2013

ELL SUMMER INSTITUTE SECTION

TOEFL iBT Speaking
REQUIREMENTS FOR SAVING AND SUBMITTING DOCUMENTS
1. Filenae! Save your document with your first and last name plus the ELL Summer Institute
section and the year 2013.
Eample! "ane #oe $%E&L i'$ Spea(in).doc
2. I"en#i$%ing In$&! *our name should not appear anywhere inside the document. It should
only appear in the filename.
3. S'(i))i&n F&*a#! +reate a separate ,ord document for your wor( sample. #o not
include the instructional material or the accompanyin) sociali-ation source material in your
su.mission. Include .oth your Listenin)/Spea(in) item and your
0eadin)/Listenin)/Spea(in) item in your document. Insert a pa)e .rea( .etween the two
assi)nments.
OVERVIE+
$he TOEFL iBT1 Spea(in) test is desi)ned to evaluate the En)lish spea(in) proficiency of
students whose native lan)ua)e is not En)lish .ut who want to pursue under)raduate or )raduate
study in an En)lish2spea(in) contet. $he Spea(in) test is one of four sections of the $%E&L
i'$ test. In the $%E&L Spea(in) section3 eaminees are as(ed to spea( in response to material
that they read and/or hear.
#urin) the ELL Summer Institute3 Spea(in) interns will write spea(in) prompts on topics that
are familiar to students. Interns will also research academic or campus2.ased topics and write
various (inds of scripts used in the Spea(in) test. $he Spea(in) interns mi)ht also continue after
the Summer Institute in a freelance capacity as off2site writers of Spea(in) items.
&or this wor( sample3 you will write two samples of Spea(in) items that are li(e those that
appear in the Spea(in) section of the $%E&L test. 4 complete item consists of a stimulus3 which
is the material the eaminee hears or reads5 a prompt3 which is the instruction that indicates the
(ind of spo(en response the eaminee is to ma(e to the stimulus5 and the (ey points3 which are
used .y scorers as )uides to the (inds of responses a hi)h2a.ility eaminee should ma(e. $he
wor( samples are descri.ed as follows.
+OR, SAM-LE TAS,S
-a*# I! A Li)#ening.Speaking I#e
$he listenin)/spea(in) stimulus you are as(ed to write consists of a self2contained ecerpt from
an academic lecture3 similar to a lecture a student would hear at a university. $he stimulus is
rou)hly 230 to 260 words in len)th. Eaminees listen to the lecture stimulus and are then
directed to )ive a spo(en summary of the main points of the lecture. $he listenin)/spea(in) item
evaluates an eaminee7s a.ility to spea( a.out the content of an academic lecture.
*ou will find source material at the end of this pac(et to use in developin) this item.
I#e Spe/i$i/a#i&n)
In a lecture3 the professor does the followin).
Introduces a concept or claim
Ela.orates the concept or claim .y presentin) two aspects3 perspectives3 parts3 or sta)es
that help further characteri-e or eplain the concept or claim
Illustrates each of the two differentiatin) aspects3 perspectives3 parts3 or sta)es with a
concrete3 vivid eample
E0aple &$ a Li)#ening.Speaking I#e
$he followin) lecture script is an eample of an academic listenin)/spea(in) item. $he lecture
ta(es place in a .iolo)y class. In the script3 underlinin) indicates spo(en emphasis. $he scripts
are recorded .y professional readers.
Lecture/
stimulus
8script9
:uman .ein)s aren7t the only animals that use tools. It7s )enerally reco)ni-ed
that other animals use tools as well . . . use them naturally3 in the wild3 without
any human instruction. 'ut when can we say that an o.;ect is a tool< ,ell3 it
depends on your definition of a tool. 4nd in fact3 there are two competin)
definitions=a narrow definition and a .road one.
