Physics 4

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS - 1
When studying materials and especially when selecting materials for a project / design, it is important to
understand key properties. The most important properties are outlined below.

PDF FILE - CLICK HERE FOR PRINTABLE EXERCISE

STRENGTH
The ability of a material to stand up to forces being applied without
it bending, breaking, shattering or deforming in any way.

Our technology technician (Ed) demonstrates the strength of a
material by performing a hand stand on a strong piece of timber
(wood). It does not bend even under his weight. He has eaten pies
and drunk a large amount of beer for twenty years and yet the
strong material does not bend, flex or deform (change shape) in any
way.

ELASTICITY
The ability of a material to absorb force and flex in different
directions, returning to its original position.

Our technology technician demonstrates the elasticity of a
material by springing up and down on a piece of steel rod. Do not
try this at home as an accident may result. Ed our technician is an
expert at demonstrating this property as it is his hobby.

PLASTICITY
The ability of a material to be change in shape permanently.

Our technology technician and his twin brother demonstrate the
plasticity of a molten aluminium by pouring it into a mould. Once
the aluminium has cooled down, it can be removed from the casting
sand. It has a new shape.

Our technician is often seen scavenging in dust bins after aluminum
drinks cans. He then melts them down to form blocks (ingots) of
aluminium to sell to scrap metal dealers.

DUCTILITY
The ability of a material to change shape (deform) usually by
stretching along its length.

Our technician stretches the lead above his head. As it stretches if
deforms (changes shape).

Ed thinks he is a strong man, little does he realise that lead is a very

soft metal and stretches very easily. He performs these tricks in
local pubs in an attempt to pass himself off as a hard man.

TENSILE STRENGTH
The ability of a material to stretch without breaking or snapping.

Our technology technician demonstrates tensile strength by
stretching a piece of steel until it snaps. Ed thinks he is incredibly
strong. However, his friends at work have substituted a sausage in
place of the steel.

When studying materials and especially when selecting materials for a project / design, it is important to
understand key properties. The most important properties are outlined below.

PDF FILE - CLICK HERE FOR PRINTABLE EXERCISE

MALLEABILITY
The ability of a material to be reshaped in all directions without
cracking

Our technology technician demonstrates the malleability of a
material by heating a piece of mild steel until it is red hot. He then
beats it with a large forging hammer to reshape it. Because of the
high temperature it reaches while heating the steel becomes
malleable, it can be reshaped permanently.

Ed often heats up steel, because he likes the colour and it matches
his complexion after he has run up the stairs.

TOUGHNESS
A characteristic of a material that does not break or shatter when
receiving a blow or under a sudden shock.

Our technology technician demonstrates the toughness of a
material by hitting a piece or material to see if it will break or
shatter.

Ed has been known to test authentic Chinese Ming Dynasty pottery
with the same technique. This is why he is often arrested in
Museums and has been banned from the local Antique dealers.

HARDNESS
The ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and tear and
indentation.

Our technology technician, dressed in a kilt, slides along the floor
to see if it will scratch. It will be considered to hard wearing if it
resists scratching.

Ed has been known to fall over. Not a sight for sore eyes.

CONDUCTIVITY
The ability of a material to conduct electricity.

Our technology technician demonstrates conductivity by pressing
live wires against either side of his head (PLEASE NOTE - THIS
WILL KILL NORMAL PEOPLE).

Ed survives because his skull is empty.

QUESTIONS:
1. Can you think of any more properties of materials?
2. Describe safe ways of testing materials for some of the properties described above/

Forces and Motion
What are Distance, Displacement, Speed and Velocity?
What is Distance?

Distance is a measure of how far an object has travelled
from its starting point, or how far away it is.
Distance is the same as length and is measured in metres.

What is the Difference between Distance and Displacement?

Displacement (like distance above) is also a measure of
how far an object has travelled from its starting point
but displacement also tells you the direction of the object.
Distance is a scalar and displacement is a vector.

What is Speed?

Speed is a measure of how fast an object is moving.
It is measured in metres per second, written as m/s.

Speed = Distance Time.

What is Velocity?

Velocity is similar to speed.
It is also a measure of how fast an object is moving
and is measured in m/s.

Velocity = Distance Time.

If an object is not moving then it is called stationary.
The speed or velocity of a stationary object is zero.

What is the Difference between Velocity and Speed?

The difference between velocity and speed is that
velocity is speed in a certain direction.
Speed is a scalar and velocity is a vector.

If an object is moving in a straight line, then its speed and velocity
will be the same.
If the moving object stays at the same speed but changes direction
then we say that
the velocity has changed (because the direction has changed)
but the speed has stayed the same.

If the velocity in one direction is positive
(for example, forwards at 10 m/s)
then the velocity in the opposite direction is negative
(for example, backwards at -10 m/s).

In most of the examples of motion that you will come across,
the object will be moving in a straight line.
In this case, we will use the word velocity rather than speed
How to Calculate Speed or Velocity.
How is the Velocity of an Object Calculated?

Either Speed or Velocity = Distance Time.

For example, if an object moving in a straight line
travels 25 metres in 5 seconds,
then its velocity = 25 5
= 5 m/s.

You must always say what the units are!
(in this case m/s, called "metres per second").
Always check what units are given in the question.
If the time is given in hours or minutes,
then convert it to seconds before doing the calculation.

What is Constant Velocity?

If an objects velocity does not change, we say that it has
a constant velocity. In the above example,
we are not told whether the object has a constant velocity,
or whether its velocity has changed during the 5 seconds.

If the velocity has changed, then the
answer we have calculated is an average velocity of 5 m/s.
If the velocity has not changed,
then the object had a constant velocity of 5 m/s.

When an objects velocity changes, it is called acceleration.
What is Acceleration?

A change in velocity is called acceleration.
What is the Equation for Acceleration?

Acceleration = Change in Velocity Time.
This equation is written as

a = (v-u) t

where a = acceleration
v = final velocity (the one it ended up with)
u = initial velocity (the one it started with)
t = time

This equation is important!

What are the Units of Acceleration?

The units of acceleration are m/s2
called "metres per second squared".

What is Negative Acceleration?

If an object gets faster, it will have a positive acceleration.
If an object gets slower, it will have a negative acceleration
(this is sometimes called "deceleration"
but the term "negative acceleration" is preferred).
How to Calculate Acceleration.

How is the Acceleration of an Object Calculated?

Acceleration = Change in Velocity Time.

a = (v-u) t

where a = acceleration
v = final velocity (the one it ended up with)
u = initial velocity (the one it started with)
t = time

This equation can be rearranged.

Example 1. If a car changes from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 8 seconds,
what is its acceleration?

v = 30
u = 10
t = 8

a = (30 - 10) 8
= 20 8
= 25 m/s2

Example 2. If a bicycle moving at 15 m/s takes 10 seconds to stop,
what is its acceleration?

In this example,
the final velocity is zero because the bicycle has stopped.

v = 0
u = 15
t = 10

a = (0 - 15) 10
= -15 10
= -15 m/s2

The acceleration is negative because the bicycle has slowed down.

What is Constant Acceleration?

Acceleration is the rate of change of an objects velocity.
The object is said to have constant acceleration if
it gets faster (or slower, or its direction changes) at the same rate.

Distance -
Time Graphs.
What is a Distance - Time Graph?
A distance - time graph shows
how an objects distance (how far it has
gone) changes with time.
The picture below shows a distance - time graph
for an object that is stationary.

The above graph shows an object which
is not moving (at rest).
The straight horizontal line shows that its distance
stays the same as time goes by because it
is not moving.
for an object with a constant velocity.

The straight line sloping upwards in the graph above
shows that the objects distance increases as time goes
by.
The object has velocity because it is moving.
The straight line shows that it is a constant velocity.
The gradient (slope) of the line shows
how fast the object is going.
The greater the slope, the bigger the velocity is.
Compare this with the velocity - time graph for constant
velocity.
What are the Distance - Time Graphs
for Constant Velocity and Acceleration?
for an object with a constant velocity.

The straight line shows an object moving with constant
velocity.
Compare this with the graph on the previous page and
you
will see that the slope of the line is down rather than up.
This means that the object is moving in
the opposite direction.
The slope of the line shows how
fast the object is moving.

What is the Distance - Time Graph for Acceleration?

The curve in the above graph shows
that the objects velocity is changing as time goes by.
Changing velocity is called acceleration.
How can a Distance - Time Graph
be used to show the Motion of an Object?
You may be shown a graph like the one below
and be asked to describe the motion of the object.

In region A the object is moving with constant velocity.
In region B the object is at rest (not moving).
In region C the object is again moving with a constant
velocity
but compared with region A
1. the object is moving more slowly because
the slope is less steep
2. the object is moving in the opposite direction
because distance is decreasing as time goes by.
Compare this with the velocity - time on page 11.
What is a Velocity - Time Graph?
A velocity - time graph shows
how an objects velocity (how fast it
is moving) changes with time.
Velocity - Time Graphs for
Constant Velocity and Constant Acceleration.
The picture below shows a velocity - time graph
for an object with a velocity that does not change.

The straight horizontal line in the graph above shows
that the objects velocity does not change as time goes
by.
The object is said to have a constant velocity.
Compare this with the distance - time graph for constant
velocity.

for an object with a velocity that increases at
a constant rate.

The straight line sloping upwards in the graph above
shows that the objects
velocity is increasing as time goes by.
Increasing velocity is called acceleration.
What is Constant Acceleration?
The straight line in the graph above shows that
the velocity of the object has a constant acceleration.
This means that the
velocity of the object is changing at a constant rate.
The slope of the line in the graph above shows
1. the acceleration is positive because the line slopes
upwards
2. how fast the acceleration is.
The greater the slope, the faster the acceleration is.
Velocity - Time Graphs for
Constant Negative Acceleration and Changing
Acceleration.
for an object with a velocity that decreases at
a constant rate.

