divisible by 8, is
(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 2 (D) 6
(iii) Number of ordered pairs (P, Q) so that the number N' is divisible by 44, is
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
Solution : (i) Sum of digits = P + Q + 15
N is divisible by 9 if
P + Q + 15 = 18, 27
P + Q = 3 ..........(i) or P + Q = 12 .............(ii)
P = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Fromequation (i)
MATHS
4
= =
= =
= =
= =
0 Q , 3 P
1 Q , 2 P
2 Q , 1 P
3 Q , 0 P
No. of ordered pairs is 4
Fromequation (ii)
= =
= =
= =
= =
3 Q , 9 P
4 Q
.........
,
8 P
........
8 Q , 4 P
9 Q , 3 P
No. of ordered pairs is 7
Total number of ordered pairs is 11
(ii) N is divisible by 8 if
Q = 0, 4, 8
Number of values of Qis 3
(iii) S
O
= P + 9
S
E
= Q + 6
S
E
S
0
= Q P 3
N is divisible by 4 if
Q = 0, 2, 4, 6, 8
N is divisible is 11 if
Q P 3 = 0 or multiple of 11
P Q = 3 .............(i) or P Q = 8 ...............(ii)
FromEquation (i) From Equation (ii)
Q = 0, P = 3 (not possible) Q = 0, P = 8
Q = 2, P = 1 (not possible) Q = 2, P = 10 (not possible)
Q = 4, P = 1 Q = 4, P = 12 (not possible)
number of ordered pairs is 3 number of ordered pairs is 1
total number of ordered pairs, so that number N is divisible by 44 is 4
Self practice problem
Consider the number N = 7 7 4 9 5 8 P 9 6 Q
(2) If P = 2 and the number N is divisible by 3, then find number of possible values of Q
(3) If N is divisible by 4, then find values of P and Q
(4) If N is divisible by 8 and 9 both, then find number of possible ordered pairs (P, Q)
Answers : (2) 4 (3) P can be any single digit whole number and Q = 0, 4, 8
(4) 3
Remainder theorem : Let p(x) be any polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one and 'a' be any real
number. If p(x) is divided by (x a), then the remainder is equal to p(a).
Factor theorem : Let p(x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 and 'a' be a real number
such that p(a) = 0, then (x a) is a factor of p(x). Conversely, if (x a) is a factor of
p(x), then p(a) = 0.
MATHS
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Example # 3 : Show that (x 3) is a factor of the polynomial x
3
3x
2
+ 4x 12.
Solution : Let p(x) = x
3
3x
2
+ 4x 12 be the given polynomial. By factor theorem, (x a) is a factor of
a polynomial p(x) iff p(a) = 0. Therefore, in order to prove that x 3 is a factor of p(x), it is
sufficient to show that p(3) = 0. Now,
p(x) = x
3
3x
2
+ 4x 12
p(3) = 3
3
3 3
2
+ 4 3 12
= 27 27 + 12 12 = 0
Hence, (x 3) is a factor of p(x) = x
3
3x
2
+ 4x 12.
Example # 4 : Without actual division prove that 2x
4
6x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 3x 2 is exactly divisible by x
2
3x + 2.
Solution : Let f(x) = 2x
4
6x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 3x 2and g(x) = x
2
3x + 2 be the given polynomials. Then
g(x) = x
2
3x + 2 = x
2
2x x + 2 = x(x 2) 1(x 2)
= (x 1) (x 2)
In order to prove that f(x) is exactly divisible by g(x), it is sufficient to prove that x 1 and
x 2 are factors of f(x). For this it is sufficient to prove that f(1) = 0 and f(2) = 0.
Now, f(x) = 2x
4
6x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 3x 2
f(1) = 2 1
4
6 1
3
+ 3 1
2
+ 3 1 2
f(1) = 0
and, f(2) = 2 2
4
6 2
3
+ 3 2
2
+ 3 2 2
f(2) = 0
Hence (x 1) and (x 2) are factors of f(x).
g(x) = (x 1) (x 2) is a factors of f(x).
Hence f(x) is exactly divisible by g(x).
Example # 5 : The polynomials P(x) = kx
3
+ 3x
2
3 and Q(x) = 2x
3
5x + k, when divided by (x 4) leave the same
remainder. The value of k is
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 0 (D) 1
Solution : P(4) = 64k + 48 3 = 64k + 45
Q(4) = 128 20 + k = k + 108
given P(4) = Q(4)
64k + 45 = k + 108
63k = 63 k = 1
Example # 6 : If a two-digit number is divided by the number having same digits written in reverse order, we get 4 as
quotient and 3 as remainder and if the number is divided by the sumof the digits then 8 as a quotient
and 7 as a remainder is obtained. Find the number.
Solution : Let 10x+y be the required number.
10x+y = 4(10y+x) + 3................. (i)