$he narrow definition says that a tool is an o.;ect that7s used to perform a
specific tas( . . . .ut not ;ust any o.;ect. $o .e a tool3 accordin) to the narrow
definition3 the o.;ect7s )otta .e purposefully chan)ed or shaped .y the animal3
or human3 so that it can .e used that way. It7s an o.;ect that7s made. ,ild
chimpan-ees use stic(s to di) insects out of their nests . . . .ut most stic(s lyin)
around won7t do the ;o. . . . they mi)ht .e too thic(3 for eample. So the stic(s
have to .e sharpened so they7ll fit into the hole in an ant hill or the insect nest.
$he chimp pulls off the leaves and chews the stic( and trims it down that way
until it7s the ri)ht si-e. $he chimp doesn7t ;ust find the stic( . . . it . . . you
could say it ma(es it in a way.
'ut the .road definition says an o.;ect doesn7t have to .e modified to .e
considered a tool. $he .road definition says a tool is any o.;ect that7s used to
perform a specific tas(. &or eample3 an elephant will sometimes use a stic( to
scratch its .ac( . . . it ;ust pic(s up a stic( from the )round and scratches its
.ac( with it . . . . It doesn7t modify the stic(3 it uses it ;ust as it7s found. 4nd it7s
a tool3 under the .road definition5 .ut under the narrow definition it7s not
.ecause3 well3 the elephant doesn7t chan)e it in any way.
>rompt ?sin) points and eamples from the tal(3 descri.e the two different definitions
of tools )iven .y the professor.

@ey
points
Aarrow definition of tool! an o.;ect that has .een purposefully chan)ed or
shaped or somehow made .y an animal or human in order to perform a specific
tas(. &or eample3 when chimps use stic(s to find insects3 they first modify the
stic(s .y pullin) off leaves and sharpenin) them. $hey cannot use ;ust any
stic(.
'road definition of tool! any o.;ect that is used to perform a specific tas(. It
does not have to .e modified 8it can .e used as found9. &or eample3 elephants
use stic(s to scratch their .ac(s3 .ut they use those o.;ects ;ust as they find
them and do not modify them. Such stic(s are not tools under the narrow
definition.
A""i#i&nal E0aple &$ a A/a"ei/ Li)#ening.Speaking I#e
$he followin) lecture is another eample of a listenin)/spea(in) item. $he lecture ta(es place in
an education class. In a script3 italici-ed words in .rac(ets indicate recordin) directions for the
professional reader.
Lecture/
stimulus
8script9
%ne of the hardest parts of teachin) is (eepin) your students7 attention.
Aow3 the (ey to doin) this is understandin) the concept of attention.
'asically3 there are two types of attention.
$he first type is active. 4ctive attention is voluntary=it7s when you
intentionally ma(e yourself focus on somethin). 4nd since it reBuires
effort3 it7s hard to (eep up for a lon) time. %@3 so um3 let7s say you7re
teachin) a=a .iolo)y class. 4nd today7s topic is fro)s. 4lri)ht3 you7re
standin) at the front of the room and lecturin)! Cin a boring, robotic voice
a is pronounced ayD 4 fro) is a type of animal (nown as an
amphi.ian . . . . ,ell3 this isn7t necessarily )oin) to (eep the students7
interest. 'ut most of them will force themselves to pay active attention to
your lecture . . . .ut it7s only a matter of time .efore they )et distracted.
Aow3 the other type of attention is passive attention=when it7s involuntary.
>assive attention reBuires no effort3 .ecause it happens naturally. If
somethin)7s really interestin)3 students don7t have to force themselves to
pay attention to it=they do it without even thin(in) a.out it. So .ac( to
our .iolo)y lecture. *ou start tal(in) a.out fro)s3 and then you pull a live
fro) out of your .riefcase. *ou7re descri.in) it while you hold it up . . .
show the students how lon) its le)s are and how they7re used for ;umpin)3
for eample. $hen may.e you even let the fro) ;ump around a .it on the
des( or the floor. In this case3 .y doin) somethin) unepected . . .
somethin) more en)a)in)3 you can tap into their passive attention. 4nd it
can last much lon)er than active attention5 as lon) as the fro)7s still there3
your students will .e interested.
>rompt ?sin) points and eamples from the tal(3 eplain the difference .etween
active and passive attention.