The straight line sloping downwards in the graph above
shows that the objects
velocity is decreasing as time goes by.
This is called negative acceleration.
The straight line shows that it is constant
negative acceleration.
The slope of the line shows
1. the acceleration is negative because
the line slopes downwards
2. how fast the negative acceleration is.
The greater the slope, the faster the acceleration is.

for an object with an acceleration that increases.

The curve in the above graph shows that the
acceleration is not constant because the slope is
getting steeper.
It is changing acceleration that increases as time goes
by.
How can a Velocity - Time Graph
be used to show the Motion of an Object?
You may be shown a graph like the one below
and be asked to describe the motion of the object.

In
region A the object is moving with constant acceleration.
In region B the object is moving with constant velocity.
In region C the object is
again moving with constant acceleration
but compared with region A
1. the acceleration is slower because the slope is less
steep
2. the acceleration is negative because
the slope is downwards.
The total distance travelled by the object can be
calculated
by measuring the area under the graph.
How can a Velocity - Time Graph be used
to show the Total Distance Travelled by an Object?
The total distance travelled by the object can
be calculated
by measuring the area between the graph and
the baseline.
This is called the area under the graph.

The area under the graph shown on the previous page
can be divided into two triangles and one rectangle.
The area of triangle A is half base x height
= 05 x 10 x 20
= 100.
The area of triangle C
= 05 x (70 - 30) x 20
= 400.
The area of rectangle B
= (30 - 10) x 20
= 400.
The distance travelled is the total area = A + B + C
= 100 + 400 + 400
= 900 m.
What are Newton's Laws of Motion?
Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) changed the way
that people understood forces and motion.
The "common sense" view (developed in ancient
Greece)
said that a single force is needed to sustain motion.
This means that if you want to keep a bicycle
moving on flat ground,
then you have to keep pedalling or it will slow
down and stop.
Newton changed this view,
showing that ideas of balanced and unbalanced forces
were better at explaining how objects moved.
The three laws of motion are given below in plain
English.
First Law.
If the forces on an object are balanced then it will carry
on as it is.
Second Law.
If the forces on an object are unbalanced then
the resultant force will cause the motion of
the object to change.
The bigger the force, the bigger the change in motion.
Third Law.
When two objects push or pull against each other,
the forces that they feel are equal and opposite.
Newton's First Law of Motion - Balanced Forces.
What is a Force?
A force is a push or a pull. It
is measured in Newtons (N).

What are Balanced Forces?
Forces are balanced when the resultant force is zero.
If all of the forces which act on an object
along the same straight line are equal and opposite,
then when you subtract one side from the other the
resultant force is zero and the forces are
called balanced.

What is a Free-Body Force Diagram?
The picture below is called a free-body force diagram.
It shows only the object and the forces acting on it.
The arrow shows the direction of the force and the
length of the arrow shows the size of
the force (see vectors).

The cube in the picture has two forces
pulling in opposite directions.
The resultant force is 5 - 5 Newtons = 0 N.
The forces are balanced.

What does Newton's First Law mean?
Newton's First Law says that if the
forces on an object are balanced then it will carry on as
it is.
This means that
1. if the object is not moving then it will continue to stay
still.
2. if the object is already moving
then it will continue to move with a constant velocity.
Number 2 goes against common sense.
We know that in the "real world" things slow down
and stop if there is "no force" to keep them moving.
Newton understood that there is an opposing force
which makes things slow down and stop. It is
called friction.
Newton's Second Law of Motion - Unbalanced Forces.
What are Unbalanced Forces?
Forces are unbalanced when the resultant
force is not zero.

What does Resultant Force mean?
Forces which act along a straight line can be
added if the forces are in the same direction
or
subtracted if the forces are in the opposite direction.
The force that you get after adding or subtracting is
called
the resultant force. The resultant force is a single force
that has the same effect as all the
other forces combined.

In the free-body force diagram above, the forces
are in the same direction and can be added
producing a resultant force of 10 N pointing to the left.
This is an example of an
unbalanced force because the resultant
force is not zero.

What does Newton's Second Law mean?
Newton's Second Law says that if the forces on
an object are unbalanced then the resultant force
will cause the motion of the object to change.
The bigger the force, the bigger the change in motion
(see also momentum).
A change in motion is called acceleration.
Newton's Second Law gives rise to the equation
Force = mass x acceleration.
F = m x a
This equation is important! (continued on the next
page).
Newton's Second Law of Motion - Unbalanced Forces
(continued from the previous page).
In the picture below, the forces are unbalanced
even though they are in opposite directions
because one is bigger than the other.

The unbalanced resultant force
is 15 - 5 N = 10 N pointing to the left.
This will cause a change in motion, called acceleration.

What are the Effects of Acceleration?
If the object above is not moving,
the unbalanced force will start to move it to the left.
If it is already moving to the left,
the unbalanced force will make it move faster.
If it is already moving to the right,
the unbalanced force will make it move slower.
What is Newton's Third Law of Motion?
Newton's third law of motion says that
when two objects push or pull against each other,
the forces that they feel are equal and opposite.
These forces are called action and reaction forces.
The two forces together are called an interaction pair.
One example of Newton's third law is when you
are sitting still on a chair. Your weight is a force pushing
down on the chair. It is not obvious that there is an
equal opposing force from the chair, pushing upwards
against you. Newton's First Law says that there
must be an equal opposing force because the forces
on a stationary object (yourself) must be balanced.
If the force of your weight on the chair did
not have an equal opposing force, then the forces on
you would be unbalanced and you would
accelerate downwards in the direction of the resultant
force.
A second example would be staying still while
pushing against a wall. If the wall did not provide
an equal force pushing back against you, then
the wall would accelerate away from your hand.
Other examples of Newton's third law of motion
are a rocket flying and an explosion.
This all seems very strange at first and goes against
common sense. Once you get used to the
idea of balanced or unbalanced forces explaining
how things move, then you will see just how
useful and simple Newton's Laws of motion are.
The following pages show the type of
examples of motion which you might see in an exam.
Mass, Weight and Gravity.
What is Mass?
Mass is an amount of substance. It is measured
in kilograms.
The mass tells you how many particles you have,
not what they weigh. Particles can
be atoms, ions or molecules.

What is Gravity?
Gravity is a force of attraction between masses.
Gravity is a property of mass,
the bigger the mass, the bigger the gravity.
The further away from each other the masses are,
the weaker the gravity between them
(similar to the forces between magnets and charges,
except that gravity always attracts).
On Earth the force of gravity is 10 N/kg.
The acceleration due to gravity
(how fast things accelerate when you drop them)
is approximately 10 m/s
2
.
What is Weight?
Weight is the force of gravity pulling on a mass.
Weight is a force, so it is measured
in Newtons, not kilograms.
Weight = mass x gravity
w = m x g
Compare this with the general formula F = m x a.
Weight is the force, gravity is the acceleration.

What is the Difference between Weight and Mass?
If you go to the shops,
you will find fruit and vegetables weighed in kilograms.
In physics, this would be considered to be wrong.
On Earth the force of gravity is 10 N/kg,
so you can convert mass into weight by multiplying it
by 10.
For example, 1kg of tomatoes weighs 10 N.
If you took your 1kg of tomatoes to the moon,
you would still have the same mass
(because you still have the same number of tomatoes)
but they would weigh less
because the moon has less gravity than the Earth.
People who sell tomatoes are not generally troubled
by the difference between mass and weight.
They are priced in kg, not Newtons, since on the whole
they do not try to sell tomatoes on different planets.
Examples of Motion.

The Forces on a Rocket.
What are the Forces on a Flying Rocket?
The two forces shown by the arrows in the picture below
are in opposite directions.
The upward force (called thrust) comes from
the burning of fuel
at the bottom of the rocket (see also fireworks).
Hot gases are forced downwards through the rocket's
jets
which pushes the body of the rocket upwards.
This is an example of Newton's Third Law of Motion.
The bigger the downward blast of gas, the bigger
the force (thrust) pushing the rocket upwards. A jet
engine
works in the same way to push an aircraft forwards.

The downward force (called "drag" or "air resistance")
is an example of friction. Friction comes
from the air pushing against the rocket as it moves.
The faster the rocket moves, the bigger the drag
because the air must be pushed out of the way at
a faster rate.
There is also a contribution to the downward force
from the weight of the rocket (continued on the next
page).
Note that the forces are usually drawn by arrows
moving away from the object as if they are pulling on it.
In reality, the thrust is pushing upward on the bottom of
the rocket
and the drag is pushing downwards on the top of
the rocket.
It does not matter whether the arrows are
drawn pushing or pulling
as long as they represent the size and direction of
the force.
What is the Motion of a Flying Rocket?
Continued from the previous page.
When the rocket takes off, there is a large thrust
from the engine but very little drag because the
rocket is moving slowly and air resistance is small.
The forces are unbalanced because there is a
large upward force but only a small downward force
and so the rocket has a large acceleration
in the direction of the larger force (upwards).
As the rocket gets faster,
the drag increases and acceleration decreases
until the thrust and drag are equal in size.
Now the forces are balanced
and the rocket will continue with a constant velocity.
The motion of the rocket
is shown on the velocity - time graph below.

The red curve shows acceleration
changing from large to small.
The blue line shows constant velocity.
This is the same shape of velocity - time graph
as a falling object reaching its terminal velocity.
The next page shows how to
calculate forces and acceleration.
Flying Rocket - Calculations for Force and Acceleration.
Q1. A stationary rocket was moving at 240 m/s
2 minutes after take off.
What was its acceleration?
A. Use a = (v-u) t
v = 240 m/s
u = 0 m/s
(because the rocket was stationary, its initial
velocity was 0)
t = 2 x 60
(changing minutes into seconds)
a = (240 - 0) (2 x 60)
= 240 120
= 20 m/s
2

Q2. The rocket has a mass of 1500 kg.
What force was needed to give it
the acceleration of 20 m/s
2
?
A. Use F = m x a
F = 1500 x 2
= 3000 N.
Falling Objects - A Cone Falling from a Cliff.
What are the Forces on a Falling Object?
The forces on a falling object are similar to the
flying rocket with the direction of the forces reversed.
In this example the falling object is a cone
but the same forces apply to any falling object.
Weight is the force pulling the cone downwards,
Air resistance (drag) is
the force pushing the cone upwards.
When the cone first falls, there is a
downward force from the weight of the cone but very
little drag
because the cone is moving slowly and air
resistance is small.
The forces are unbalanced because there is a
large downward force but only a small upward force
and so the cone has a large acceleration
in the direction of the larger force (downwards)

As the cone gets faster,
the drag increases and acceleration decreases
until the weight and drag are equal in size.
Now the forces are balanced and
the cone will continue to
fall with a constant velocity called its terminal velocity.
What is Terminal Velocity?
The terminal velocity is the
fastest velocity that an object can have as it is falling.
The motion of the falling object
is shown on the velocity - time graph below.