and 10x+y = 8(x+y) + 7,......................(ii)
on solving (i) and (ii)
we get x=7, y=1
the number is equal to 71
(5) Determine the remainder when the polynomial P(x) = x
4
3x
2
+ 2x + 1 is divided by x 1
(6) Find the value of a, if x a is a factor of x
3
a
2
x + x + 2.
(7) Using factor theorem, show that a b, b c and c a are the factors of
a(b
2
c
2
) + b(c
2
a
2
) + c (a
2
b
2
).
MATHS
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(8) A polynomial in x of the third degree which will vanish when x = 1 & x = 2 and will have the
values 4 & 28 when x = 1 and x = 2 respectively is ______ .
Answers : (5) 1 (6) a = 2 (8) f(x) = 3 x
3
+ 4 x
2
5 x 2
Some important identities:
(1) (a + b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
= (a b)
2
+ 4ab
(2) (a b)
2
= a
2
2ab + b
2
= (a + b)
2
4ab
(3) a
2
b
2
= (a + b) (a b)
(4) (a + b)
3
= a
3
+ b
3
+ 3ab (a + b)
(5) (a b)
3
= a
3
b
3
3ab (a b)
(6) a
3
+ b
3
= (a + b)
3
3ab (a + b) = (a + b) (a
2
+ b
2
ab)
(7) a
3
b
3
= (a b)
3
+ 3ab (a b) = (a b) (a
2
+ b
2
+ ab)
(8) (a + b + c)
2
= a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
= a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ 2abc
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
c
1
b
1
a
1
(9) a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca =
2
1
[(a b)
2
+ (b c)
2
+ (c a)
2
]
(10) a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc = (a + b + c) (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca)
=
2
1
(a + b + c) [(a b)
2
+ (b c)
2
+ (c a)
2
]
If a + b + c = 0 , then a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
= 3abc
(11) a
4
b
4
= (a + b) (a b) (a
2
+ b
2
)
(12) a
4
+ a
2
+ 1 = (a
2
+ 1)
2
a
2
= (1 + a + a
2
) (1 a + a
2
)
Example # 7 : If
2
a
1
a |
.
|
\
|
+
= 3, then a
3
+
3
a
1
equals :
(A)
3 6
(B)
3 3
(C) 0 (D)
7 7
(E)
3 6
Solution : a +
a
1
=
3
a
3
+
3
a
1
=
3
a
1
a |
.
|
\
|
+
3
|
.
|
\
|
+
a
1
a
= 3 3 3 3 = 0.
Example # 8 : Show that the expression, (x
2
y z)
3
+ (y
2
z x)
3
+ (z
2
x y)
3
3 (x
2
y z) . (y
2
z x).(z
2
x y)
is a perfect square and find its square root.
Solution : (x
2
yz)
3
+ (y
2
zx)
3
+ (z
2
xy)
3
3(x
2
yz) (y
2
zx) (z
2
xy)
= a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc where a = x
2
yz, b = y
2
zx, c = z
2
xy
= (a + b + c) (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca)
MATHS
7
=
2
1
(a + b + c) ((a b)
2
+ (b c)
2
+ (c a)
2
)
=
2
1
(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
xy yz zx)[(x
2
yz y
2
+ zx)
2
+ (y
2
zx z
2
+ xy)
2
+ (z
2
xy x
2
+ yz)
2
]
=
2
1
(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
xy yz zx) [{x
2
y
2
+ z(x y)}
2
+ {y
2
z
2
+ x (y z)}
2
+ {z
2
x
2
+ y (z x)}
2
]
=
2
1
(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
xy yz zx) (x + y + z)
2
[(x y)
2
+ (y z)
2
+ (z x)
2
]
= (x + y + z)
2
(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
xy yz zx)
2
= (x
3
+ y
3
+ z
3
3xyz)
2
(which is a perfect square)
its square roots are
xyz 3 z y x (
3 3 3
+ + )
(9) If x, y, z are all different real numbers, then prove that
1 1 1
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) x y y z z x
+
=
1 1 1
2
x y y z z x
+
|
\
|
.
| .
(10) Factorise the expression, (x + y + z)
3
x
3
y
3
z
3
into linear factors.
(11) Factorize
(i) 1 + x
4
+ x
8
(ii) x
4
+ 4
Answers : (10) 3 (x + y) (y + z) (z + x)
(11) (i) (x
4
x
2
+ 1) (x
2
+ x + 1) (x
2
x + 1)
(ii) (x
2
2x + 2) (x
2
+ 2x + 2)
Definition of indices :
If 'a' is any non zero real or imaginary number and 'm' is the positive integer, then a
m
= a. a. a. ...a
(m times). Here a is called the base and m is called the index, power or exponent.
Law of indices :
(1) a
0
= 1, (a = 0)
(2) a
m
=
m
a
1
, (a = 0)
(3) a
m + n
= a
m
. a
n
, where m and n are rational numbers
(4) a
m n
=
n
m
a
a
, where m and n are rational numbers, a = 0
(5) (a
m
)
n
= a
mn
(6) a
p/q
=
q
p
a
Example # 9 : Simplify
4
6 3 9
4
3 6 9
a a
(
; the result is :
(A) a
16
(B) a
12
(C) a
8
(D) a
4
(E) a
2
Solution : a
9(1/6)(1/3)4
. a
9(1/3)(1/6)4
= a
2
. a
2
= a
4
.
MATHS
8
Example # 10 : Simplify a
1
a b 2
b a

