LEATHER An Exquisite Natural Product for Textiles

Swati Pant* & Dr. anis!a "a!lot**

*Researc! Sc!olar & **Senior Researc! #fficer
De$art%ent of &lot!in' & Textiles
&olle'e of Ho%e Science
".(.Pant )ni*ersit+ of A'riculture & Tec!nolo'+, Pantna'ar
A(STRA&T
The popularity of leather is due to its ability to be shaped into articles of rugged feel, as
well as long lasting durability. It offers a stylish look for apparels, adds luxury as an accessory to
any outfit, protects the wearer from cold weather, and provides a certain extent of safety in times
of minor accidents as well. Due to its unhideable virtues, leather continues to be a preferred item
all over the world.
-NTR#D)&T-#N
Leather an exuisite natural product is soft and robust at the same time. It is
enduringly beautiful and acuires a vivid use. !nimal skin that has been processed to retain its
flexibility, toughness and waterproof nature is known as leather. It is one of the oldest materials
used by man. "o man made material has been able to surpass the natural beauty and toughness of
leather. It can be tanned and dyed. It was used in many ways in primitive times as it is still used
in a variety of ways. Leathercraft is a very ancient profession. #roducts made from leather are
always in demand and are uite expensive as well. The classic look, feel and durability of leather
make it a timeless material that can be used in a number of ways. Leather plays an important role
in textile and apparel industry. It is an integral part of fashion apparels and accessories and
considered as style statement. $ange of products such as leather skirts, coats, riding %ackets,
pants, handbags, vests, shorts, wallets and many more are available in the market.
LEATHER
Leather is a general term for hide or skin with its original fibrous structure more or less
intact, tanned to be imputrescible. The hair or wool may, or may not, have been removed.
Leather is also made from a hide or skin which has been split into layers or segmented, either
before or after tanning, but if the tanned hide or skin is disintegrated mechanically without
combination of a binding agent, is made into sheets or other forms, such sheets or forms are not
leather. If the leather has a surface coating, then this surface coating must not be thicker than
&.'(mm )*ritish +tandard *+,-.& Definition of Leather/.
Leather is animal skin that has been chemically modified to produce a strong, flexible
material that resists decay. !lmost all the world output of leather is produced from cattle hides
and calfskins, goatskins and kidskins, and sheepskins and lambskins. 0ther hides and skins used
include those of the horse, pig, kangaroo, deer, reptile, seal, and walrus.
LEATHER STR)&T)RE
P!+sical structure of !ide.s/in
0i'. 1. Structure of s/in.!ide
The physical structure of skin consists of four ma%or parts that are responsible for the
making of leather )1ig. '/. Those parts are2
E$ider%is2 The epidermis is a thin layer of cells that serves as a protective layer
during the life of the animal. It is continually replaced during growth, the lower
layers of cells being the newest and least stable. The epidermis is removed before
tanning, along with the hair, in a process called liming.
"rain2 It comes next to the epidermis and consists of more densely woven fibre
bundles, which have a much finer construction.
&oriu%2 The corium consists of a dense layer of collagen protein fibres, arranged
in larger bundles, and interwoven to give the structure high strength, elasticity and
durability. The corium increases in thickness and density with increasing age, thus
calfskins are thinner, smoother and softer than the hides of mature animals3 cow
hides are smoother, thinner and softer than the hides of mature males and bull
hides are thick, tough, coarse grained and very strong.
3unction2 This is the area between the corium and the grain layer. In certain
animals it can cause problems, e.g. in sheep )basil/ where splitting can occur along
the %unction area and this would make the leather hard and inflexible.
&!e%ical structure
The basic component of the skin is collagen, a fibrous protein and the latest research indicates
that the basic collagen structure consists of twined triple units of peptide chains of differing
lengths. The amino acid residues are %oined together by peptide links. The peptide chains within
the triple helices are held together by hydrogen bonding )1igure ,/.
0i'. 4. 0unda%ental structure of a $e$tide
&HE-&AL &#P#S-T-#N #0 H-DE.S5-N
The approximate composition of a freshly4flayed hide is as follows2
i. 5ater4 678
ii. #rotein4 998. It is of two types2
a. Structural Proteins
:lastin4 )&.98/2 It is a yellow fibre woven in collagen fibres.
