Earth science

1
Earth science
A volcanic eruption is the release of stored energy from below the
surface of Earth, originating from radioactive decay and gravitational
sorting in the Earth's core and mantle, and residual energy gained
during the Earth's formation
[1]
Earth science or Geoscience is an all-embracing term
for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is
arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth
being the only known life-bearing planet. There are
both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth
sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may
include the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid earth.
Typically, Earth scientists will use tools from physics,
chemistry, biology, chronology, and mathematics to
build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth
system works, and how it evolved to its current state.
Fields of study
Lava flows from the Klauea volcano into the
ocean on the Island of Hawaii
The following fields of science are generally categorized within the
Earth Sciences:
Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or
lithosphere) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are
mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology,
paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology,
and sedimentology.
Physical geography covers aspects of geomorphology, soil study,
hydrology, meteorology, climatology, and biogeography.
[2]
Geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its
reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as
the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere.
[3][4]
Geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of
geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum
exploration. See Geophysical survey.
Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or
pedosphere).
[5]
Major subdisciplines include edaphology and pedology.
[6]
Ecology covers the interactions between the biota, with their natural environment. This field of study
differentiates the study of the Earth, from the study of other planets in our Solar System; the Earth being the only
planet teeming with life.
Hydrology (includes oceanography and limnology) describe the marine and freshwater domains of the watery
parts of the Earth (or hydrosphere). Major subdisciplines include hydrogeology and physical, chemical, and
biological oceanography.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere).
Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere
(about 1000km). Major discipline are meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric
physics.
Earth science
2
Earth's interior
Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in
terms of energy transformations in the Earth's crust.
[7]
Beneath the Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The mantle is
not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. This convection process
causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics.
Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the earth is resurfaced. Through a process called seafloor
spreading, new crust is created by the flow of magma from underneath the lithosphere to the surface, through
fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through a process called subduction, oceanic crust is pushed underground
beneath the rest of the lithospherewhere it comes into contact with magma and meltsrejoining the mantle from
which it originally came.
Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the
earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is
created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries Earthquakes result from the movement
of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into
the earth as part of subduction.
Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the
asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surfacegiving
birth to volcanoes.
Earth's electromagnetic field
An electromagnet is a magnet that is created by a current that flows around a soft iron core. Earth has a solid iron
inner core surrounded by semi-liquid materials of the outer core that move in continuous currents around the inner
core; therefore, the Earth is an electromagnet. This is referred to as the dynamo theory of Earth's magnetism.
Atmosphere
The magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged
particles of the solar wind. It is compressed on the day (Sun) side due
to the force of the arriving particles, and extended on the night side.
Image not to scale.
The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which
make up Earth's atmosphere. In all, the atmosphere is
made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and
0.92% argon. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are
located within the troposphere, the bottom-most layer.
The remaining one percent of the atmosphere (all but
the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon) contains small
amounts of other gases including CO
2
and water
vapors. Water vapors and CO
2
allow the Earth's
atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through
a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. This
allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have
liquid water and support life.
The magnetic field created by the internal motions of the core produces the magnetosphere which protects the Earth's
atmosphere from the solar wind. As the earth is 4.5 billion years old, it would have lost its atmosphere by now if
there were no protective magnetosphere.
Earth science
3
In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from
cosmic rays. Note that the level of protection is high enough to prevent cosmic rays from destroying all life on Earth,
yet low enough to aid the mutations that have an important role in pushing forward diversity in the
biosphere.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Methodology
Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three
categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis
or go to many of the world's most exotic locations to study Earth phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or hot spot island
chains).
A foundational idea within the study Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism dictates
that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily
observed."Wikipedia:Citation needed In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in
the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth's history to apply knowledge of how
Earth processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout deep
history.
Earth's spheres
Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the
biosphere;
[8]
these correspond to rocks, water, air, and life. Some practitioners include, as part of the spheres of the
Earth, the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as well as the pedosphere
(corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere.