@ey points 4ctive attention is voluntary5 it occurs when people force themselves to
pay attention to somethin). 4 dry3 .orin) lecture a.out fro)s will reBuire
students to pay active attention3 .ut they will not .e a.le to maintain their
attention for lon).
>assive attention is involuntary5 it occurs when people are naturally
interested in the material at hand3 and it reBuires no effort. If a teacher pulls
out a live fro)3 the students7 passive attention can .e maintained.
+&*k Saple A))ignen# $&* #1e Li)#ening.Speaking I#e
?se the accompanyin) source material on sociali-ation to construct an academic
listenin)/spea(in) item of your own. $he item should include a stimulus3 a prompt3 and a sample
response. #o not attempt an ehaustive synthesis of the sources. 0ather3 the tas( is to find
material within the source that meets the reBuirements of the item. $he two eamples in your
items should .e .ased on the source material as well as your own .ac()round (nowled)e.
In writin) your lecture3 (eep the followin) in mind.
$he eaminee will hear the lecture only once and will not see the script. ?nnecessary
details should therefore .e (ept to a minimum so as not to ta a test ta(er7s memory.
$he purpose of the item is to determine how well test ta(ers can spea(3 not to test their
listenin) proficiency 8a separate section of the $%E&L test9. +onseBuently3 the structure
and eposition of the lecture need to .e very clear. $he main idea or topic3 the two
ela.orated aspects3 and their respective eemplifications need to .e transparent on a
sin)le hearin). $he lecture should .e (ept simple3 should stay focused3 and should .e
memora.le.
$he lecture7s style and synta should reflect spo(en academic lan)ua)e. &or eample3
there can .e hesitations or filler words 8um3 uh3 etc.93 contractions3 and even false
starts. :owever3 .e careful that such aspects do not interfere with communicatin) the
lecture.
$he central topic should .e clearly identified3 and the relationship .etween the main topic
and its two aspects3 perspectives3 parts3 and sta)es should also .e presented clearly.
$he two eamples should .e concrete and vivid.
'efore su.mittin) your writin) sample3 you mi)ht find it helpful to test your lecture .y as(in)
someone to record a response to it.
-a*# II! A Rea"ing.Li)#ening.Speaking I#e
$he readin)/listenin)/spea(in) item you are as(ed to write consists of a readin) passa)e a.out a
campus2related issue and a listenin) stimulus in which spea(ers comment on the issue presented
in the readin). $he eaminee first reads the passa)e3 then listens to the commentary3 and finally3
in accordance with the prompt3 provides a spo(en response.
*ou will find your own source for this item.
Spe/i$i/a#i&n)
Rea"ing pa))age
$he readin) passa)e is a short passa)e of EF to 100 words that can .e read and processed within
GF seconds. It can .e an announcement3 a memo3 the openin) para)raph of an editorial or news
article from a campus newspaper3 and the li(e.
$he readin) passa)e .riefly sets forth a campus2related issue .y descri.in) a proposed or
intended plan or course of action alon) with the rationale for it3 the way the eample .elow a.out
a campus .us service does.
$he readin) passa)e should .e focused3 ma(in) only two points in support of the plan or course
of action. $he situations and rationales or opinions presented in the readin) should not .e so
outlandish or etreme that the ar)uments a)ainst them are o.vious .efore one has even heard the
commentary of the listenin) stimulus.
$he plan or course of action and supportin) rationale should .e accessi.le to an international
audience and not presume familiarity with Aorth 4merican university parlance or procedures.
4dditionally3 plan or the course of action should .e sensitive to the customs and .eliefs of an
international audience. &or instance3 do not include references to romantic relationships3 the
consumption of alcohol/dru)s3 campus parties3 campus security issues3 or reli)ious holidays.
Li)#ening )#i'l')
$he listenin) stimulus is a response to the readin) passa)e in the form of a conversation .etween
two people 8one man and one woman9. %ne of the two interlocutors is the primary spea(er3 and
the other serves mainly as a foil to draw out the primary spea(er7s opinions. $he lan)ua)e should
.e in the form of spontaneous3 nonacademic conversation.