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ b
1
b a 2
b a

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
Solution : The given expression is equal to
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ b a
a b 2
a
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ b a
b a 2
b
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ b a
b
b a
a
ab 2 = 2ab
Example # 11 : Evaluate
48 7 3 2 3 3 + + + + +
Solution :
48 7 3 2 3 3 + + + + +
=
12 2 3 4 3 2 3 3 + + + + + +
=
3 4 3 2 3 3 + + + + +
=
3 2 4 3 3 + + +
=
1 3 3 3 + + +
=
3 2 4 +
= 3 + 1
Example # 12 : Find rational numbers a and b, such that
5 3 4
5 3 4
+
= a + 5 b
Solution :
5 3 4
5 3 4
5 3 4
5 3 4
+
+
= a + 5 b
29
5 24 61
+
= a + b 5
a =
29
61
, b =
29
24
Ans.
(12) Find the value of
(i)
3
10
27 .
3
1

|
.
|
\
|
+
2
4
) 25 .(
5
1

|
.
|
\
|
+
3
9
1
64

|
|
.
|
\
|
(ii)
( ) ( )
2 5 75
24 5 50 3 5
+
Answer : (12) (i) 8 (ii) 1
Ratio :
1. If A and B be two quantities of the same kind, then their ratio is A : B; which may be denoted by the
fraction
B
A
(This may be an integer or fraction)
2. A ratio may represented in a number of ways e.g.
b
a
=
mb
ma
=
nb
na
= ..... where m, n,..... are non-zero
numbers.
MATHS
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3. To compare two or more ratio, reduced them to common denominator.
4. Ratio between two ratios may be represented as the ratio of two integers e.g.
b
a
:
d
c
:
d / c
b / a
=
bc
ad
or
ad : bc.
5. Ratios are compounded by multiplying them together i.e.
b
a
.
d
c
.
f
e
.... =
bdf
ace
....
6. If a : b is any ratio then its duplicate ratio is a
2
: b
2
; triplicate ratio is a
3
: b
3
..... etc.
7. If a : b is any ratio, then its sub-duplicate ratio is a
1/2
: b
1/2
; sub-triplicate ratio is a
1/3
: b
1/3
etc.
Example # 13 : What term must be added to each term of the ratio 5 : 37 to make it equal to 1 : 3?
Solution : Let x be added to each term of the ratio 5 : 37.
Then
37 x
5 x
+
+
=
3
1
3x + 15 = x + 37 i.e. x = 11
Example # 14 : If x : y = 3 : 4, then find the ratio of 7x 4y : 3x + y
Solution :
y
x
=
4
3
4x = 3y or x =
4
3
y
Now
y x 3
y 4 x 7
+
=
y y
4
3
. 3
y 4 y
4
3
. 7
+
(putting the value of x)

=
y y
4
9
y 4 y
4
21
+
=
y 13
y 5
=
13
5
i.e. 5 : 13 Ans.
(13) If
b
a
=
3
2
and
c
b
=
5
4
, then find value of
c b
b a
+
+
.
(14) If sum of two numbers is C and their quotient is
q
p
, then find number..
Answers. (13)
27
20
(14)
q p
pc
+
,
q p
qc
+
Proportion :
When two ratios are equal, then the four quantities compositing them are said to be proportional. If
b
a
=
d
c
, then it is written as a : b = c : d or a : b :: c : d
1. 'a' and 'd' are known as extremes and 'b and c' are known as means.
2. An important property of proportion : Product of extremes = product of means.
MATHS
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3. If a : b = c : d, then
b : a = d : c (Invertando) i.e.
d
c
b
a
=

c
d
a
b
=
a : c = b : d (Alternando) i.e.
d
c
b
a
=

d
b
c
a
=
b
b a +
=
d
d c +
(Componendo) i.e.
d
c
b
a
=

1
d
c
1
b
a
+ = +
b
b a
=
d
d c
(Dividendo) i.e.
d
c
b
a
=

1
d
c
1
b
a
=
b a
b a
+
=
d c
d c
+
(Componendo and dividendo)
i.e.
d
c
b
a
=

1
d
c
1
b
a
+ = +

d
d c
b
b a +
=
+
.......(1)
1
d
c
1
b
a
=

d
d c
b
b a
=
........(2)
Dividing equation (1) & (2) we obtain
b a
b a
+
=
d c
d c
+
Example # 15 : If
a
x
=
b
y
=
c
z
, then show that
2 2
3 3
a x
a x
+
+
+
2 2
3 3
b y
b y
+
+
+
2 2
3 3
c z
c z
+
+
=
2 2
3 3
) c b a ( ) z y x (
) c b a ( ) z y x (
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
.
Solution :
a
x
=
b
y
=
c
z
= k (constant)
x = ak; y = bk; z = ck
Substituting these values of x, y, z in the given expression
2 2
3 3
a x
a x
+
+
+
2 2
3 3
b y
b y
+
+
+
2 2
3 3
c z
c z
+
+
=
2 2
3 3
) c b a ( ) z y x (
) c b a ( ) z y x (
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
we obtain
L.H.S. =
2 2 2
3 3 3
a k a
a k a
+
+
+
2 2 2
3 3 3
b k b
b k b
+
+
+
2 2 2
3 3 3
c k c
c k c
+
+
=
) 1 k ( a
) 1 k ( a
2 2
3 3
+
+
+
) 1 k ( b
) 1 k ( b
3 2
3 3
+
+
+
) 1 k ( c
) 1 k ( c
2 2
3 3
+
+
=
1 k
) 1 k ( a
2
3
+
+
+
1 k
) 1 k ( b
2
3
+
+
+
1 k
) 1 k ( c
2
3
+
+
=
) 1 k (
) 1 k (
2
3
+
+
. (a + b + c)
Now R.H.S =
2 2
3 3
) c b a ( ) ck bk ak (
) c b a ( ) ck bk ak (
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
=
2 2 2
3 3 3
) c b a ( ) c b a ( k
) c b a ( ) c b a ( k
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
MATHS
11
=
2 2
3 3
) c b a )( 1 k (
) c b a )( 1 k (
+ + +
+ + +
=
) 1 k (
) 1 k (
2
3
+
+
. (a + b + c)
We see that L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Example # 16 : If a, b, c, d, e are in continued proportion, then prove that
(ab + bc + cd + de)
2
= (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
) (b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
+ e
2
)
Solution : If
b
a
=
c
b
=
d
c
=
e
d
, then we have
b
a
=
c
b
=
d
c
=
e
d
=
) e d c b (
) d c b a (
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
+ + +
+ + +
= k (say)
i.e. a = bk ab = b
2
k
b = ck bc = c
2
k
c = dk cd = d
2
k
d = ek de = e
2
k
Again (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
) = k
2
(b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
+ e
2
) ...........(i)
Now L.H.S. = (ab + bc + cd + de)
2
= (kb
2
+ kc
2
+ kd
2
+ ke
2
)
2
= k
2
(b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
+ e
2
)
2
= k
2
(b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
+ e
2
) (b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
+ e
2
)
= (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
) (b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
+ e
2
) (Note) (use (i))
Hence (ab + bc + cd + de)
2
= (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
) (b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
+ e
2
)
Example # 17 : Solve the equation
3 x 2 x x 3
3 x 2 x x 3
2 4
2 4
+ +
+
=
3 x 7 x 2 x 5
3 x 7 x 2 x 5
2 4
2 4
+
+ +
Solution :
3 x 2 x x 3
3 x 2 x x 3
2 4
2 4
+ +
+
=
3 x 7 x 2 x 5
3 x 7 x 2 x 5
2 4
2 4
+
+ +
By the process of componendo and dividendo, we have
3 x 2 x
x 3
2
4