The red curve shows the acceleration changing
from large to small.
The blue line shows the terminal velocity of the object.
The terminal velocity is always a constant velocity.
Calculations for falling objects are on the next page.
Calculation for the Velocity of a Falling Object.
See the previous page for the forces on a falling Object.
Q1. An object falls from a cliff.
How fast will it be moving after 3 seconds?
A. Use a = (v-u) t
a = 10 m/s
2
because of gravity.
u = 0 (initial downward velocity).
t = 3
If you are good at maths,
you can rearrange the equation to give v - u = a x t.
v - 0 = 10 x 3
v = 30 m/s.
In reality, the velocity will be a little less than this
because
air resistance (friction) will slow the falling object down.
You may have noticed that the above calculation
takes no account of the mass or weight of
the falling object.
All things fall with the same acceleration, so if both a
penny and a car were thrown from a cliff at the same
time,
they would both hit the ground at the same time.
Things will fall noticeably slower if
1. their density is close to the density of air
(for example a feather)
or
2. they have a large air resistance in proportion to
their weight
(for e The Forces on a Stationary Car.
What are the Forces on a Stationary Car?
The forces on a stationary car are shown below.
The weight of the car is the force pushing downward on
the road.

Newton's third law of motion tells us that the weight of
the car
is opposed by an equal and opposite force pushing
upward
from the road. The opposing force is called the reactive
force.
The forces are balanced and Newton's first
law of motion
says that an object that is not moving will
remain stationary.
There are no other forces acting on the car.
xample a parachute).

The Forces on a Moving Car.
What are the Forces on a Moving Car?
The forces acting on a moving car are thrust and drag
as well as the same forces that act on a stationary car.

Drag is the force of air resistance (a form of friction)
pushing against the front of the car while it is moving.
Thrust is the force pushing the car forwards.
Thrust comes from the engine turning the wheels.
How do Wheels make a Car go Forwards?
Tyres on the wheels push backwards against the road
as they try to turn, causing an
equal and opposite force which pushes the car forwards.

The tyres must have good grip (a high friction)
so that they do not slide on the road surface.
If the forces of thrust and drag are equal,
then the forces are balanced and
the car will move with a constant velocity.
If the forces of thrust and drag are not equal, then
the forces are unbalanced and the car will accelerate.
The car will get faster if thrust is bigger than drag,
and slower if the drag is bigger than the thrust.
The Stopping Distance of a Car.
The total distance that is needed to stop a moving car
can be divided into two parts called
the thinking distance and the braking distance.

What is the Thinking Distance?
The thinking distance is the distance the car travels
during the driver's reaction time.
The reaction time is the length of time between the
moment when the driver realizes that
the car must be stopped
and
the moment when they apply (put on) the brakes.
The faster the car is travelling,
the further the car moves during the thinking distance.

What Increases the Thinking Distance?
Thinking distance is increased if the reaction time of
the driver
gets longer because of tiredness, alcohol (or other
drugs)
or distractions. Common distractions include using
a mobile phone or
a satellite navigation system (Sat Nav).

What Decreases the Thinking Distance?
The thinking distance can be decreased by using
road signs to warn the driver that they might have
to stop soon.
The more alert a driver is, the shorter their reaction time,
the quicker they can apply the brakes
and the smaller is the thinking distance.
The total stopping distance = thinking distance + braking
distance.
See the next page for the braking distance.
The Stopping Distance of a Car.
distance.

What is the Braking Distance?
The braking distance is the minimum distance
in which a car can stop once the brakes are put on.

The braking distance is affected by
1. The velocity of the car.
2. The mass of the car.
3. The condition of the brakes, tyres and road surface.
The Stopping Distance of a Car - Velocity.
distance.
Both the thinking distance and the braking distance
are changed as the velocity of a car changes.
See also the calculation of the force need
to stop a moving car
using kinetic energy or momentum.

How does Velocity affect the Braking Distance of a Car?
The braking distance of a car increases as
the velocity increases.
The two calculations below show how
doubling the velocity changes the braking distance of
a car.

Q1. A car is moving with a velocity (speed) of 10 m/s.
When the brakes are applied the car slows down
and has a constant negative acceleration of -2 m/s
2
.
What is its braking distance?
A1. Find how much time the car took to stop.
Then find the average velocity of the car.
Then calculate the braking distance.
Use a = (v-u) t
to find the time (t) for how long it takes the car to stop.
a = - 2
v = 0
u = 10
t = (v-u) a
t = (0 - 10) -2
t = 10 2
t = 5 seconds.
For an object that has a constant acceleration,
the average velocity = (initial velocity + final
velocity) 2
= (10 + 0) 2
= 5 m/s.
As velocity = distance time
then distance = velocity x time
The braking distance of the car
= 5 x 5
= 25 m.

Q2. The same car is
now moving with twice the velocity at 20 m/s.
When the brakes are applied,
the car has the same constant negative acceleration of -
2 m/s
2
.
What is its braking distance?
A2. Use the same method as above, a = (v-u) t
a = -2
v = 0
u = 20
t = (v-u) a
t = (0 - 20) -2
t = 20 2
t = 10 seconds.
The average velocity = (initial velocity + final
velocity) 2
= (20 + 0) 2
= 10 m/s.
Since velocity = distance time
distance = velocity x time
The braking distance of the car
= 10 x 10
= 100 m.
Notice that doubling the velocity of
the car from 10 to 20 m/s
has more than doubled the braking distance.
In fact the braking distance goes up x4 when
the velocity goes up x2.
This is because of
the effect of velocity on the kinetic energy of the car.
The Braking Distance of a Car - Mass.
distance.
Changing the mass of a car does not
change the thinking distance
but
the braking distance is changed as the mass of
a car changes.
See also the calculation of the force need
to stop a moving car
using kinetic energy or momentum.

How does Mass affect the Braking Distance of a Car?
The braking distance of a car increases as
the mass increases.
doubling the mass changes the braking distance of
a car.

Q1. The brakes of a car apply a force of 1500N.
If the car has a mass of 750 kg, what is its acceleration?
(How quickly does it slow down?)
A1. Use F = m x a
or a = F m
a = 1500 750
= 2 m/s
2
.
Strictly speaking we would call the acceleration -2 m/s
2

because the car is slowing down.
Q2. The brakes of
the car apply the same force of 1500N.
If the car has double the mass at 1500 kg, what is
its acceleration?
(How quickly does it slow down?)
A2. Use F = m x a
or a = F m
a = 1500 1500
= 1 m/s
2
.
After we have doubled the mass of the car and
applied the same force from the brakes,
the car is now slowing down at only half the rate.
The car with twice the mass will take twice as
long to stop
(requiring twice the braking distance -
see kinetic energy).
Notice that the rate of negative acceleration (slowing
down)
only depends on the force of the brakes and the mass of
the car,
not how fast the car is going.
A faster moving car will take further to stop for
the same acceleration
(the same rate of slowing down, see the previous page).
The Stopping Distance of a Car - Friction.
What Conditions affect the Stopping Distance of a Car?
The braking force that brings a car to a stop depends
on the friction between the brakes and the wheels
and the friction between the tyres and the road surface.
distance.
Changing the friction does not
change the thinking distance
but the
braking distance is changed as the amount
of friction changes.

How does Friction affect the Braking Distance of a Car?
When the brakes are applied the car
loses kinetic energy
(it slows down). The kinetic energy which is lost is
transferred to the brakes and the wheels which both get
hotter.
If the brakes are not seriously worn or malfunctioning,
then the friction between the brakes and the wheels
is very good because
of modern brake design and materials.
The most important friction for stopping a car occurs
between the
tyres and the road surface. If the road is wet or icy, then
the friction is reduced and the braking
distance is increased.
If the brakes are applied with too much force the tyres
will slide on the road surface (called skidding).
On a wet road, the tread on the tyre makes water on
the surface of the road go up into the grooves
and then the water is thrown out sideways to get it out
from under the tyre. If the tread is not deep enough
the tyre can not remove surface water quickly enough
and the tyre will ride up on top of the water
and loose contact with the road (called aquaplaning).
Friction.
What is Friction?
Friction is an opposing force. Friction acts in the
opposite direction to a force that is applied to an object.

Where does Friction Occur?
Friction occurs where two solid objects rub against each
other
or
where a liquid or gas is pushed out of the way of
a moving object.
The amount of friction
always increases as the velocity of the object increases.

How much Friction is there between Two Solid Objects?
For two solid objects, the amount of friction depends
on how well the surfaces grip each other.
Tyres on a road usually have very
high friction (they don't slide)
but skates on ice have very low
friction (they slide easily).

How much Friction is there between a Solid and
a Liquid?
For a solid object moving through a liquid,
the amount of friction
depends on the objects velocity, shape, surface area
and the viscosity (thickness or thinness) of the liquid.
An object moving through a high viscosity liquid (syrup)
will have a high friction, and an object moving
through a low viscosity liquid (water) will have a low
friction.

How much Friction is there between a Solid and a Gas?
For a solid object moving through air,
the amount of friction
depends on the objects velocity, shape and surface
area.
This type of friction is called "air resistance" or "drag".
A parachute will have a very high air resistance
but a rocket is streamline and has a very low air
resistance.
Is friction good or bad?
Is Friction Good or Bad?
Can Friction be a Good Thing?
Friction can be good.
When we walk we push backwards against the ground,
the opposing force pushes us forwards. Without
friction our feet would slip and walking would
be impossible.