Rela#i&n)1ip (e#2een /&n#en# &$ #1e *ea"ing pa))age an" #1e /&n3e*)a#i&n
$he purpose of the readin)/listenin)/spea(in) item is to see how well the test ta(er inte)rates in
spo(en En)lish certain information from two different sources. $herefore3 the listenin) stimulus
of the item should .e constructed in such a way that the test ta(er cannot derive the full answer
from the listenin) stimulus without incorporatin) material from the readin) passa)e. Aeither
spea(er in the listenin) passa)e should restate the points made in the readin). In effect3 each of
the spea(ers in the conversation assumes that the other is familiar with the content of the readin).
$hus3 in order to follow the conversation and respond accordin) to the prompt3 the eaminee will
need to inte)rate the content of the readin) passa)e with that of the conversation.
In the conversation you write3 the primary spea(er should disa)ree with the proposal or opinion
in the readin) passa)e. $he primary spea(er should en)a)e the rationale of the readin) .y
ma(in) two concise points that directly address the two reasons )iven in the readin) the way the
male spea(er does in the eample that follows. $he spea(er may also introduce new information3
.ut the new material must serve to directly undermine the position or rationale of the readin)
passa)e.
E0aple &$ a Rea"ing.Li)#ening.Speaking Cap')4(a)e" I#e
0eadin)
passa)e
8an article
from a
university
newspaper9
'us Service Elimination >lanned
$he university has decided to discontinue its free .us service for students.
$he reasons )iven for this decision are that few students ride the .uses and
the .uses are epensive to operate. +urrently3 the .uses run from the
center of campus past university .uildin)s and throu)h some of the
nei)h.orhoods surroundin) the campus. $he money saved .y eliminatin)
the .us service will .e used to epand the overcrowded student par(in)
lots.
Listenin)
stimulus
8script of a
conversation
.etween two
students
discussin)
8Han9 I don7t li(e the university7s plan.
8,oman9 0eally< I7ve ridden those .uses3 and sometimes there were only
a few people on the .us. It did seem li(e (ind of a waste.
8Han9 I see your point. 'ut I thin( the pro.lem is that the route7s out of
date. It only )oes throu)h the nei)h.orhoods that7ve )otten too epensive
the article9 for students to live in. It7s ridiculous that they haven7t already chan)ed the
route=you (now3 so it )oes where most off2campus students live now. I
.et if they did that3 they7d )et plenty of students ridin) those .uses.
8,oman9 %@3 .ut at least what they7d do with the money they7d save is a
)ood thin). Sometimes it7s really tou)h to find a space in the student
lots . . . .
8Han9 $hat7s the other part I don7t li(e3 actually3 .ecause it7s ;ust )onna
encoura)e more students to drive on campus.
8,oman9 'ecause there7ll .e more par(in)<
8Han9 *eah3 and that7ll ;ust add to the noise around campus and create
more traffic . . . and that7ll increase the need for more par(in) spaces . . .
8,oman9 *eah3 I )uess I can see your point. $here are a lot of cars on
campus already.
8Han9 0i)ht. 4nd this would ;ust ma(e it worse. It7s noisy enou)h as it is
now.
>rompt $he man epresses his opinion of the university7s plan. 'riefly summari-e
the plan. $hen state his opinion a.out the plan and eplain the reasons he
)ives for holdin) that opinion.
@ey points $he man disa)rees with the university7s plan to discontinue its free .us
service.
:e thin(s the current route is responsi.le for there not .ein) many riders
on the .us 8a reason the university )ives for discontinuin) the service93 and
reroutin) the .us throu)h nei)h.orhoods where students live would li(ely
increase the num.er of riders.
:e also thin(s that .uildin) more par(in) lots will encoura)e more people
to drive on campus and increase traffic/noise 8and will create the need for
more par(in) spaces9.