=
3 x 7 x 2
x 5
2
4
+
or 3x
4
(2x
2
7x + 3) 5x
4
(x
2
2x 3) = 0
or x
4
[6x
2
21x + 9 5x
2
+ 10x + 15] = 0
or x
4
(x
2
11x + 24) = 0
x = 0 or x
2
11x + 24 = 0
x = 0 or (x 8) (x 3) = 0
x = 0, 8, 3
(15) If (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
) (x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
) = (ax + by + cz)
2
, show that x : a = y : b = z : c.
(16) If
b
a
=
d
c
=
f
e
, then find the value of
5 2 2 6
4 2 2 2 4
f 5 d b 3 b 2
f e 5 c a 3 b a 2
+
+
in terms of a and b.
Answer : (16)
4
4
b
a
MATHS
12
Cross multiplication :
If two equations containing three unknowns are
a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
z = 0 ............(i)
a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
z = 0 ............(ii)
Then by the rule of cross multiplication
1 2 2 1
c b c b
x
=
1 2 2 1
a c a c
y
=
1 2 2 1
b a b a
z
............(iii)
In order to write down the denominators of x, y and z in (iii) apply the following rule,
"write down the coefficients of x, y and z in order beginning with the coefficients of y and repeat them
as in the diagram"
Multiply the coefficients across in the way indicated by the arrows; remembering that informing the
products any one obtained by descending is positive and any one obtained by ascending is negative.
Example # 18 : Find the ratios of x : y : z from the equations 7x = 4y + 8z, 3z = 12x + 11y.
Solution : By transposition we have 7x 4y 8z = 0,
12x + 11y 3z = 0,
Write down the coefficients, thus
4 8 7 4
11 3 12 11,
hence we obtain the products
( 4) ( 3) 11 ( 8), ( 8) 12 ( 3) 7, 7 11 12 ( 4),
or 100, 75, 125
100
x
=
75
y
=
125
z
, that is,
4
x
=
3
y
=
5
z
.
Example # 19 : Eliminate x, y, z from the equations
a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
z = 0 ..........(1)
a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
z = 0 ..........(2)
a
3
x + b
3
y + c
3
z = 0 ..........(3)
From (2) and (3), by cross multiplication,
2 3 3 2
c b c b
x
=
2 3 3 2
a c a c
y
=
2 3 3 2
b a b a
z
;
denoting each of these ratios by k, by multiplying up, substituting in(1), and dividing through
out by k, we obtain
a
1
(b
2
c
3
b
3
c
2
) + b
1
(c
2
a
3
c
3
a
2
) + c
1
(a
2
b
3
a
3
b
2
) = 0
This relation is called the eliminant of the given equations.
Intervals :
Intervals are basically subsets of R and are commonly used in solving inequalities or in finding domains.
If there are two numbers a, b e R such that a < b, we can define four types of intervals as follows :
Name Representation Discription
Open Interval (a, b) {x : a < x < b} i.e. end points are not included.
Close Interval [a, b]
{x : a s x s b} i.e. end points are also included. This is possible only when
both a and b are finite.
Open - Closed Interval (a, b] {x : a < x s b} i.e. a is excluded and b is included.
Close - Open Interval [a, b) {x : a s x < b} i.e. a is included and b is excluded.
MATHS
13
Note : (1) The infinite intervals are defined as follows :
(i) (a, ) = {x : x > a} (ii) [a, ) = {x : x > a}
(iii) ( , b) = {x : x < b} (iv) (, b] = {x : x s b}
(v) ( , ) = {x : x e R}
(2) x e {1, 2} denotes some particular values of x, i.e. x = 1, 2
(3) If there is no value of x, then we say x e | (null set)
General Method to solve Inequalities :
(Method of intervals (Wavy curve method)
Let g(x) =
|
|
.
|
\
|