;ollagen4 ),<8/2 ;ollagen tans to give leather.
=eratin4 ),8/2 It is protein of hair and epidermis and contains sulphur.
6. Non7structural Proteins
!lbumens, >lobulins4 )'8/2 These are soluble, non4fibrous proteins, often removed
in liming, etc.
?ucins, ?ucoids4 )&.-8/2 These are mucous material associated with fibre.
iii. 1ats4 ,8
i*. ?ineral +alts4 &.(8
*. 0ther substances )#igments, etc./4 &.(8
PH8S-&AL AND &HE-&AL PR#PERT-ES #0 LEATHER
The interlocking, interwoven twisting of individual leather fibres is responsible for
several important properties of leather.
i. Stren't! and stretc!2 Leather can have both very high tensile strength and adeuate
stretch before it breaks. This property depends on the type of hide or skin, and method of
tanning and finishing adopted for it.
ii. Elasticit+ and $lasticit+2 Leather possesses both the properties of being elastic as well as
plastic. !n example can be of shoes i.e., most shoes are to be moulded to be permanent, so
the material must have plasticity. 0n the other hand when they are worn, it is constantly
flexed and should recover its original shape when it is removed from the foot, so the
material must also have elasticity.
iii. 0lex resistance2 Leather stands extremely well to flexing because of the way the fibres are
interlaced. ?ore often repeated flexing breaks down the leather finish rather than the leather
itself, but heavy perspiration and repeated wetting hardens the leather eventually causes it to
crack.
i*. Heat resistance2 The heat resistance of leather depends on its insulating properties and its
resistance to high temperature. Leather contains a great deal of air, which is a poor
conductor of heat and makes it much resistant to heat. This is also an important comfort
consideration.
*. T!er%ostatic $ro$erties2 The leather fibres are interlaced with air spaces. Therefore,
leather is warm in winter and cool in summer.
*i. Resistance to wet and dr+ a6rasion2 These properties are concerned with wear and
maintenance, and are controlled by the tannage, tightness of the grain and surface finish.
>enerally leather has good resistance to wet and dry abrasion.
*ii. 0ire Resistance2 Leather is inherently resistant to heat and flame.
*iii. 9ater resistance2 The penetration of water through leather depends mainly on the
wettability of the leather fibres, which varies with tannage. @egetable tanned leather soaks
up with water because the fibres are relatively easy to wet, but chrome tanned fibres resist
water.
ix. Resistance to fun'i2 Leather is resistant to mildew.
x. Resistance to c!e%ical attac/2 The burning of carbon fuels with sulphur dioxide gas can
accelerate the deterioration of leather. ?odern leathers are tanned and dressed to resist
these harmful chemicals.
xi. Acid and al/ali resistance2 +trong acids and alkali chemically damage and weaken the
leather. Too much alkali makes the chrome tannage too astringent, so that flexibility of
the grain is lost and the leather suffers from grain crack.
&LASS-0-&AT-#N #0 LEATHER
!ccording to *ritish +tandard *+,-.& Definition of Leather, there are generally nine
types of leather which are as follows2
i. Aniline leat!er2 This leather has the surface coloured with transparent dyes. This
transparency is similar to looking at a piece of stained wood. In fact, the grain stays natural
and well visible and hence also known as natural leather.
ii. Se%i7aniline leat!er2 This leather is more durable than aniline whilst still retaining a
natural appearance. The increased durability is provided by the application of a light
surface coating which contains a small amount of pigment. This ensures consistent colour
and imparts some stain resistance.
iii. Pi'%ented leat!er2 This is the most widely used finishing techniue and consists of a
uniform surface by means of a basecoat of pigments and resins followed with a protective
topcoat. They can be identified by their consistent colour and uniformity. It is ideal for
high use items like furniture or automotive seats.
i*. &orrected 'rain leat!er2 In this leather is buffed or sanded much in the same manner as
wood is sanded. The sanding or correcting process levels the high spots of healed
scratches, etc., and removes some of the natural grain. ! grain pattern is then embossed
into the surface to replace what was lost in the sanding process .
*. 9ax+ leat!er2 In this the upper leather is finished on the flesh side and dyed. It is
vegetable tanned with a high content of hard grease, though not necessarily wax or leather
bearing a wax finished.