+&*k Saple A))ignen# $&* #1e Rea"ing.Li)#ening.Speaking I#e
,rite a readin)/listenin)/spea(in) item of the type descri.ed. Include a readin) passa)e3 a
listenin) stimulus 8conversation93 a prompt3 and a sample response. *ou may find it helpful to
read throu)h university campus newspapers or to chec( university ,e. pa)es for ideas for a
campus2related issue that could .e used as a source for your readin) passa)e.
4s you write3 (eep in mind the followin) considerations.
Se##ing5 Is the contet clear and plausi.le< Is the scenario realistic and nontrivial< Is the
lan)ua)e in the listenin) passa)e characteristic of spo(en En)lish<
C&n#en#5 4re the reasons provided in the readin) passa)e lo)ical and sensi.le< Is the
reaction in the listenin) passa)e plausi.le<
In#eg*a#i&n5 Is inte)ration of the readin) and listenin) passa)es necessary to answer the
prompt3 or is the item answera.le only .y summari-in) the listenin)<
A//e))i(ili#%5 Is the information presented accessi.le to an international student<
'efore su.mittin) your writin) sample3 you mi)ht find it helpful to try it out .y as(in) a native
spea(er of En)lish to )ive a spo(en response to your prompt after readin) your readin) passa)e
8within GF seconds9 and after listenin) to a dramati-ation of your listenin) script.
SOURCE MATERIAL FOR -ART I
?se the followin) information as source material to as the .asis your academic
listenin)/spea(in) item.
S&/iali6a#i&n! the process .y which3 throu)h contact with other human .ein)s3 one .ecomes a
self2aware3 (nowled)ea.le human .ein)3 s(illed in the ways of a )iven culture and environment
Agen/ie) &$ S&/iali6a#i&n
4)encies of sociali-ation are structured )roups or contets within which si)nificant processes of
sociali-ation occur. Such a)encies also influence )ender sociali-ation! the learnin) of male roles
versus female roles.
>rimary sociali-ation occurs in infancy and childhood and is the most intense period of
cultural learnin). &amily is the main a)ent of sociali-ation durin) this phase.
Secondary sociali-ation ta(es place later in childhood and into maturity. Hain a)ents of
sociali-ation include schools3 peer )roups3 or)ani-ations3 the media3 and the wor(place.
$he family is the principal sociali-in) a)ency of the child durin) infancy.
Schools are institutions in which students pursue a definite curriculum of su.;ects.
Students also learn a.out certain su.tle .ehavioral epectations that will later .e related
to their ;o. eperience.
>eer relationships are social )roup attachments amon) children of similar a)e and with
similar social .ac()rounds.
Hass media include printed documents3 radio3 television3 recordin)s3 and videos. &ew
societies in current times remain completely untouched .y mass media.
,or( is an area that may reBuire ma;or ad;ustments in a person7s outloo( or .ehavior.
$hrou)h the process of individuali-ation3 individuals learn a.out social roles=those socially
defined epectations that a person in a )iven social position accepts and conforms to.
In terms of psycholo)y3 sociali-ation is the process .y which children and others adopt the
.ehavior patterns of the culture that surrounds them.
Sociolo)ists may distin)uish .etween!
>rimary sociali-ation3 which is the up.rin)in) of a dependent infant and initiation into a
mother ton)ue
Secondary sociali-ation3 which consists of trainin) for specialist roles in society throu)h
education systems and social )roups .y .uildin) on the .asic assumed primary
sociali-ation
C*ea#ing #1e -e*)&n
Sociali-ation is the term sociolo)ists use to descri.e the ways people learn to conform to their
society7s norms3 values3 and roles. >eople develop their own uniBue personalities as a result of
the learnin) they )ain from parents3 si.lin)s3 relatives3 peers3 teachers3 mentors3 and all of the
other people who influence them throu)hout their lives. &rom the viewpoint of society as a
whole3 however3 what is important a.out the process of sociali-ation is that people learn to
.ehave accordin) to the norms of their culture. :ow people learn to .ehave accordin) to cultural
norms=that is3 the way they learn their culture=ma(es possi.le the transmission of culture
from one )eneration to the net. In this way the culture is reproduced in the net )eneration.