n 2 1
n 2 1
r
n
r
2
r
1
k
n
k
2
k
1
) a x ( ) a x ( ) a x (
) b x ( ) b x ( ) b x (
... (i)
Where k
1
, k
2
.....k
n
and r
1
, r
2
........r
n
e N and b
1
, b
2
.....b
n
and a
1
, a
2
......a
n
are real numbers.
Then to solve the inequality following steps are taken.
Steps : -
Points where numerator becomes zero are called zeros or roots of the function and where denominator
becomes zero are called poles of the function.
(i) First we find the zeros and poles of the function.
(ii) Then we mark all the zeros and poles on the real line and put a vertical bar there dividing the
real line in many intervals.
(iii) Determine sign of the function in any of the interval and then alternates the sign in the
neghbouring interval if the poles or zeros dividing the two interval has appeared odd number of
times otherwise retain the sign.
(iv) Thus we consider all the intervals. The solution of the g(x) > 0 is the union of the intervals in
which we have put the plus sign and the solution of g(x) < 0 is the union of all intervals in which
we have put the minus sign.
Example # 20 : Solve the inequality if
f(x) =
5 3 24
2
5
3 10
) 2 x ( ) 3 x ( x
) 8 x (
2
1
x ) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
is > 0 or < 0.
Solution. Let
f(x) =
5 3 24
2
5
3 10
) 2 x ( ) 3 x ( x
) 8 x (
2
1
x ) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
the poles and zeros are 0, 3, 2, 1,
2
1
, 8, 2
If f(x) > 0, then x e ( , 8) ( 8, 2) ( 1, 0)
|
.
|
\
|
2
1
, 0
(3, )
and if f(x) < 0, then x e ( 2, 1)
|
.
|
\
|
2 ,
2
1
(2, 3) Ans.
MATHS
14
Various types of functions :
(i) Polynomial Function :
If a function f is defined by f (x) = a
0
x
n
+ a
1
x
n1
+ a
2
x
n2
+... + a
n1
x + a
n
where n is a non
negative integer and a
0
, a
1
, a
2
,........., a
n
are real numbers and a
0
= 0, then f is called a
polynomial function of degree n.
Note : There are two polynomial functions, satisfying the relation; f(x).f(1/x) = f(x) + f(1/x), which are
f(x) = 1 x
n
(ii) Constant function :
Afunction f : A B is said to be a constant function, if every element of Ahas the same f image
in B. Thus f : A B; f(x) = c, x e A, c e B is a constant function.
(iii) Identity function :
The function f : A A defined by f(x) = x x e A is called the identity function on
A and is denoted by I
A
. It can be observed that identity function is a bijection.
(iv) Algebraic Function :
y is an algebraic function of x, if it is a function that satisfies an algebraic equation of the form,
P
0
(x) y
n
+ P
1
(x) y
n1
+....... + P
n1
(x) y + P
n
(x) = 0 where n is a positive integer and P
0
(x),
P
1
(x)....... are polynomials in x. e.g. y = |x| is an algebraic function, since it satisfies the
equation y x = 0.
Note : All polynomial functions are algebraic but not the converse.
A function that is not algebraic is called Transcendental Function.
(v) Absolute value function / modulus function :
The symbol of modulus function is f (x) = |x| and is defined as: y = |x|=
<
>
0 x if x
0 x if x
.
Properties of modulus : For any a, b e R
(i) |a| > 0 (ii) |a| = |a|
(iii) |a| > a, |a| > a (iv) |ab| = |a| |b|
(v)
b
a
=
| b |
| a |
(vi) |a + b| s |a| + |b|
(vii) |a b| > ||a| |b||
Example # 21 :
Solve the following linear equations
(i) x |x| = 4
(ii) |x 3| + 2|x + 1| = 4
Solution : (i) x|x| = 4
If x > 0
x
2
= 4 x = 2 x = 2 ( x > 0)
If x < 0 x
2
= 4 x
2
= 4 which is not possible
MATHS
15
(ii) |x 3| + 2|x + 1| = 4
case I : If x s 1
(x 3) 2(x + 1) = 4
x + 3 2x 2 = 4 3x + 1 = 4
3x = 3 x = 1
case II : If 1 < x s 3
(x 3) + 2(x + 1) = 4
x + 3 + 2x + 2 = 4
x = 1 which is not possible
case III : If x > 3
x 3 + 2(x + 1) = 4
3x 1 = 4 x = 5/3 which is not possible
x = 1 Ans.
(vi) Rational function :
A rational function is a function of the form, y = f (x) =
) x ( h
) x ( g
, where g (x) & h (x) are polynomial
functions.
(vii) Irrational function :
An irrational function is a function y = f(x) in which the operations of addition, substraction,
multiplication, division and raising to a fractional power are used.
For example y =
x x 2
x x
3 / 1 3
+
+
is an irrational function
(a) The equation
) x ( f
= g(x), is equivalent to the following system
f(x) = g
2
(x) & g(x) > 0
(b) The inequation
) x ( f
< g(x), is equivalent to the following system
f(x) < g
2
(x) & f(x) > 0 & g(x) > 0
(c) The inequation
) x ( f
> g(x), is equivalent to the following system
g(x) s 0 & f(x) > 0 or g(x) > 0 & f(x) > g
2
(x)
(viii) Exponential function :
A function f(x) = a
x
= e
x In a
(a > 0, a = 1, x e R) is called an exponential function. Graph of
exponential function can be as follows :
Case - I Case - II
For a > 1 For 0 < a < 1
(ix) Logarithmic function : f(x) = log
a
x is called logarithmic function where a > 0 and a = 1 and
x > 0. Its graph can be as follows :
MATHS
16
Case- I Case- II
For a > 1 For 0 < a < 1
Logarithm of A Number :
The logarithm of the number N to the base ' a' is the exponent indicating the power to which the base
' a' must be raised to obtain the number N. This number is designated as log
a
N. Hence:
log
a
N = x a
x
= N , a > 0, a = 1 & N > 0
If a = 10, then we write log b rather than log
10
b.
If a = e, we write lnb rather than log
e
b. Here ' e' is called as Napier's base & has numerical value equal
to 2.7182.
Remember
log
10
2
~
~ 0.3010 ; log
10
3
~
~ 0.4771
n 2
~
~ 0.693 ; n 10
~
~ 2.303
Domain of Definition :
The existence and uniqueness of the number log
a
N can be determined with the help of set of conditions,
a > 0 & a = 1 & N > 0.
The base of the logarithm ' a' must not equal unity otherwise numbers not equal to unity will not have a
logarithm and any number will be the logarithm of unity.
Fundamental Logari thmi c Identi ty :
a
a
N log
= N, a > 0, a = 1 & N > 0
The Principal Properties of Logarithm:
Let M & N are arbitrary positive numbers, a > 0, a = 1, b > 0, b = 1 and o, | are any real numbers,
then :
(i) log
a
(M.N) = log
a
M + log
a
N ; in general log
a
(x
1
x
2
......x
n
) = log
a
x
1
+ log
a
x
2
+ ........+ log
a
x
n
(ii) log
a
(M/N) = log
a
M log
a
N
(iii) log
a
M
o
= o. log
a
M
(iv)
M log
a
| =
|
1
log
a
M
(v) log
b
M =
b log
M log
a
a
(base changing theorem)
MATHS
17
NOTE :
log
a
1 = 0 log
a
a = 1
log
1/a
a = 1 log
b
a =
b log
1
a
a
x
=
a n x
e

a log b log
c c
b a =
Note : (i) If the number and the base are on the same side of the unity, then the logarithm is positive.
(ii) If the number and the base are on the opposite sides of unity, then the logarithm
is negative.
Logari thmic Equation :
The equality log
a
x = log
a
y is possible if and only if x = y i.e.
log
a
x = log
a
y x = y
Always check validity of given equation, (x > 0, y > 0, a > 0, a = 1)
Logari thmi c Inequality :
Let 'a' is a real number such that
(i) If a > 1, then log
a
x > log
a
y x > y
(ii) If a > 1, then log
a
x < o 0 < x < a
o
(iii) If a > 1, then log
a
x > o x > a
o
(iv) If 0 < a < 1, then log
a
x > log
a
y 0 < x < y
(v) If 0 < a < 1, then log
a
x < o x > a
o
Form - I : f(x) > 0, g(x) > 0, g(x) = 1
Form Collection of system
(a) log
g(x)
f(x) > 0