*i. Suede2 Leather whose wearing surface has been finished to produce a velvet4like nap is
known as suede leather.
*ii. Nu6uc/2 This leather has the look of suede leather by lightly sanding the full grain leather
to open the hair cells. This gives the leather a velvet look and a lush appearance.
*iii. S$lit2 This type of leather has the flesh on top and bottom and possesses no natural grain.
The tissue structure is not as strong as top4grain and is generally not recommended for the
seating area of upholstery, due to this lack of tissue strength.
ix. 0inis!ed s$lit2 In this type of leather a polymer coating is applied to the middle or lower
section of a hide and embossed to mimic a grain leather.
!lthough cowhide or cattle hide is the most predominant leather in the world today, there
are variety of types made from almost every animal and reptile. +ome make use of fur, others are
%ust skin.
There are generally eight types of leather, on the basis of source animal, which are as
follows along with their uses2
i. &ow and steer2 These are used extensively in shoe production for parts such as upper,
soles, insoles and linings3 coat and %ackets3 gloves, belts and bags3 luggage and upholstery.
ii. &alf2 +hoe uppers3 handbags, wallets, gloves3 garments are generally made from calf
leather.
iii. S!ee$ and la%62 The leather from sheep and lamb are generally sueded for use in shoes
and garments. These are extremely soft hence also used for gloves and linings.
i*. "oat and /id2 The skin of goat and kid are used for apparel, shoe uppers, gloves and
handbags.
Aniline leat!er
Se%i7aniline
leat!er
Pi'%ented
leat!er
&orrected 'rain
leat!er
9ax+ leat!er Suede
Nu6uc/
S$lit
0inis!ed s$lit
*. Pi' and !o'2 1ancy leather goods, such as shoes and billfolds are made from pig and hog
leather.
*i. Deer2 The deerskin is soft which makes it a favourite for dress gloves and moccasins.
*ii. Horse2 +hoe uppers and soles3 gloves and sometime garments are made from leather of
horse hide.
*iii. Re$tiles2 $eptile skin includes crocodile, alligator, liAard, snake, frog etc. Bandbags,
shoes and belts are the common articles made from reptile leathers.
PR#&ESS-N" #0 LEATHER
!nimal skins are converted to leather in an eight step process as follows2
Ste$ 1 )n!airin' 2 The animal skins are steeped in an alkali solution that breaks down the
structure of the hair at its weakest point )the root/ and so removes the hair.
Ste$ 4 Li%in'2 The hairless skin is immersed in a solution of alkali and sulphide to complete
the removal of the hair and to alter the properties of the skin protein )collagen/. The collagen
becomes chemically modified and swells, leaving a more open structure.
Ste$ : 7 Deli%in' and (atein'2 The skin structure is then opened further by treatment with
enAymes, and further unwanted material is removed.
Ste$ ; Pic/lin'2 The skins are then treated with acid to preserve them for up to two years
Ste$ < Tannin'2 This is the most chemically complex step. During tanning, the skin structure
is stabiliAed in its open form by replacing some of the collagen with complex ions of chromium.
Depending on the compounds used, the colour and texture of the leather changes. 5hen leather
has been tanned it is able to CbreatheC and to withstand '&&o; boiling water, as well as being
much more flexible than an untreated dead skin.
Ste$ = 7 Neutralisin', D+ein' and 0at Liquorin'2 The leather is then treated with alkali to
neutralise it and so prevent deteroration, and then dyed. This involves fixing a variety of
compounds onto the chromium, as that is the most reactive site present. 0nce the leather is dyed,
it is treated with reactive oils that attach themselves to the fibrous structure, improving
suppleness and flexibility.
Ste$ > Dr+in'2 5ater is removed from the leather, and its chemical properties stabilised.
Ste$ ? 0inis!in'2 ! surface coating is applied to ensure an even colour and texture, and to
improve its ability to wear. +uede leather is also buffed at this point to give it its distinctive
finish. !nimal skins that are processed go on to be made into a variety of leather goods, or are
exported in an unfinished condition to be further treated overseas.
LEATHER -ND)STR8 -N -ND-A
The leather and leather products industry is one of IndiaDs oldest manufacturing industries
that catered to the international market right from the middle of the nineteenth century, the
demand for its products being both domestic as well as international right from the beginning.