Sociali-ation occurs throu)hout life as the individual learns new norms within new )roups and in
new situations. :owever3 for purposes of analysis3 sociali-ation can .e divided into three ma;or
phases. $he first is primary sociali-ation3 which refers to all the ways a new.orn individual )ets
molded into a social .ein)=that is3 into a )rowin) person who can interact with others accordin)
to the epectations of society. >rimary sociali-ation occurs within the family and other intimate
)roups in the child7s social environment. Secondary sociali-ation occurs in later childhood and
adolescence3 when the child leaves the family for schoolin) and comes under the influence of
adults and peers outside the household and the immediate family. 4dult sociali-ation is a third
sta)e3 in which a person learns the norms associated with such new statuses as wife3 hus.and3
;ournalist3 pro)rammer3 )randparent3 or nursin)2home patient.
$here are a num.er of unresolved and hi)hly controversial issues surroundin) the study of
sociali-ation. &irst3 what is the relative stren)th of .iolo)ical=meanin)3 )enetic=
characteristics and of social influences in the creation of a person< $his issue3 often referred to as
the nature/nurture pro.lem3 is raised most stri(in)ly .y a certain case involvin) triplets. Each of
the three youn) men had .een .rou)ht up in a different home3 and yet each had similar
mannerisms3 similar=and very positive=outloo(s on life3 vi.rant senses of humor3 and even the
same way of epressin) ideas. $his su))ests that .iolo)ical influences can play etremely
important parts in formin) an adult7s personality3 especially when the .asic Bualities of love3
security3 and stead nurturance are present in the home environment3 as they seem to have .een
for each of those triplets.
4 second controversy in the study of sociali-ation involves the Buestion of how a person7s sense
of self .ecomes esta.lished. ,hat influences are eerted .y others3 and how do they form an
individual7s sense of self< :ow do people learn to conform to society7s norms and to ta(e the
roles that society ma(es availa.le to them< $his process is often referred to as the social
construction of the self.
$hird3 how do different social environments=such as that of an affluent su.ur.an school or of a
slum nei)h.orhood or of a military .oot camp=influence sociali-ation< $hat is3 how2do
different social environments3 especially the intimate environments of home and family3 produce
different (inds of people<
&ourth3 what are the limits on what sociali-ation can accomplish for individuals who eperience
etremes of deprivation and a.use3 and what are the influences throu)hout the life of different
a)encies of sociali-ation and different eperiences with other people<
$he fifth and final ma;or su.;ect is )ender sociali-ation3 which refers to the ways we .ecome the
)irls and .oys and3 )radually3 the men and women of our society and culture. 4ll of the
controversies over whether .ehavior is innate or learned are intensified when we consider the
differences and similarities in the sociali-ation of males and females.
In this chapter we eplore each of these Buestions in detail. ,e will .e concerned primarily with
the sociali-ation of so2called normal mem.ers of society=people who are a.le to perform roles3
to feel empathy for others3 to epress emotions and yet control feelin)s that are antisocial3 to
nurture others3 and to raise children who will in turn .e a.le to nurture and to ta(e on new roles
as they )row older. 'ut the failures of sociali-ation can also tell us a )reat deal a.out what is
involved in creatin) the social .ein)I
C'l#'*e an" S&/iali6a#i&n
:ow individuals come to master lan)ua)e as well as develop the other capacities that ma(e us
human is referred to as sociali-ation. Sociali-ation is the process where.y helpless infants
)radually .ecome self2aware3 (nowled)ea.le people3 s(illed in the ways of the culture into
which they are .orn. Sociali-ation is not a (ind of cultural pro)rammin) where.y children
passively a.sor. the influences they come into contact with. Even the most recent new.orn
infants have needs or demands that affect the .ehavior of those responsi.le for their care! a child
is from the .e)innin) an active .ein).