< < s <

> >
1 ) x ( g 0 , 1 ) x ( f 0
1 ) x ( g , 1 ) x ( f
(b) log
g(x)
f(x) s 0

> s <
< < >
1 ) x ( g , 1 ) x ( f 0
1 ) x ( g 0 , 1 ) x ( f
(c) log
g(x)
f(x) > a

< < s <

> >
1 ) x ( g 0 , ) x ( g ) x ( f 0
1 ) x ( g , ) x ( g ) x ( f
a
a
(d) log
g(x)
f(x) s a

< < >

> s <
1 ) x ( g 0 , ) x ( g ) x ( f
1 ) x ( g , ) x ( g ) x ( f 0
a
a
From - II : When the inequality of the form
Form Collection of system
(a) log
|(x)
f(x) > log
|(x)
g(x)

< | < s <

> | >
1 ) x ( 0 ; ) x ( g ) x ( f 0
, 1 ) x ( ), x ( g ) x ( f
(b) log
|(x)
f(x) s log
|(x)
g(x)
< | < > >

> | s <
1 ) x ( 0 , 0 ) x ( g ) x ( f
, 1 ) x ( ), x ( g ) x ( f 0
MATHS
18
Example # 22 : Solve the logarithmic inequality log
1/5
0
x
6 x 4
>
+
.
Solution. Since log
1/5
1 = 0, the given inequality can be written as.
log
1/5
>
+
x
6 x 4
log
1/5
1
when the domain of the function is taken into account the inequality is equivalent to the system
of ineqaulities.
s
+
>
+
1
x
6 x 4
, 0
x
6 x 4
Solving the ineqaualities by using method of
intervals x e |
.
|
2
3
, 2
Example # 23 : Solve the inequality log
1/3
(5x 1) > 0.
Solution. by using the basic property of logarithm.
>
<
0 1 x 5
1 1 x 5
> >

< <
5
1
x 1 x 5
5
2
x 2 x 5
The solution of the inequality is given by
|
.
|
\
|
5
2
,
5
1
Ans.
Example # 24 : Solve the inequality log
(2x + 3)
x
2
< log
(2x + 3)
(2x + 3).
Solution. The given inequality is equivalent to the collection of the systems
+ < <
> +
+ >
< + <
3 x 2 x 0
) ii ( 1 3 x 2
3 x 2 x
) i ( 1 3 x 2 0
2
2
Solving system (i) we obtain
> +
< <
) iii ( 0 ) 1 x ( ) 3 x (
1 x
2
3
System (iii) is equivalent to the collection of two systems
< < <

> < <
) v ( 1 x , 1 x
2
3
) iv ( ; 3 x , 1 x
2
3
MATHS
19
system (iv) has no solution. The solution of system (v) is x e |
.
|
\
|
1 ,
2
3
,
solving system (ii) we obtain.
< +
>
0 ) 1 x ( ) 3 x (
1 x
or
< <
>
3 x 1
1 x
x e ( 1, 3)
x e |
.
|
\
|
1 ,
2
3
( 1, 3)
Example # 25 : Solve the inequation |
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
5
x 2
log log
2
10
30 x 12 x
2
> 0.
Solution. This inequation is equivalent to the collection of following systems.
> |
.
|
\
|
>
+
, 1
5
x 2
log
, 1
10
30 x 12 x
2
2
and
< |
.
|
\
|
<
<
+
<
1
5
x 2
log 0
, 1
10
30 x 12 x
0
2
2
Solving the first system we have.
>
> +
2
5
x 2
0 20 x 12 x
2
>
>
5 x
0 ) 2 x ( ) 10 x (
>
> <
5 x
10 x or 2 x
Therefore the system has solution x > 10
Solving the second system we have.
< <
< + <
2
5
x 2
1
10 30 x 12 x 0
2
< <
< + > +
5 x
2
5
0 20 x 12 x and 0 30 x 12 x
2 2
< <
< < + > <
5 x
2
5
10 x 2 and 6 6 x or 6 6 x
The system has solutions
2
5
< x < 6 6 combining both systems, then solution of
the original inequation is.
x e (
2
5
, 6 6 ) (10, ) Ans.
Solve the following inequalities
(17) log
3x + 5
(9x
2
+ 8x + 8) > 2
MATHS
20
(18) log
0.2
(x
2
x 2) > log
0.2
( x
2
+ 2x + 3)
(19)
3
6 x
log
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ 2 x
1 x
log
2
> 0
(20) log
x
(x
3
x
2
2x) < 3
Answers : (17)
|
.
|
\
|
22
17
,
3
4
(18) |
.
|
\
|
2
5
, 2
(19) ( 6, 5) ( 3, 2)
(20) (2, )
Signum function :
A function f (x) = sgn (x) is defined as follows :
f (x) = sgn (x) =
<
=
>
0 x for 1
0 x for 0
0 x for 1
O
y = 1 if x < 0
y = 1 if x > 0
y = sgn x
X
Y
It is also written as sgn (x) =
=
=
0 x ; 0
0 x ;
x
| x |
Note : sgn (f(x)) =
=
=
0 ) x ( f ; 0
0 ) x ( f ;
) x ( f
| ) x ( f |
Greatest integer function or step up function :
The function y = f (x) = [x] is called the greatest integer function where [x] equals to the
greatest integer less than or equal to x. For example :
[3.2] = 3; [ 3.2] = 4
for 1 s x < 0 ; [x] = 1 ; for 0 s x < 1 ; [x] = 0
for 1 s x < 2 ; [x] = 1 ; for 2 s x < 3 ; [x] = 2 and so on.
Graph of greatest integer function :
Properties of greatest integer function :
(a) x 1 < [x] s x
(b) [x m] = [x] m iff m is an integer.
(c) [x] + [y] s [x + y] s [x] + [y] + 1
(d) [x] + [ x] =
otherwise 1
eger int an is x if ; 0
MATHS
21
Note : [mx] = m[x]
Fractional part function: It is defined as y = {x} = x [x]. It is always non-negative and varies from [0, 1).
The period of this function is 1 and graph of this function is as shown.
For example {2.1} = 2.1 [2.1] = 2.1 2 = 0.1
{ 3.7} = 3.7 [ 3.7] = 3.7 + 4 = 0.3
Properties of fractional part function :
(a) {x m} = {x} iff m is an integer
(b) {x} + {x} =
otherwise , 1
eger int an is x if , 0
Note: {mx} = m {x}
Example # 26 : Solve the equation [x] + {x} = 2x, (where [.] and { . } represents greatest integer function and
fractional part function respectively).
Solution : case-I x e I
x + 0 = 2x x = 0
case-II x e I
[x] + 1 {x} = 2x
[I + f] + 1 {I + f} = 2 (I + f)
I + 1 f = 2I + 2f
3
1 I
= f as 0 < f < 1
0 <
3
1 I
< 1
0 < 1 I < 3
1 < I < 2
2 < I < 1 I = 1, 0
f =
3
2
,
3
1
Here x =
3
1
,
3
1
Solutions are x = 0,
3
1
,
3
1
MATHS
22
Tri gonometri c functi ons
Graphs of trigonometric functions:
(a) y = sinx, x e R; y e [1, 1]
t t/2 t/2 t t 3 /2 2t
0
1
y
1
x
2t
(b) y = cosx, x e R; y e [ 1, 1]
t/2 t/2 t t 3 /2 2t
0
1
y
1
x
t 3 /2 2t
(c) y = tanx, x e R (2n + 1) t/2, n e I ; y e R
/2 t
0
t/2 3 /2 t t
x
y
t
(d) y = cotx, x e R nt , n e I; y e R
(e) y = cosec x, x e R nt , n e I ; y e ( , 1] [1, )
MATHS
23
(f) y = sec x, x e R (2n + 1) t/2, n e I ; y e ( , 1] [1, )
Trigonometric functions of sum or difference of two angles:
(a) sin (A B) = sinA cosB cosA sinB
(b) cos (A B) = cosA cosB sinA sinB
(c) sinA sinB = cosB cosA = sin (A+B). sin (A B)
(d) cosA sinB = cosB sinA = cos (A+B). cos (A B)
(e) tan (A B) =
B tan A tan 1
B tan A tan
(f) cot (A B) =
A cot B cot
1 B cot A cot

