After losing territory and influence to European powers through the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire sought ways to strengthen itself against the West. Initial attempts focused on military reforms but had limited success. Later reforms targeted education, diplomacy and legal systems based on Western models but failed to stop decline. In the 19th century, Ottoman intellectuals debated ideological orientations for the Empire, including Pan-Ottomanism, Pan-Islamism and Pan-Turkism aimed at preserving Ottoman lands and identity but differing on whether the focus should be religious or ethnic in nature. These ideologies influenced the establishment of modern Turkey.
After losing territory and influence to European powers through the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire sought ways to strengthen itself against the West. Initial attempts focused on military r…