Partial list of the major earth science topics
See: List of basic earth science topics
Atmosphere
Atmospheric chemistry
Climatology
Meteorology
Hydrometeorology
Paleoclimatology
Biosphere
Ecology
Biogeography
Paleontology
Palynology
Micropaleontology
Geomicrobiology
Geoarchaeology
Earth science
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Hydrosphere
Hydrology
Geohydrology
Limnology (freshwater science)
Oceanography (marine science)
Chemical oceanography
Physical oceanography
Biological oceanography (marine biology)
Geological oceanography (marine geology)
Paleoceanography
Lithosphere or geosphere
Geology
Economic geology
Engineering geology
Environmental geology
Historical geology
Quaternary geology
Planetary geology
Sedimentology
Stratigraphy
Structural geology
Geophysics
Geochronology
Geodynamics (see also Tectonics)
Geomagnetism
Gravimetry (also part of Geodesy)
Seismology
Geography
Physical geography
Glaciology
Geochemistry Hydrogeology
Geomorphology Mineralogy
Crystallography
Gemology
Petrology
Speleology
Volcanology
Pedosphere
Soil science
Edaphology
Pedology
Systems
Environmental science
Geography
Human geography
Physical geography
Gaia hypothesis
Earth science
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Others
Cartography
Geoinformatics (GIS)
Geostatistics
Geodesy and Surveying
NASA Earth Science Enterprise
References
[1] [1] Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, Academic Press, London, 2000
[2] Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition, by M. Pidwirny, 2006 (http:/ / www. physicalgeography. net/ fundamentals/ 1b. html)
[3] Wordnet Search: Geodesy (http:/ / wordnetweb. princeton. edu/ perl/ webwn?s=geodesy& sub=Search+ WordNet& o2=& o0=1& o7=&
o5=& o1=1& o6=& o4=& o3=& h=0)
[4] NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Geodesy (http:/ / www. oceanservice. noaa. gov/ education/ kits/ geodesy/ welcome. html)
[5] Elissa Levine, 2001, The Pedosphere As A Hub (http:/ / soil. gsfc. nasa. gov/ ped/ pedosph. htm) broken link?
[6] Duane Gardiner, Lecture: Why Study Soils? excerpted from Miller, R.W. & D.T. Gardiner, 1998. Soils in our Environment, 8th Edition
(http:/ / jan. ucc.nau.edu/ ~doetqp-p/ courses/ env320/ lec1/ Lec1. html)
[7] Earth's Energy Budget (http:/ / okfirst.ocs. ou.edu/ train/ meteorology/ EnergyBudget. html)
[8] Earth's Spheres (http:/ / www2. cet.edu/ ete/ hilk4/ intro/ spheres. html). 1997-2000. Wheeling Jesuit University/NASA Classroom of the
Future. Retrieved November 11, 2007.
Further reading
Allaby M., 2008. Dictionary of Earth Sciences, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921194-4
Adams, Simon; Lambert, David (2006). Earth Science: An illustrated guide to science. New York, NY: Chelsea
House. ISBN0-8160-6164-5.
Joseph P. Pickett (executive editor) (1992). American Heritage dictionary of the English language (4th ed.).
Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN0-395-82517-2.
Korvin G., 1998. Fractal Models in the Earth Sciences, Elsvier, ISBN 978-0-444-88907-2
"Earth's Energy Budget" (http:/ / okfirst. mesonet. org/ train/ meteorology/ EnergyBudget. html). Oklahoma
Climatological Survey. 19962004. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
Miller, George A.; Christiane Fellbaum; and Randee Tengi; and Pamela Wakefield; and Rajesh Poddar; and
Helen Langone; Benjamin Haskell (2006). "WordNet Search 3.0" (http:/ / wordnetweb. princeton. edu/ perl/
webwn?s=Earth+ science& sub=Search+ WordNet& o2=& o0=1& o7=& o5=& o1=1& o6=& o4=& o3=& h=0).
WordNet a lexical database for the English language. Princeton University/Cognitive Science Laboratory /221
Nassau St./ Princeton, NJ 08542. Retrieved 2007-11-10.
"NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Geodesy" (http:/ / www. oceanservice. noaa. gov/ education/ kits/
geodesy/ welcome. html). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-03-08. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
Oldroyd, David (2006). Earth Cycles: A historical perspective. Westport, Connicticut: Greenwood Press.
ISBN0-313-33229-0.
Reed, Christina (2008). Earth Science: Decade by Decade. New York, NY: Facts on File.
ISBN978-0-8160-5533-3.
Simison, W. Brian (2007-02-05). "The mechanism behind plate tectonics" (http:/ / www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/
geology/ tecmech. html). Retrieved 2007-11-17.
Smith, Gary A.; Pun, Aurora (2006). How Does the Earth Work? Physical Geology and the Process of Science.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-034129-0.
Tarbuck E. J., Lutgens F. K., and Tasa D., 2002. Earth Science, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-035390-0
Earth science
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External links
Earth Science Picture of the Day (http:/ / epod. usra. edu/ ), a service of Universities Space Research Association,
sponsored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration (http:/ / tierra. rediris. es/ Geoethics_Planetary_Protection/ ).