(g) tan (A + B + C) =
A tan C tan C tan B tan B tan A tan 1
C tan B tan A tan C tan B tan A tan

+ +
.
Factorisation of the sum or difference of two sines or cosines :
(a) sinC + sinD = 2 sin
2
D C+
cos
2
D C
(b) sinC sinD = 2 cos
2
D C+
sin
2
D C
(c) cosC + cosD = 2 cos
2
D C+
cos
2
D C
(d) cosC cosD = 2 sin
2
D C+
sin
2
D C
Transformation of products into sum or difference of sines & cosines:
(a) 2 sinA cosB = sin(A+B) + sin(AB) (b) 2 cosA sinB = sin(A+B) sin(AB)
(c) 2 cosA cosB = cos(A+B) + cos(AB) (d) 2 sinA sinB = cos(AB) cos(A+B)
Mul tiple and sub- mul ti ple angl es :
(a) sin 2A = 2 sinA cosA ; sin u = 2 sin
u
2
cos
u
2
(b) cos 2A = cosA sinA = 2cosA 1 = 1 2 sinA; 2 cos
2
u
= 1 + cos u, 2 sin
2
u
= 1 cos u.
(c) tan 2A =
A tan 1
A tan 2
2
; tan u =
2
2
2
tan 1
tan 2
u
u
(d) sin 2A =
A tan 1
A tan 2
2
+
, cos 2A =
A tan 1
A tan 1
2
2
+
(e) sin 3A = 3 sinA 4 sin