It has been shown previously that
a car is moved forwards
by the wheels which try to turn and push
against the road.
The direction of the forces for the car wheels and
the road
are the same as the forces above for a man walking.
Without friction a car
could not move forwards, be steered or be stopped.
There are many examples where
friction is a necessary force in the world in which we live.
Is Friction Good or Bad?
Can Friction be a Bad Thing?
Friction can be bad. Whenever an object is moving,
for example a bicycle, car, train etc., friction provides an
opposing force which tries to slow the object down.
The largest type of opposing force
for the examples in the list above is air resistance.

What is Air Resistance?
Air resistance is a form of friction occurring where
the object
is pushing air out of its way as it moves forward.
Air resistance causes kinetic energy to
be transferred into heat.
If an object is moving very fast (for example a meteor)
the amount of heat can be so great that the object burns
up.
How can Air Resistance be Changed?
Air resistance can be reduced by changing the shape
of the object so that it can push the air away more
easily.
This is called streamlining.
The faster an object is moving, the more air resistance it
meets and so streamlining becomes more important
at higher speeds. A rocket is more streamline than
a bus.

A small friction force comes from the solid mechanical
surfaces
rubbing over each other in engines and wheel bearings.
This friction is kept small by lubricating the surfaces (oil t
hem).
Density.
What is Density?
Density = mass volume.
It
is important to know the difference between density and
weight.
If we have 10 kg of a substance,
its mass is 10 kg and its weight is 100 Newtons.
The mass is the amount of stuff you have
(the number of atoms).
The weight is the force of gravity pulling on that mass.
Imagine that the 10 kg of substance takes up
a volume of 1 m
3
.
If the same 10 kg of substance is squashed into a
volume of 05 m
3
, then we still have the same mass
and it still has the same weight but it now only
takes up half the space. The density has been doubled.

How can we Calculate Density?
If we do the calculation using d = m v,
In the first case above
d = 10 1
= 10 kg per m
3

In the second case
d = 10 05
= 20 kg per m
3

The same
mass in half the volume gives twice the density.
Sometimes the Greek letter is used
for density, instead of d.
looks like a p but is in fact a Greek r (called rho).
= m v
The Equations for Forces and Motion.
Click on the equation below for more information.
1. acceleration = change in velocity time.
a = (v-u) t
number 1 can be rearranged to give
v - u = a x t or t = (v-u) a

2. force = mass x acceleration.
F = m x a
m = F a or a = F m

3. weight = mass x gravity.
w = m x g
m = w g or g = w m

4. momentum = mass x velocity.
p = m x v
m = p v or v = p m

5. change in momentum = force x time.
mv - mu = F x t
F = (mv - mu) t

Momentum.
What is Momentum?
Anything that moves has momentum (see
also kinetic energy).
The amount of momentum that an object has depends
on
how fast it is moving (its velocity) and on the mass of
the object.
momentum = mass x velocity.
The equation is written as
p = m x v
where p = momentum
m = mass and v = velocity.
The units of momentum are kgm/s
called "kilogram metres per second".
Momentum - Calculations.
Calculations using the Equations of Momentum.
Q1. If an object with a mass of 26kg moves with
a velocity of 5 m/s, what is its momentum?
A1. momentum = mass x velocity
= 26 x 5
= 130 kgm/s.

doubling the mass or
the velocity changes the momentum.
What happens to the momentum if we double the
mass of an object?
Q2. An object with twice the mass of 52kg moves
with the same velocity at 5 m/s, what is its momentum?
= 52 x 5
= 260 kgm/s.
If we double the mass of
an object we double its momentum.

What happens to the momentum if we double the
velocity of an object?
Q3. An object with the same mass of 26kg moves
with twice the velocity at 10 m/s, what is its momentum?
= 26 x 10
= 260 kgm/s.
If we double the velocity of
an object we double its momentum.
We say that momentum
is directly proportional to both mass and velocity.
Momentum - Law of Conservation.
What is the Law of Conservation of Momentum?
The law of conservation of momentum states that
the total momentum of a closed
system does not change.
This means that when two objects collide
the total momentum of the objects before the collision
is the same as
the total momentum of the objects after the collision.
Total momentum means
the momentum of object 1 plus the momentum of object
2.
Object 1 might not have the same
momentum before and after
the collision
but the amount of momentum object 1 gains from
the collision
is the same as the amount of momentum object 2 loses
so the total momentum
remains
the same whether the collision is elastic or inelastic.
The total momentum is also
the same before and after an explosion.

What does Closed System mean?
"Closed system" is used to mean that only the forces of
the two objects colliding affects the motion of
the objects.
See Newton's third law of motion.
If another force (called an external force)
affects the motion of the objects
then the momentum is not conserved, it will change.
The term closed system has a different meaning
in chemistry.
Momentum - What is an Elastic Collision?
What is the Difference
between an Elastic and an Inelastic Collision?
When two objects collide they can either
bounce off each other (called an elastic collision)
or stick together (called an inelastic collision).
In a collision between two objects that is
either elastic or inelastic, we can predict from
the law of conservation of momentum that
the total momentum of the objects before the collision
is the same as
the total momentum of the objects after the collision.
With an elastic collision the total kinetic energy is
the same before and after the collision but with
an inelastic collision the total kinetic energy decreases.

An elastic collision happens between
snooker (or pool or billiard) balls.
Elastic collisions also happen between gas particles.
Momentum - What is an Inelastic Collision?
Click here to see the difference
between an elastic collision and an inelastic collision.
An example of an inelastic collision is where
one car collides with another and
both cars keep moving but stick together after
the collision.
For example, car 1 has
a mass of 1200 kg and travels with a velocity of 20 m/s.
Car 2 has a mass of 800 kg and is stationary.
Car 1 collides with car 2 and they both stick together.
What is the velocity of both cars after the collision?
The total momentum before the collision is
momentum = mass x velocity
For car 1
momentum = 1200 x 20
= 24000 kgm/s.
For car 2
momentum = 800 x 0
= 0 kgm/s.
Total momentum before the collision is
24000 + 0 = 24000 kgm/s.
The law of conservation of momentum tells us that the
total momentum after the collision is also 24000 kgm/s.
The mass of both cars after the collision is
1200 + 800 = 2000 kg.
The velocity of both cars after the collision
can be calculated because
momentum before = momentum after
24000 = 2000 x v
v = 24000 2000
= 12 m/s.
The total kinetic energy decreases with
an inelastic collision.
You can use the equation for kinetic energy
to see that the total kinetic energy
before the collision is 240,000J
and after the collision it is 144,000J.
What is the Momentum of an Explosion?
The forces involved in an explosion make objects
move away from each other very quickly.
This is an example of Newton's third law of motion.
The law of conservation of momentum tells us that the
total momentum is
the same, before and after the explosion.
Before an explosion the objects are not moving
and so the total momentum is zero.
After the explosion the total momentum is also still zero.
The momentum of objects moving in one direction
must be exactly balanced by the
momentum of objects moving in the opposite direction.
An example of an explosion is a gun firing a bullet.
The same force that pushes the bullet forwards
and gives it a fast velocity
also pushes the gun backwards (called recoil velocity).
Q1. A gun has a mass of 25 kg and
a recoil velocity of 8 m/s.
What is the velocity of the bullet if it has a mass of 002
kg?
A1. The momentum of the gun going backwards
after the explosion, must be the
same as the momentum of the bullet going forwards.
momentum = mass x velocity
For the gun
momentum = 25 x 8
= 200 kgm/s.
For the bullet
200 = 002 x v
v = 200 002
= 1000 m/s.
The velocity of the bullet = 1000 m/s.
When does Momentum Change?
The law of conservation of momentum only applies if
there are
no external forces. An example of
an external force is friction.
Friction is a resultant force that makes
objects slow down and stop if there
is no force to balance it.
Newton's second law tells us that a resultant force will
cause
the motion (and therefore the momentum) of
an object to change.

What is the Equation for a Change in Momentum?
Force = change in momentum time taken for the
change.
This equation is written as
F = (mv - mu) t
where F = Force
mv = final momentum (the one it ended up with)
mu = initial momentum (the one it started with)
t = time
This equation can be rearranged to give
Change in momentum = Force x time.
or mv - mu = F x t
The units of momentum can be therefore be written as
Ns called Newton seconds (Force x time) as well
as kgm/s.

An example of a change in momentum is a moving car
being stopped by using its brakes or by crashing into
a wall.
The Change in Momentum for a Car
Stopped by Braking.
How much Force is needed to Stop a Car?
A moving car which comes to a stop has
a change in momentum.
In example 1 a car uses its braking force to bring it to
a stop.
In example 2 on the next page
the same car is brought to a stop by crashing into a wall.

Example 1.
A car has a mass of 1000 kg and moves with
a velocity of 18 m/s.
The driver brings the car to a stop in 15 seconds.
What braking force is applied?
or mv - mu = F x t.
t = time
Final momentum
m x v = 1000 x 0 because the
car stopped.
= 0 kgm/s.
Initial momentum
m x u = 1000 x 18
= 18000 kgm/s.
The change in momentum mv - mu
= 0 - 18000
= - 18000 kgm/s.
(The negative sign only shows that the
car lost momentum).
18000 = F x 15
F = 18000 15
= 1200 N.
The braking force needed to stop the car in 15
seconds is 1200 N.
A car that is stopped safely by braking experiences a
much
smaller force than a car that crashes. In the examples
shown on this page and the next, the force is 15 times
smaller
because the car took 15 times longer to stop.
This has implications for driver and passenger safety.
The Change in Momentum in a Car Crash.
What is the Size of the Force on a Car when it Crashes?
A moving car which comes to a stop has
a change in momentum.
In example 1 on the previous page a car is uses its
braking force to bring it to a stop.
In example 2 the same car is brought to a stop
by crashing into a wall.