!bout 76 per cent of the production in the sector is exported and it ranks eighth in the list of
IndiaDs top export earning industries and contributes roughly $s. '&,&&& crores per annum, i.e.,
about 7 per cent to export earnings. The sector accounts for ,.( per cent of the global leather4
related trade of $s. 9.-,,&& crores. !n estimated '( per cent of total purchase of leading global
brands in footwear, garments, leather goods E accessories, in :urope, and '& percent of global
supply is outsourced from India.
The leather industry employs about ,.( million people and has annual turn over of $s.
,(,&&& crores. The industry is also one with strong links with the social structure through caste
and community. Thus a large number of people engaged in the industry )entrepreneurs as well as
workers/ are even today from traditional leatherworking castes )belonging to the lower castes in
the caste hierarchy/ and the ?uslim community.
In India, the leather and leather products sector consists of the following activities2 The
process of raw material production, i.e., carcass collection and flaying, production of leather
from the raw material, i.e., tanning, and manufacture of leather products from finished leather. 0f
these, carcass collection and flaying are dispersed across rural and urban areas all over the
country whereas tanning and product making which constitute the manufacturing activities in the
industry have come to be concentrated mostly in urban centres in the form of industrial clusters.
The policy towards promoting exports from the leather industry has over the years had
multiple ob%ectives and comes under ?inistry of ;ommerce. The ob%ectives are2
The development of the indigenous leather industry through export controls and
successive uota restrictions on exports of less value added items such as raw
hides and skins and semi4finished leather initially and on finished leather later,
combined with successive development of value4added products3
!n initial emphasis on the protection of small scale production through reservation
in order to ensure employment generation and artisanal production while also
encouraging exports, followed by dereservation later3
Liberalisation of trade policy to enhance import availability of machinery and raw
material3
Developing the industry on the lines of what is demanded on the international
market.
#olicy for the industry has mostly tried to cater to the idea that India should take advantage of
trends in international demand, while keeping other ob%ectives such as generation of
employment, the uality of employment and the resilient development of the indigenous industry
secondary.
&#N&L)S-#N
Leather is not a cheap material. It is high value commodity in international and national
trade and has lot of export potential. IndiaDs leather industry plays an important role both as an
earner of foreign exchange and provider of employment. ! large proportion of IndiaDs export of
leather and leather products goes to four countries, namely F+!, >ermany, F= and Italy.
Leather4making is now a scientifically based industry, but still retains some of the charm and
mystery of the original craft. !s such, it holds a constant challenge for the chemist who, through
research and an understanding of the underlying principles, can control the uality of the final
product to a much greater degree.
RE0EREN&ES
*ritish +tandard. ,&&,. *+ ,-.& Definition of Leather. $etrieved "ovember '', ,&&.,
from http2GGwww.bsi4global.comG
Diamond H. and Diamond :. '<<<. The 5orld of 1ashion. , ed., "ew Iork, 1air child
publication. p ,'..
Damodaran +. and ?ansingh #. ,&&.. Leather Industry in India. ;entre for :ducation and
;ommunicationGpdf
>arnes, H. :. '<.6. The ;omplete Bandbook of Leather ;rafting. ?alabar, 1lorida, =rienger
#ublishing ;ompany. pp <499.
Barvey, !. H. '<<(. L!+$!. pp 69466.
Lanning, D. '<<6. The ?anufacture of Leather 4 part ,. $etrieved on 0ctober (, ,&&.,
from http2GGwww.hewit.comGindex.htm
?ann, *. $. and ?cmillan, ?. ?. n.d. The ;hemistry of the Leather Industry, @4!nimal
products4;4LeatherGpdf
?uirhead, !. ,&&(. #hysical properties of Leather. $etrieved Hanuary ,-, ,&&<, from,
http2GGwww.ask.comGbarJKleatherLpropertiesEpageK'EsrcK&EabK&EuKhttp89!8,1
8,1www.muirhead.co.uk8,1+TI8,1?uirhead8,1Fnderstanding#roperties.asp
+chillig, :. ,&&(. Bow is 1eel Leather processed. $etrieved 0ctober ,', ,&&. from
http2GG:+41eel4Leder4en.pdf.htm
+harphouse, H. B. '<<(. Leather #roducerDs !ssociation. , ed., #age *ros, "orwich. pp
',46-