3
A
(f) cos 3A = 4 cos
3
A 3 cosA (g) tan 3A =
A tan 3 1
A tan A tan 3
2
3

MATHS
24
Important trigonometric ratios :
(a) sin n t = 0 ; cos n t = (1)
n
; tan n t = 0, where n e I
(b) sin 15 or sin
12
t
=
2 2
1 3
= cos 75 or cos
12
5t
;
cos 15 or cos
12
t
=
2 2
1 3+
= sin 75 or sin
12
5t
;
tan 15 =
1 3
1 3
+
= 3 2 = cot 75 ; tan 75 =
1 3
1 3
+
= 3 2+ = cot 15
(c) sin
10
t
or sin 18 =
4
1 5
& cos 36 or cos
5
t
=
4
1 5+
Condi ti onal i denti ti es:
If A + B + C = t then :
(i) sin2A + sin2B + sin2C = 4 sinA sinB sinC
(ii) sinA + sinB + sinC = 4 cos
2
A
cos
2
B
cos
2
C
(iii) cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = 1 4 cos A cos B cos C
(iv) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin
2
A
sin
2
B
sin
2
C
(v) tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA tanB tanC
(vi) tan
2
A
tan
2
B
+ tan
2
B
tan
2
C
+ tan
2
C
tan
2
A
= 1
(vii) cot
2
A
+ cot
2
B
+ cot
2
C
= cot
2
A
. cot
2
B
. cot
2
C
(viii) cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A = 1
(ix) If A + B + C =
t
2
, then tan A tan B + tan B tan C + tan C tan A = 1
Rangeof trigonometric expression :
E = a sin u + b cos u
E =
2 2
b a + sin (u + o), where tan o =
a
b
=
2 2
b a + cos (u |), where tan | =
b
a
Hence for any real value of u,
2 2 2 2
b a E b a + s s +
Sineandcosineseries:
sin o + sin (o + |) + sin (o + 2| ) +...... + sin ( ) | + o 1 n =
2
2
n
sin
sin
|
|
sin
|
.
|
\
|
|
+ o
2
1 n
MATHS
25
cos o + cos (o + |) + cos (o + 2| ) +...... + cos ( ) | + o 1 n =
2
2
n
sin
sin
|
|
cos
|
.
|
\
|
|
+ o
2
1 n
Tr i gonomet r i c equat i ons
Principal Solutions:
The solutions of a trigonometric equation which lie in the interval [0, 2t) are called Principal solutions.
e.g Find the Principal solutions of the equation sinx =
2
1
.
Solution. sinx =
2
1
there exists two values
i.e.
6
t
and
6
5t
which lie in [0, 2t) and whose sine is
2
1
Principal solutions of the equation sinx =
2
1
are
6
t
,
6
5t
General solution :
The expression involving an integer 'n' which gives all solutions of a trigonometric equation is called
general solution.
General solution of some standard trigonometric equations are given below:
(i) If sin u = sin o u = n t + (1)
n
o where o e
(
t t
2 2
, , n e I.
(ii) If cos u = cos o u = 2 n t o where o e [0, t], n e I.
(iii) If tan u = tan o u = n t + o where o e
|
\
|
.
|
t t
2 2
, , n e I.
(iv) If sin u = sin o u = n t o ; n e I (v) cos u = cos o u = n t o ; n e I
(vi) tan u = tan o u = n t o ; n e I [ Note: o is called the principal angle ]
Types of trigonometric equations:
(i) Solutions of equations by factorising . Consider the equation;
(2 sin x cos x) (1 + cos x) = sin x.
(ii) Solutions of equations reducible to quadratic equations. Consider the equation;
3 cos x 10 cos x + 3 = 0.
(iii) Solving equations by introducing an Auxilliary argument . Consider the equation;
sin x + cos x =
2
&
3
cos x + sin x = 2.
(iv) Solving equations by Transforming a sum of Trigonometric functions into a product.
Consider the example; cos 3 x + sin 2 x sin 4 x = 0.
MATHS
26
(v) Solving equations by transforming a product of trigonometric functions into a sum .
Consider the equation; sin 5 x . cos 3 x = sin 6 x . cos 2 x.
(vi) Solving equations by change of variable:
(a) Equations of the form P(sin x cos x, sin x. cos x) = 0, where P(y, z) is a
polynomial, can be solved by the change.
cos x sin x = t 1 2 sin x . cos x = t
2
.
Consider the equation; sin x + cos x = 1 + sin x . cos x.
(b) Equations of the form of a . sin x + b . cos x + d = 0, where a, b & d are real
numbers and a, b = 0 can be solved by changing sin x & cos x into their
corresponding tangent of half the angle .
Consider the equation 3 cos x + 4 sin x = 5.
(c) Many equations can be solved by introducing a new variable . eg. the
equation, sin
4
2 x + cos
4
2 x = sin 2 x . cos 2 x changes to
2 (y + 1)
y
|
\
|
.
|
1
2
= 0 by substituting, sin 2 x . cos 2 x = y..
(vii) Solving equations with the use of the Boundness of the functions sin x & cos x .
Consider the equation;
sin x cos sin
x
x
4
2
|
\
|
.
| + 1
4
2 +
|
\
|
.
|
sin cos
x
x . cos x = 0 .
Trigonometric inequalities :
Solutions of elementary trigonometric inequalities are obtained from graphs.
____________________________________________________________
Inequality Set of solutions of inequality (n e z)
____________________________________________________________
sin x > a (|a| < 1) x e (sin
1
a + 2tn, t sin
1
a + 2tn)
sin x < a (|a| < 1) x e (t sin
1
a + 2tn, sin
1
a + 2tn)
cos x > a (|a| < 1) x e (cos
1
a +2tn, cos
1
a + 2tn)
cos x < a (|a| < 1) x e (cos
1
a + 2tn, 2t cos
1
a + 2tn)
tan x > a x e (tan
1
a + tn, t/2 + tn)
tan x < a x e |
.
|
\
|
t + t +
t

n a tan , n
2
1
____________________________________________________________
Inequalities of the form R(y) > 0, R(y) < 0, where R is a certain rational function and y is a trigonometric
function (sine, cosine or tangent), are usually solved in two stages: first the rational inequality is solved
for the unknown y and then follows the solution of an elementary trigonometric inequality.
Example # 27 : Solve the inequality 2 sin
2
x 7 sin x + 3 > 0
Solution : Designating sin x = y, we get an inequality
2y
2
7y + 3 > 0,
whose set of solutions is y < 1/2, y > 3. Returning to the initial unknown, we find that the given
inequality is equivalent to two inequalities :
sin x < 1/2 and sin x > 3.
MATHS
27
The second inequality has no solution and the solution of the first is
x e |
.
|
\
|
t +
t
t +
t
n 2
6
, n 2
6
7
, n e Z
Example # 28 : Solve the inequality cos x + cos 2x + cos 3x > 0
Solution : Transforming the sum of the end terms into a product, we get an inequality
cos 2x + 2 cos 2x cos x > 0
Substituting cos 2x before the brackets, we obtain
cos 2x (2 cos x + 1) > 0
This inequality is equivalent to two systems of elementary inequalities :
cos 2x < 0, and cos 2x > 0
cos x < 1/2, cos x > 1/2
Combining the solutions of these systems, we get a solution of the initial inequality
|
.
|
\
|
t +
t
t +
t
n 2
4
3
, n 2
3
2
|
.
|
\
|
t +
t
t +
t
n 2
3
4
, n 2
4
5
|
.
|
\
|
t +
t
t +
t
n 2
4
, n 2
4
( n e Z)

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(putting the value of x)

< < s <

< < s <

< < >

< | < s <

< | < > >

< < <

(e) sin 3A = 3 sinA 4 sin

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