Example 2.
A car has a mass of 1000 kg and moves with
a velocity of 18 m/s.
The car crashes into a wall and stops in 1 second.
What is the stopping force during the collision?
or mv - mu = F x t.
t = time
Final momentum
m x v = 1000 x 0 because the
car stopped.
= 0 kgm/s .
Initial momentum
m x u = 1000 x 18
= 18000 kgm/s.
The change in momentum mv - mu
= 0 - 18000
= - 18000 kgm/s.
(The negative sign only shows that the
car lost momentum).
18000 = F x 1
F = 18000 1
= 18000 N.
The car that crashes experiences a much larger force
than the car that stopped safely by braking.
The force is 15 times larger for the car that crashes
because the car stopped in
1
/15
th
of the time.
This has implications for driver and passenger safety.
The Change in Momentum and Car Safety.
How do Crumple Zones, Seatbelts and Airbags work?
The previous two pages show that
a car that crashes experiences a much larger force
than a car that has stopped safely by braking.
People (the driver and passengers) inside
a car that crashes
are also exposed to a large force and this can
cause injuries.
Below are listed three ways in which safety features
try to minimize the force during a crash by making
the change in momentum happen over
a longer period of time
(cycle and motorcycle helmets work in the same way).

What is a Crumple Zone?
The car is designed so that the structure of the car
will give way during a collision. The
metal of the car will dent, bend and fold during
a collision
which increases the amount of time it takes
the car to stop.
The parts of the car that do this
(the front and the back) are called crumple zones.

How do Seatbelts work?
Car seatbelts protect people in two ways during a crash.
The seatbelt prevents the person being thrown about in
the car,
possibly through the windscreen
or hitting themselves on the steering wheel or other
objects.
The seatbelt also stretches a little, while restraining
the person during a crash. The stretching
increases the amount of time it takes the person to stop.

How do Airbags work?
Airbags are bags which inflate very quickly during
a crash.
They provide a softer surface (like a pillow)
to prevent the people hitting themselves on hard objects.
They are designed to be used with a seatbelt.
An airbag will give way a little when a person hits it and
this gives an
extra increase to the amount of time it takes
the person to stop.
Bubble wrap packaging has the same effect
and is used to protect objects that are being transported.
What are Scalar and Vector Quantities?
Some of the quantities (variables) that we have talked
about
in the Forces and Motion chapter are scalars and some
are vectors.

What is the Difference between a Scalar and a Vector?
A scalar (pronounced scay-lar) only
has magnitude (size).
A vector has both magnitude and direction.

Examples of scalars are
density, energy, length, mass, power, speed and temper
ature.

Examples of vectors are
acceleration, displacement, force, momentum, velocity a
nd weight.
Revision Questions
The best way to remember the information in this
chapter
is to get a pen and paper and write down your answers
before clicking on the Answer link which will take you to
the correct page.
You may have to read through some of the page before
you find the answer.
If the answer you have written is not right, change it to
the
correct answer by copying down the information from
the correct page.

Distance - Speed - Velocity - Acceleration
1 What is Distance a measure of? Answer
2 What unit is Distance measured in? Answer
3 What is Speed a measure of? Answer
4 What unit is Speed measured in? Answer
5 Which Equation connects Speed, Distance and Time? Answer
6 What is the Speed of an Object which is Stationary? Answer
7 What unit is Velocity measured in? Answer
8 What is the Difference between Speed and Velocity? Answer
9 Which Equation connects Velocity, Distance and Time? Answer
10
An Object Travels 25 metres in 5 seconds. What is
its Velocity?
Answer
11 What does Constant Velocity mean? Answer
12 What does Acceleration mean? Answer
13 What unit is Acceleration measured in? Answer
14 Which Equation connects Acceleration, Velocity and Time? Answer
15 What is Negative Acceleration sometimes called? Answer
16
A Car Changes from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 8 seconds. What is
its Acceleration?
Answer
17
A Bicycle moving at 10 m/s Stops in 10 seconds. What is
its Acceleration?
Answer
18 What does Constant Acceleration mean? Answer

Distance - Time Graphs and Velocity - Time Graphs
19 Draw a Distance - Time graph for an Object at Rest. Answer
20
Draw a Distance - Time graph for an Object with Constant
Velocity.
Answer
21
Draw a Distance - Time graph for
an Object with Acceleration.
Answer
22
Draw a Velocity - Time graph for an Object with Constant
Velocity.
Answer
23
Draw a Velocity - Time graph for
an Object with Constant Acceleration.
Answer
24
How is Total Distance Travelled calculated from a Velocity -
Time graph?
Answer

Force - Balanced - Unbalanced - Mass - Weight -
Gravity
25 What is a Force? Answer
26 What unit is Force measured in? Answer
27 What are Balanced Forces? Answer
28 How does an Object Move if the Forces on it are Balanced? Answer
29 How does an Object Move if the Forces on it are Unbalanced? Answer
30 Which Equation connects Acceleration, Force and Mass? Answer
31 What is the Effect of Acceleration on an Object which Answer
is not Moving?
32
What is the Effect of Acceleration on an Object which
is Moving?
Answer
33 What does Newton's Third Law of Motion say? Answer
34 What is Mass? Answer
35 What unit is Mass measured in? Answer
36 What is Gravity? Answer
37 How does Gravity depend on Mass? Answer
38 How does Gravity depend on the Distance between Masses? Answer
39 What is Weight? Answer
40 What unit is Weight measured in? Answer
41 Which Equation connects Weight, Gravity and Mass? Answer
42 How do you convert Weight into Mass? Answer

Motion - Rocket - Falling Object
43
When a Rocket moves Upwards, what is the Upward
Force called?
Answer
44
When a Rocket moves Upwards, what is
the Downward Force called?
Answer
45 Where does the Downward Force come from? Answer
46 When a Rocket takes off, why does it Accelerate Upwards? Answer
47 How do the Forces on a Rocket become Balanced? Answer
48
What Acceleration has a Rocket moving at 240 m/s 2
minutes after take off?
Answer
49 What Force was needed to give the Rocket this Acceleration? Answer
50 Describe the Motion of a Falling Object. Answer
51 What does Terminal Velocity mean? Answer
52
An Object Falls from a Cliff. How fast will it
be moving after 3 seconds?
Answer
53 Do Heavier Objects Fall Faster than Light ones? Answer

Motion - Car - Stopping Distance
54 What are the Forces on a Stationary Car? Answer
55 What are the Extra Forces on a Moving Car? Answer
56 How do the Tyres make the Car Move Forwards? Answer
57 When Stopping a Car, what is the Thinking Distance? Answer
58 How can the Thinking Distance be Reduced? Answer
59 When Stopping a Car, what is the Braking Distance? Answer
60
How does the Braking Distance of a Car change with
an increase in Velocity?
Answer
61
Does Doubling the Velocity of
a Car Double the Braking Distance?
Answer
62
How does the Braking Distance of a Car change with
an increase in Mass?
Answer
63
Does Doubling the Mass of
a Car Double the Braking Distance?
Answer
64
Why does the Braking Distance of a Car increase if
the Road is Wet or Icy?
Answer

Motion - Momentum
65 What are the Units of Momentum called? Answer
66 What happens to the Momentum if we Double the Mass? Answer
67 What happens to the Momentum if we Double the Velocity? Answer
68 What does the Law of Conservation of Momentum state? Answer
69 What Two Things stay the Same in an Elastic Collision? Answer
70 An Elastic Collision happens between what objects? Answer
71 What Decreases in an Inelastic Collision? Answer
72 Give an Example of an Inelastic Collision. Answer
73 Is the Momentum always Zero after an Explosion? Answer
74 Give Two Examples of Car Safety Features. Answer
75
Do Car Safety Features make
the Change in Momentum Quicker or Slower?
Answer

Friction - Density
76 What is Friction? Answer
77 In which Direction does Friction act? Answer
78 Where does Friction occur in Solids? Answer
79 What does the amount of Friction in Solids depend on? Answer
80 Where does Friction occur in a Liquid or Gas? Answer
81
What does the amount of Friction in a Liquid or Gas depend
on?
Answer
82 What is Air Resistance? Answer
83 How is Friction involved in Walking? Answer
84 What is Streamlining? Answer
85 Which Equation connects Density, Volume and Mass? Answer
86 What is the Difference between Density and Weight? Answer
87 What is the Difference between a Scalar and a Vector? Answer

Magnetism
What are Magnets and Magnetic Fields?
A magnet has two poles, called North and South.
A magnetic field is a region around the magnet
where magnetic materials experience a force.
There are only three magnetic elements. They are
iron, nickel and cobalt. In practice you will
only use iron, or steel which is an alloy of Iron.
What is the Shape and Direction of a Magnetic Field?
The shape of the magnetic field around the magnet is
shown
by lines. Arrows on the lines point away from North and
towards South to show the direction of the magnetic
field.
Notice that the lines of magnetic force do not cross
each other. The closer together the lines are,
the stronger the field is. You need to know the shape
of the magnetic field for a bar magnet (see below)
poles which attract and poles which repel.

The magnetic field can be seen by placing the magnet
under a piece of paper with small iron filings on top.
The filings line up in the shape of the field, as shown
above.
The direction of the arrows can be seen by placing a
compass in the field. The compass points in
the direction
of the arrows, away from North and towards South.
Note - this means that when a compass points to
the Earth's North Pole,
there must be a magnetic South Pole up there
(bet that confuses the penguins!).
What are the Forces between Magnetic Poles?
The forces between North and South magnetic poles
are similar to the forces between electrostatic charges.
Unlike poles attract (pull towards each other),
Like poles repel (push away from each other).
This means that two North poles will repel each other
and two South poles will repel each other.
One North pole and one South pole will attract each
other.
The further apart the poles are,
the weaker are the forces between them.
You need to know the shape of the magnetic field for
a bar magnet, poles which attract and poles which repel.