Sociali-ation connects the different )enerations to one another. $he .irth of a child alters the
lives of those responsi.le for that child7s up.rin)in)=and those responsi.le parties themselves
also therefore under)o new learnin) eperiences. >arentin) usually ties the activities of adults to
children for the remainder of the lives of .oth. %lder people remain parents when they .ecome
)randparents3 of course3 thus for)oin) another set of relationships connectin) different
)enerations with each other. 4lthou)h the process of cultural learnin) is much more intense in
infancy and early childhood than it is later3 learnin) and ad;ustment continue throu)hout the
whole life cycle.
Agen/ie) &$ S&/iali6a#i&n
,e can refer to the )roups or social contacts within which si)nificant processes of sociali-ation
occur as a)encies of sociali-ation. In all cultures3 the family is the main sociali-in) a)ency of a
child durin) infancy. 'ut at later sta)es of an individual7s life3 other sociali-in) a)encies come
into play.
$he &amily
In modem societies3 most early sociali-ation occurs within a small2scale family contet. $he
mother is almost always the most important individual in the child7s early life. $he ma;ority of
4merican children spend their early years with a parent or parents and one or two si.lin)s. In
other cultures3 .y contrast3 aunts3 uncles3 and )randchildren are often part of the same household
and help loo( after even youn) infants. 4nd within ?nited States society3 there are many
variations in the ma(eup of families. Some infants are .rou)ht up in sin)le2parent households5
some are cared for .y two pairs of mothers and fathers 8divorced parents and stepparents9. 4
small num.er are .rou)ht up .y homoseual parents. $he ran)e of contacts an infant eperiences
is thus .y no means standard across or within cultures.
>eer 0elationships
4nother sociali-in) a)ency is the peer )roup. >eer )roups consist of children of a similar a)e. In
some cultures3 particularly small traditional societies3 peer )roups are formali-ed as a)e )rades
and normally confined to males. %ften there are specific ceremonies or rites that mar( the
transition of men from one a)e2)rade to another. $hose within a particular a)e )rade )enerally
maintain close and friendly connections throu)hout their lives. 4 typical set of a)e )rades
consists of childhood3 ;unior warriorhood3 senior warriorhood3 ;unior elderhood3 and senior
elderhood. Hen move throu)h these )rades not as individuals .ut as whole )roups.
$he family7s importance in sociali-ation is o.vious3 since the eperience of the infant and youn)
child is shaped more or less eclusively within the family. It is less apparent3 especially to those
who live in ,estern societies3 how si)nificant peer )roups are. *et even without formal a)e
)rades3 children older than four or five years of a)e usually spend a )reat deal of time in the
company of friends the same a)e. Jiven the hi)h proportion of women now in the wor(force3
whose youn) children play to)ether in day care centers3 peer relations are even more important
today than .efore.
>articularly in )eo)raphic areas without much mo.ility3 individuals may .e mem.ers of the same
informal cliBue or may (eep the same )roup of friends for all of their lives. Even when they do
not3 peer relations are li(ely to have a si)nificant impact .eyond childhood and adolescence.
Informal )roups of people of similar a)es=at wor( and in other situations=are usually of
endurin) importance in shapin) individuals7 attitudes and .ehaviors.
Schools
4nother important sociali-in) a)ency is the school. Schoolin) is a formal process3 and students
pursue a definite curriculum of su.;ects3 yet schools are a)encies of sociali-ation in more2su.tle
respects. +hildren are epected to remain Buiet in class3 to .e punctual for lessons3 and to
o.serve certain rules of school discipline. 4nd they are reBuired to accept and respond to the
authority of the teachin) staff. $eachers7 reactions also affect the epectations children have of
themselves3 and those epectations in turn .ecome lin(ed to the children7s eventual ;o.
eperiences once they leave school. >eer )roups are often formed at school3 and the system of
(eepin) children in classes accordin) to a)e reinforces peer )roups7 impact.
Hass media
Aewspapers3 periodicals3 and ;ournals flourished in the ,est from the early 1600s onward3 .ut
they were confined to a fairly small readership. It was not until a century later that such printed
materials .ecame part of the daily eperience of mill ions of people3 influencin) their attitudes
and opinions.