National Earth Science Teachers Association (http:/ / www. nestanet. org/ cms/ content/ welcome)
Earth Sciences Degree Program Directory (http:/ / www. geosciences. com)
Article Sources and Contributors
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Article Sources and Contributors
Earth science Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=610007412 Contributors: 203.170.3.xxx, ABF, ASarnat, Abce2, Achoth, Adashiel, Against the current, Aitias, Alan Liefting,
Alansohn, Alex43223, Alexf, Ali, Allens, Amalthea, Andre Engels, Andrew109, Angela, Antandrus, Anticent, Arthur Rubin, Ash swei123, Aspen1995, Attilios, Awickert, BSATwinTowers,
Bahoeh, Ballista, Bassbonerocks, Batzillasorous, Beefalo, Beland, Ben Ben, Bento00, Bihco, Bluemask, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Borislav, Born2x, Bpesto, Brian Crawford, Brion VIBBER,
Brisis, Buoooo, CWY2190, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Carey Evans, Cferrero, Chaiten1, Charlie917, Charliegilley, Chas zzz brown, Chd, Coasterlover1994, Conversion script,
Cool Blue, Cooliojulio1210, CrimsonBlue (Rollback), CsDix, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBishop1984, DCEdwards1966, DMacks, Danger, Daniel Collins, DanielCD, Dante hulin, Dantheman531,
Davewild, DavidLevinson, DavidTLong, Delldot, DerHexer, Deviathan, Discospinster, Docu, Dossob, Doulos Christos, Dreadstar, Drivenapart, Edwinstearns, Eeekster, Eequor, Ekojnoekoj, El
C, ElKevbo, Elassint, Elenseel, Ellywa, Emperorbma, Epbr123, Erchphs, Escape Orbit, Espen, Eu.stefan, Evolauxia, Fabartus, Faisalsultani, Fatcakes1, Father Goose, Favonian, Fluppy, Forever
Dusk, Fragmaster12345, FunnyMan3595, FusionNow, GUllman, Gaianauta, Galilsnap, Gamepro515, GeoGreg, GeoW, Geof, Geologiststudent, Geopersona, Gfarrand, Giants27, Gilliam,
Glane23, Go for it!, GoShow, Gob Lofa, GoldCorrie, Goldenkid13, Gottg135, Graham87, Grahams Child, Grantcool9, Grecochamp2008, Grenavitar, Greyhood, Guettarda, Guppy, Hadal,
Hallenrm, Hammersoft, Happysailor, Headbomb, Hemanshu, Hermion, Hillbillyholiday, Hulten, IRP, IW.HG, Id447, IkaTaii, Ilyushka88, Insteam, Interiot, Iothiania, IronGargoyle, Ixfd64,
J.delanoy, JForget, JSquish, Jammoe, Jclemens, JeffW, Jessejamesboy, Jhayzee, Jhnathan, Jj137, Jonadin93, Jordank21093, Jph, Juliancolton, Junie dilitori, Jusdafax, Jusjih, KG6YKN, KJ2,
Kablammo, KarenEdda, Katalaveno, Katiker, Kenny sh, Khukri, Kipala, Knulclunk, Kowey, KrisK, Kristaga, Kroova, Krukouski, Kummi, Kurowoofwoof111, Kurykh, L Kensington,
Larry_Sanger, Ldahlman, Lear's Fool, Lexor, LilHelpa, Lily15, LinuxChristian, Lir, Loggie, Looxix, Ludely, Luna Santin, Lupo, MASQUERAID, MONGO, MacTire02, MackSalmon,
Madhero88, Magog the Ogre, Mancamber, Mandarax, Mannsj, Marc Venot, Marek69, Martin451, Materialscientist, Maurreen, Mav, Maxim, Mayumashu, Mdd, Mentifisto, Mgimpel, Michael
Hardy, MichaelAGallo, Michaelg2co, Mikenorton, Mini is mean, Minna Sora no Shita, Mirwin, Mitmathswizard, Mkrakowski, Mo0, Morwen, Mr Grim Reaper, Mr. Lefty, MrBill3, Mrdice,
Mumia-w-18, Muriel Gottrop, Murtasa, MusikAnimal, Mwtoews, Mxn, NERIUM, NHSavage, Nat Krause, NatureA16, NawlinWiki, NellieBly, Nepenthes, NerdyNSK, Neutrality, NobuTamura,
Nov ialiste, Odie5533, OlEnglish, Ollj, On Wheezier Plot, Onco p53, Opelio, Oxymoron83, Ozcep, PaePae, Paleorthid, Pasky, Peak, Pegship, Petersam, Pgecaj, Philip.t.day, Piano non troppo,
Pillowface18, Pinethicket, Pkrembs, Poindexter Propellerhead, Pollinator, Prashanthns, Proginoskes, Qorilla, Quiddity, Quintessent, Qwyrxian, R000t, RJBurkhart, RJHall, RedHillian, Rednblu,
Res2216firestar, Rich Farmbrough, RichardF, Rkmlai, Rob Hooft, RockMagnetist, Roleplayer, Ronhjones, Rotemliss, Ruud Koot, Ryanphonetophone, SEWilco, SMC, Salsa Shark, Samkittrell,
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Xanchester, Xionbox, Yunshui, Zink Dawg, Zurain123, 835 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Volcano q.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volcano_q.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Axxgreazz, HenkvD, Quadell, Rmih, Saperaud, 2 anonymous
edits
File:Limu o Pele.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Limu_o_Pele.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Gryffindor, Interiot, Juiced lemon, Reykholt, Rmih
File:Magnetosphere rendition.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA
License
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