Notice that the lines of magnetic force
between the poles are parallel.
Which Magnetic Poles Repel?
Two like poles will repel each other.
These may be two North poles or two South poles,
they will both have the same magnetic field shape.

The region in the centre of the poles shown by the red
star
has no magnetic field,
as the two opposing fields cancel each other out.
See also the magnetic field shape
for a bar magnet and poles which attract.
Electromagnetism
When a current flows through a conductor, it produces
a magnetic field. The shape of the magnetic field
depends on the shape of the conductor.
You need to know the shape of the magnetic field
for a straight wire (shown below) and a coil.
What is the Shape of a Magnetic Field
around a Straight Wire?

Iron filings on a piece of paper will line up with the
magnetic field. The magnetic field around a
straight wire is circular, at right angles to the wire.
You can work out the direction of the field using your
right clenched fist. Point your thumb upwards in the
same direction as the current. The direction of the field
is the same direction in which your fingers curl.
Reversing the direction of the current
will reverse the magnetic field direction.
Electromagnetic Coil.
The magnetic field around a straight
wire is not very strong.
A strong field can be made by coiling the wire
around a piece of soft iron.
This electromagnet is sometimes called a solenoid.
The shape of the magnetic field is the same as a bar
magnet.

The soft iron inside the coil makes the magnetic field
stronger
because it becomes a magnet itself when the current is
flowing.
Soft iron is used because it loses its magnetism
as soon as the current stops flowing.
Soft iron is said to form a temporary magnet.
In this way, the electromagnet can be switched
on and off by turning the electricity on and off.
Steel forms a permanent magnet.
If steel was used inside the coil, it would continue
as a magnet after the electricity was switched off.
It would not be useful as an electromagnet.
Permanent magnets are needed for
electric motors, generators, loudspeakers and micropho
nes.
The strength of the magnetic field
around the coil can be increased by
1. Using a soft iron core (core means middle bit).
2. Using more turns of wire on the coil.
3. Using a bigger current.
Reversing the direction of the current will reverse the
magnetic field direction. Alternating current
produces a constantly changing magnetic field.
An electromagnet is used in the electric bell, relay,
circuit breaker, loudspeaker and microphone.
How does an Electric Bell Work?
When the switch is pushed closed the circuit is
completed
and current flows through the electromagnetic coil.
1. The iron striker is attracted
to the electromagnet and strikes the bell.

2. As the striker moves towards the bell,
the contact is broken. Electricity stops flowing
through the coil which loses its magnetism.
3. The spring returns the striker to its original position
which makes a new contact and
so electricity flows again.
Back to number 1 and the cycle repeats itself. The bell
will continue to ring as long as the switch is held closed.
How does a Relay Work?
The relay consists of two circuits. Circuit 1 is a
simple electromagnet which requires only
a small current.
When the switch is closed, current flows
and the iron rocker arm is attracted to
the electromagnet.
The arm rotates about the central pivot and pushes
the contacts together. Circuit 2 is now switched on.

Circuit 2 may have a large current flowing through it,
to operate a powerful motor or very bright lights.
When the switch is opened the electromagnet releases
the rocker arm and the spring moves the contacts apart.
Circuit 2 is now switched off.

Why is a Relay Used?
The advantage of using a relay is that a
small current (circuit 1) can be used to
switch on and off a circuit with a large current (circuit 2).
This is useful for two reasons.
1. The low current circuit (circuit 1) may contain
a component
such as an LDR, which only uses small currents.
2. Only the high current circuit (circuit 2)
needs to be made from thick wire.
A relay is used to operate the starter motor in cars
and the heating circuit in diesel engines.
How does a Circuit Breaker Work?
This page describes a simple circuit breaker. See the
next page for the residual current circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker acts as a safety device in the same
way
as a fuse. Circuit breakers that are used at
the distribution
board in houses are called MCBs (minature circuit
breakers).
The distribution board is also called the consumer unit.
The MCBs disconnect the supply if too
large a current flows.

When the live wire carries the usual operating current,
the
electromagnet is not
strong enough to separate the contacts.
If something goes wrong with the appliance and a
large current flows, the electromagnet will pull hard
enough
to separate the contacts and break the circuit.
The spring then keeps the contacts apart.
After the fault is repaired, the contacts can be
pushed back together by
lifting a switch on the outside of the circuit breaker.
Residual Current Circuit Breaker - RCCB.
An RCCB is also called an RCD (Residual Current
Device).
How does a Residual Current Circuit Breaker Work?
This type of circuit breaker works by comparing
the current going in to an appliance with
the current coming out.
When an appliance is working correctly
all of the current entering the appliance through the live
wire
is returned to the power supply through the neutral wire.
In the picture below the strength of the magnetic field is
the
same in both coils because they both have
the same current.

If something goes wrong with the appliance
some of the electric current will flow through
the earth wire.
The amount of current flowing through the neutral wire
decreases and now there is a difference between the
current entering the appliance through the live wire and
the
current returned to the power supply through
the neutral wire.
This difference is called the residual current.
The coil connected to the neutral wire now has a
weaker magnetic field than the coil connected to the live
wire.
The iron rocker turns about the pivot and the
contacts are disconnected which switches off the
appliance and makes it safe. See the picture below.

The RCCB acts to switch off
the electricity much faster than a fuse or MCB.
What is the Catapult Effect (also called the Motor
Effect)?
The catapult effect shows the force on a wire in a
magnetic field when current flows through the wire.
If you put two magnets near to each other,
their magnetic fields will interact.
Interact means that the magnets will feel forces on them
as like poles will repel and unlike poles attract.
It follows then that a wire in a field from a permanent
magnet
will feel a force when current flows through it.
The magnetic field generated around the wire by the
current will interact with the field around the magnet
and the two fields will push or pull on each other.
The magnetic field around a straight wire is circular.
The magnetic field between
two attracting poles is straight.
When the two interact, the wire is pushed away
from the field between the attracting poles
at right angles (90) both to the straight field lines
and to the direction of current flow.

Continued on the next page.
How is the direction of the Catapult Effect
(or Motor Effect) predicted by Fleming's Left Hand Rule?
If we show the two magnetic fields from the
wire and the permanent magnet (see the previous
page),
we can see that on one side of the wire
the fields have the same direction and repel the wire.
On the other side of the wire
the fields have opposite directions and attract the wire.
The wire is pushed at 90 to the direction of
the magnetic field from the permanent magnets.
This is called the catapult effect (or motor effect)
and is used to make a simple electric motor spin round..

What is Fleming's Left Hand Rule?
You can predict which way the wire will move
by using Fleming's Left Hand Rule.
The thumb, first finger and second finger of the left hand
are all pointing at 90 to each other.
1. The thumb points in the direction of motion of
the wire.
2. The first finger points in the direction of the field
(from the permanent magnet)
3. The second finger points in the direction
of the current through the wire.
This works well in theory but in practice
it may be difficult to get your
thumb and fingers all pointing in the right direction.
What is an Electric Motor?
An electric motor is a device that
transfers electrical energy into rotational energy.
Something that spins round has rotational energy.
Rotational energy is a form of kinetic energy.
Electric motors have a wide variety of uses.
How does a Simple Electric Motor Work?
The catapult effect (motor effect) is used to
make a simple electric motor spin round.
The wire is pushed in the opposite direction
if the direction of the current through it is reversed.
In a motor, the wire is wound around a central block
called an armature.
A spindle through the armature allows it to rotate.
The current flows in opposite directions on each side
of the armature, so one side is pushed while
the other is pulled. This makes the armature rotate.

After the armature has rotated through half a turn (180),
then the side of the armature being pushed upwards
in the above picture is now on the left
and the side being pulled down on the right. The
armature would be trying to turn in
the opposite direction.
For the armature to continue to spin in the same
direction,
the direction of the current flowing through the wire
must be reversed every half turn. This is achieved
using a split - ring commutator (see the next page).
Electric Motor. What is a Split - Ring Commutator?
A split - ring commutator (sometimes just called
a commutator)
is a simple and clever
device for reversing the current direction
through an armature every half turn (see the previous
page).

The commutator is made from two round
pieces of copper,
one on each side of the spindle. A piece of
carbon (graphite) is lightly pushed against the copper
to conduct the electricity to the armature. The carbon
brushes against the copper when the commutator spins.
As the motor rotates, first one piece of copper, then the
next
connects with the brush every half turn. The wire on the
left side of the armature always has current flowing in
the same direction, and so the armature will keep
turning
in the same direction (see the previous page).
The pieces of copper are held apart in the centre
and do not touch each other. They look like a
ring of copper which is split down the middle
This is why it is called a split - ring commutator.
What is a Loudspeaker?
A loudspeaker is a device
that transfers electrical energy into sound.
How does a Loudspeaker Work?
The loudspeaker uses a coil which can
slide backwards and forwards over the central pole
of a circular permanent magnet. The coil is
joined by the brown bars to a paper cone, shown below.

The wire from the amplifier carries an alternating current
which makes the coil (and the paper cone) move
backwards and forwards at the same frequency
as the changing current. The paper cone then moves
the air backwards and forwards which creates
the sound.
What is Induced Current or Induced Voltage?
Just as a current flowing through a wire will
produce a magnetic field, so a wire moving
through a magnetic field will have a current flowing
through it. This is called electromagnetic induction
and the current in the wire is called induced current.
A stationary wire in the presence of a
changing magnetic field also has an induced current.
A changing magnetic field can be produced either by
moving a magnet near to the stationary wire or by using
alternating current. A stationary wire in a magnetic field
which is not changing will have no current induced in it.
You will sometimes see this effect described as
induced voltage. Strictly speaking, you will only get an
induced current in the wire if it is part of
a complete circuit.
A wire which is unconnected at both ends will have a
difference in voltage between the ends (a potential
difference)
but current can only flow when the wire is in a circuit.
Induced current is used
in electricity generation and transformers.
How is Current Induced in a Coil of Wire?
When a magnet is moved towards (or inside)
a coil of wire,
a current is induced inside the wire.
This can be shown by connecting the coil
to a very sensitive ammeter called a galvanometer.

The size of the induced current can be made bigger by
1. Using a stronger magnet.
2. Moving the magnet at a faster speed.
3. Using more turns of wire on the coil.
These all result in the pointer on the galvanometer
moving further to the right.

The direction of the current can be reversed by
1. Moving the magnet in the opposite direction.
2. Using a magnet facing the opposite way round
(with North becoming South).
These both result in the pointer on the galvanometer
moving to the left.

If the magnet stops moving, even though it may still be
inside the coil of wire, no current is induced in the wire.
nduced Current in a Generator.
The effect of inducing a current in a coil by moving
a magnet inside it is used for the
large scale generation of electricity in power stations.
There are two types of generator or dynamo.
Both turn rotational energy into electrical energy.
1. One type involves rotating a coil inside a magnet.
2. The other type involves rotating a magnet inside a coil
(like a dynamo found on a bicycle).
Both types produce alternating current.

It is possible to make a generator without a
permanent magnet. The generator used on cars
(called an alternator) uses an inner set of coils to make
an electromagnet which turns inside an outer set
of coils.
What is a Generator?
A simple generator is similar to an electric motor.
With a motor, we put electrical energy in and
get rotational energy out. With a generator we
put rotational energy in and get electrical energy out.

As with the motor, the current direction changes
with each half turn of the generator.
The generator produces alternating current because
slip rings are used in place of a split - ring commutator.

The slip rings keep a continuous connection
with the wire around the armature (continued).
If a simple electric motor with a split - ring commutator
is used to generate electricity, you do not get alternating
current. A different type of electrical output is produced.
What happens to the Output of a Generator
when it Rotates Faster?
The alternating current from a generator
is shown below on a CRO (cathode ray oscilloscope).

If the generator is turned faster, both the
frequency and the amplitude of the wave increase.

The frequency increases (there are more waves in the
same time) because the generator completes
more rotations in the same time. One complete turn
of the generator produces one complete wave.
The amplitude increases (the waves go further
up and down
from the zero line) showing that a
higher voltage is induced in the coil around
the armature.
This happens because the coil is moving
through the field from the permanent magnet more
quickly.
Using a Simple Motor as a Generator.
If a simple motor is turned to produce electricity,
the split - ring
commutator will change the current direction
every half turn. Instead of generating
alternating current (see the previous page) the current
is kept positive giving the output shown below.

Compare this with the output shown for direct current
and you will see that the two are different.
Direct current from a cell shows a smooth
unchanging output.
The output shown above is similar to direct current
because the current only flows in one direction.
It looks similar to alternating current because the
current rises from zero to maximum and
back again to zero but it is not alternating current
because the current does not go backwards.
This type of output can be made more like ordinary
direct current by using a capacitor to "smooth out
the humps".
What is a Bicycle Dynamo?
A small generator is sometimes fitted to a bicycle to
provide electricity for the lights at night.
The generator is called a bicycle dynamo.
How does a Bicycle Dynamo Work?
Inside the dynamo a permanent magnet is rotated
in the middle of some coils of wire.
Rotating the magnet instead of the coils has the
advantage that slip rings are not needed.
The rotating magnet produces a changing magnetic field
and this generates electricity in the coils of wire.

The top of the dynamo is touched against the rim of
the tyre
which rotates when the bicycle is moving.
What is a Microphone?
A microphone is a device which
generates electricity from sound waves.
How does a Microphone Work?
The microphone works by producing a small induced
voltage
in a coil of wire when sound waves hit a diaphragm.
It is very similar to a loudspeaker in reverse with
a diaphragm instead of a paper cone.
This type of microphone is called
a moving coil microphone.

The sound waves strike the diaphragm and move it
backwards and forwards at the same frequency as
the sound
(like the way the ear drum is moved inside the ear). The
moving diaphragm moves the coil
backwards and forwards which
induces a changing current at the same frequency as
the sound.
This changing current (called the signal) can be used for
recording or the signal can be sent to an amplifier
which makes the signal big enough to
drive loudspeakers.
The loudspeaker converts the signal back into
the original sound.
What is a Transformer?
A transformer is made from two coils,
one on each side of a soft iron core.
It can decrease the voltage
(called a step down transformer)
or increase the voltage
(called a step up transformer, shown below).
How does a Step Up Transformer Work?

Alternating current is passed through the primary
coil (the input)
which creates a changing magnetic field in the iron core.
The changing magnetic field then induces alternating
current
of the same frequency in the secondary coil (the output).
A step up transformer has more turns of wire on
the secondary coil,
which makes a larger induced voltage in
the secondary coil.
It is called a step up transformer because
the output voltage
is larger than the input voltage. If the secondary coil
has twice as many turns of wire then the output voltage
will be twice the input voltage. See
the transformer equation.
The Transformer Equation.
The transformer equation relates the
number of turns of wire to the difference in voltage
between the primary and secondary coils.
Vp
/
Vs
=
Np
/
Ns

Where Vp is the voltage in the primary coil.
Vs is the voltage in the secondary coil.
Np is the number of turns of wire on the primary coil.
Ns is the number of turns of wire on the secondary coil.
There are two points to remember.
1. Transformers only work with alternating current.
Using direct current will create a magnetic field in the
core
but it will not be a changing magnetic field
and so no voltage will be induced in the secondary coil.
2. Using a step up transformer to increase the voltage
does not give you something for nothing. As the voltage
goes up, the current goes down by the same proportion.
The power equation shows
that the overall power remains the same,
P = V x I Power = Voltage x Current.
In reality, the output power is always less than
the input power
because the changing magnetic field in the core
creates currents (called eddy currents) which heat the
core.
This heat is then lost to the environment, it
is wasted energy.
What is a Step Down Transformer?
A step down transformer has more turns of wire on the
primary coil and less turns of wire on the secondary coil.
This makes a smaller induced voltage in
the secondary coil.
Compare this with a step up transformer.

It is called a step down transformer because
the output voltage
is smaller than the input voltage. If the secondary coil
has half as many turns of wire then the output voltage
will be half the input voltage. See
the transformer equation.
Decreasing the voltage does not decrease the power.
As the voltage goes down, the current goes up.
ransmission of Electricity.
Electricity is generated on a large scale at power
stations
and then transmitted through a network of cables
(called the National Grid) to factories and homes.
What is the National Grid?
Copper cables carrying the electricity are buried in the
ground or aluminium cables are suspended from pylons.
Aluminium is used because it has a low density
and can safely be suspended from inexpensive thin
pylons
(see also the uses of aluminium). Pylons have the
disadvantage that they look ugly on the landscape
but have the advantage of easy access to the cables
for maintenance and repair. Electricity Transmission usi
ng
pylons is cheaper than burying cables underground.
Transformers are used to produce a very high voltage
for the transmission of electricity, to minimize energy
loss.
Transmission of Electricity and Energy Loss.
A generator at a power station might produce electricity
with a voltage of 25,000 V and a current of 8,000 A.
Such a large current would cause the cables of the
National Grid to get hot due to the heating
effect of current.
Energy would then be lost as heat to the atmosphere
and by the time that the electricity had traveled from the
power station through the cables to the towns and
factories, much of the original energy would be lost.
To reduce the energy loss, a step up transformer at the
power station is used to raise the voltage to 400,000 V.
This is 16 times the input voltage of 25,000 V.
The power equation tells us
that if the voltage has gone up by 16 times,
then the current must be reduced by 16 times.
The original current of 8,000 A is reduced to
8000 16 = 500 A.
This current is still high but the thickness of the cables
means that the heating effect is minimal.
At factories, a step down transformer reduces the
voltage to 33,000 V. For houses, a step
down transformer reduces the voltage to 230 V.
The electricity produced by power stations is in the form
of
alternating current because
1. It is easy to generate alternating current.
2. Transformers will not work with direct current.
Electromagnetism
Revision Questions
chapter
the correct page.
the
the correct page.

Magnet - Field - Poles - Attract - Repel
1 How many Magnetic Poles are there? Answer
2 What are the Magnetic Poles called? Answer
3 What is a Magnetic Field? Answer
4 Name one Magnetic Element. Answer
5 Draw the Shape of a Magnetic Field around a Bar Magnet. Answer
6 Which way do the Arrows in a Magnetic Field point? Answer
7 Do the Lines of Magnetic Force cross each other? Answer
8 Do Unlike Poles Attract? Answer
9 Do Like Poles Attract? Answer
10
Does the Force become Stronger as the Poles move Further
Apart?
Answer
11
Draw the Shape of a Magnetic
Field between Poles which Attract.
Answer
12
Draw the Shape of a Magnetic
Field between Poles which Repel.
Answer

Wire - Magnetic Field - Solenoid - Electromagnet
13 How can a Straight Wire produce a Magnetic Field? Answer
14
What is the Shape of the Magnetic Field around
a Straight Wire?
Answer
15 How can the Magnetic Field Direction be Reversed? Answer
16 What is a Solenoid? Answer
17 What is the Shape of the Magnetic Field around a Solenoid? Answer
18
How does Soft Iron inside a Coil make a Magnetic
Field Stronger?
Answer
19
What is the Difference between a Temporary and
a Permanent Magnet?
Answer
20 Give one Example of a use for a Permanent Magnet. Answer
21
Give two Ways of Increasing the Strength of a Magnetic
Field around a Coil.
Answer
22 Give one Example of a use for an Electromagnet. Answer

Bell - Relay - Circuit Breaker - Residual Current
Circuit Breaker
23 Describe how an Electric Bell works. Answer
24 Give one Difference between the two Circuits of a Relay? Answer
25 What is the Advantage of using a Relay? Answer
26 Give one Example of a use for a Relay. Answer
27 What does a Circuit Breaker do? Answer
28 Describe how a Residual Current Circuit Breaker works. Answer

Motor Effect - Commutator - Loudspeaker
29
Why does a Wire carrying a Current feel a Force in
a Magnetic Field?
Answer
30 In which Direction is the Force? Answer
31
In a Motor, why is one side of the Armature Pushed and the
other Pulled?
Answer
32 What does a Split - Ring Commutator do? Answer
33 Why is a Split - Ring Commutator needed in a Motor? Answer
34
Why does the Coil in a Loudspeaker need Alternating
Current?
Answer
35 Why does the Paper Cone in a Loudspeaker do? Answer

Induced Current - Generator - Dynamo -
Microphone
36 What is Induced Current? Answer
37 When does Induced Current happen? Answer
38 Give one Example of a use for Induced Current. Answer
39
Give two Ways of Increasing the Strength of
an Induced Current.
Answer
40
Give one Way of Reversing the Direction of
an Induced Current.
Answer
41 What does a Generator do? Answer
42 Why does a Generator produce Alternating Current? Answer
43 Why are Slip Rings needed? Answer
44
How does the Output of a Generator Change when it is
turned Faster?
Answer
45 Why are Slip Rings not needed in a Bicycle Dynamo? Answer
46 What makes the Magnet Rotate in a Bicycle Dynamo? Answer
47
How does Sound produce Alternating Current in
a Microphone?
Answer

Transformers - National Grid
48 What is a Transformer made from? Answer
49 What can a Transformer do? Answer
50 What is a Step Up Transformer? Answer
51
Which Coil has More Turns of Wire in a Step Up
Transformer?
Answer
52 What is the Transformer Equation? Answer
53 Will a Transformer work with Alternating Current? Answer
54 Will a Transformer work with Direct Current? Answer
55 As the Voltage goes Up, What goes Down? Answer
56 Why is Power Output less than Power Input for Answer
a Transformer?
57 What is the National Grid? Answer
58 Why is Aluminium used for Cables Suspended from Pylons? Answer
59 Give one Advantage for using Pylons? Answer
60 Give one Disadvantage for using Pylons? Answer
61 Why is a Step Up Transformer used at a Power Station? Answer

Power Stations - Renewable - Non-Renewable
62 What does a Power Station do? Answer
63 What does Renewable mean? Answer
64 What does Non-Renewable mean? Answer
65 What is a Turbine? Answer
66 How do Fossil Fuels turn a Turbine? Answer
67 To what is a Turbine connected to produce Electricity? Answer
68 What is the Original Source of the Energy in Fossil Fuels? Answer
69
Give two Advantages of using Fossil Fuels to
produce Electricity.
Answer
70
Give two Disadvantages of using Fossil Fuels to
Answer
71 How does Nuclear Power turn a Turbine? Answer
72 Give two Advantages of Nuclear Power. Answer
73 Give two Disadvantages of Nuclear Power. Answer
74 How does Hydroelectric Power turn a Turbine? Answer
75
What is the Original Source of the Energy in Hydroelectric
Power?
Answer
76 Give two Advantages of Hydroelectric Power. Answer
77 Give one Disadvantage of Hydroelectric Power. Answer
78 How does Tidal Power produce Electricity? Answer
79 What is the Original Source of the Energy in Tidal Power? Answer
80 Give two Advantages of Tidal Power. Answer
81 Give one Disadvantage of Tidal Power. Answer
82 How does Wave Power produce Electricity? Answer
83 What is the Original Source of the Energy in Wave Power? Answer
84 Give one Advantage of Wave Power. Answer
85 Give one Disadvantage of Wave Power. Answer
86 How does Wind Power produce Electricity? Answer
87 What is the Original Source of the Energy in Wind Power? Answer
88 Give one Advantage of Wind Power. Answer
89 Give one Disadvantage of Wind Power. Answer
90 How does Solar Power produce Electricity? Answer
91 What is the Original Source of the Energy in Solar Power? Answer
92 Give one Advantage of Solar Power. Answer
93 Give one Disadvantage of Solar Power. Answer
94 How does Geothermal Power produce Electricity? Answer
95
What is the Original Source of the Energy in Geothermal
Power?
Answer
96 Give one Advantage of Geothermal Power. Answer
97 Give one Disadvantage of Geothermal Power. Answer
98 How does Biomass produce Electricity? Answer
99 What is the Original Source of the Energy in Biomass? Answer
100
Give one Advantage of using Biomass to
Answer
101
Give one Disadvantage of using Biomass to
Answer
102 How does The Sun make the Wind Blow? Answer
103 How does The Sun make Water Waves? Answer
104 How does The Sun make the Rain Fall? Answer
105 How can we Reduce Energy Use?

Waves
What is a Wave?
When waves move through a substance, they only move
the
particles of
the substance backwards and forwards (longitudinal)
or side to side (transverse) as the wave passes.
After the wave has gone, the particles of
the substance are
back where they started but energy has been carried by
the wave
from its origin (where it begins) to its destination (where
it finishes).
One type of wave (an electromagnetic wave) does not
need
any substance to get from its origin to its destination.
It can travel through a vacuum (nothing).
Electromagnetic waves can travel from
stars to planets through empty space (space is
a vacuum).

What does a Wave do?
Waves transmit energy without transmitting matter.
This means that waves can
move energy (or information)
from one place to another without moving any
substance (stuff) from one place to another. The amount
of energy that a wave has depends on its amplitude.
What is a Longitudinal Wave?
When a longitudinal wave moves through a material,
the particles of the material
move backwards and forwards
along the direction in which the wave is travelling.
Below is a picture of a longitudinal wave travelling along
a spring.

What is the Wavelength of a Longitudinal Wave?
The wavelength of a longitudinal wave can be measured
as the distance between the centre of
two compressions.
What is Compression?
Compression is the name given to the region
where the coils of the spring are pushed together.
What is Rarefaction?
Rarefaction (pronounced rair - ree - fac - shun)
is the name given to the region
where the coils of the spring are pulled apart.
It is difficult to show the amplitude and frequency
of a longitudinal wave on a picture.

Examples of longitudinal waves are
P waves from earthquakes and sound waves.
What is a Transverse Wave?
All of the waves that you will meet on your course
are transverse
except sound waves and P waves from earthquakes.
When a transverse wave travels through a substance,
the particles of the substance are moved at right angles
to the direction in which the wave is traveling.
The particles either move up and down or
from side to side
as the wave goes past (like waves on the surface of
the sea).
After the wave has gone, the particles are back where
they started.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves
that do not need a substance to travel
through (continued).
Transverse Waves (continued).
Below is a picture of a transverse wave.

What is the Wavelength of a Transverse Wave?
The wavelength of a transverse wave is the
distance between two peaks or the distance between
two troughs.
Wavelength can be defined as
"the distance the wave has traveled during one
complete cycle".
Wavelength is given the symbol .
This is the Greek letter lambda, pronounced lam-der.
Wavelength is measured in metres because it is
a distance.

What is the Frequency of a Wave?
Frequency is defined as
"the number of complete cycles (complete waves)
in one second".
Hertz is the unit of frequency (symbol Hz).
1 Hertz = 1 cycle per second.
What is the Period of a Wave?
The period of a wave is defined as
"the time taken for one complete cycle".
The period = 1 frequency.
This can be rearranged to give
Frequency = 1 period.

What is the Amplitude of a Transverse Wave?
The amplitude of a transverse wave
is measured from the peak (or trough) to the mid-point.
Amplitude can be defined as
"the maximum displacement from the average position".
Amplitude is a measure of how
much energy the wave has.
What is the Wave Equation?

The only equation you need for waves is
Velocity or Speed
= Frequency x Wavelength v = f x

The equation can be rearranged to give
f = v or = v f
See the next page for worked examples.
Examples of Wave Calculations.
Q1. A sound wave has a frequency of 3250 Hz
and a wavelength of 01 m. What is its velocity?
A1. Use v = f x
v = 3250 x 01
= 325 m/s.

Q2. A sound wave travels with a velocity of 330 m/s
and has a frequency of 500 Hz. What is its wavelength?
A2. Use = v f
= 330 500
= 066 m.
Q3. A wave at sea travels with a velocity of 25 m/s.
If it has a wavelength of 10 m, what is its frequency?
A3. Use f = v
f = 25 10
= 25 Hz.
Note - always make sure that you give the units for
your answer
and that the units are correct.
If the wavelength is given in centimetres,
convert it to metres before doing the calculation.
Sound waves
What is a Sound Wave?
Sound is a longitudinal wave that can travel through
gases (air), liquids (under water) or solids (the Earth).
Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.

What is the Speed of a Sound Wave?
The speed of a sound wave depends on the
density of the medium (substance) through which it is
travelling.
The more dense the medium, the faster the sound
wave will travel.
Sound waves travel faster through
the Earth than under water,
and sound waves travel faster under water than in air.
The speed of sound in air is approximately 330 m/s (see
calculations).
Sound waves travel much more slowly than light waves.

How are Sound Waves made?
When
an object vibrates (moves backwards and forwards)
in air
it produces sound waves.
The sound waves carry energy which can move other
objects,
such as the ear drum or a microphone diaphragm.
The sound wave will have the same frequency
as the frequency of the vibrating object that made it.
The object may be a column of air (a flute, clarinet or
a whistle)
or a string (a guitar, violin, double bass or a piano)
or a paper cone (loudspeaker) or a firework.
Sound waves can be reflected, refracted or diffracted.
What is the Loudness and Pitch of a Sound Wave?
What is the Loudness of a Sound Wave?
The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of
the wave.
The bigger the amplitude, the louder the sound.

What is the Pitch of a Sound Wave?
The pitch of a sound (how high the note is)
depends on the frequency of the wave.
The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

Sound is a longitudinal wave and so it is
difficult to show the amplitude and frequency on a
diagram.
A microphone can change the sound wave into
an alternating current that can be displayed
as a transverse wave on a CRO. This makes it
easier to show the affect of amplitude and frequency
on loudness and pitch (see the next page).
How do Amplitude and Frequency affect
the Loudness and Pitch of a Sound Wave?
Below is a picture of a sound wave that has
been changed into alternating current by a microphone
and displayed on a CRO.

If the sound is made louder and with a higher pitch,
the shape of the wave changes as shown below.

The amplitude has got bigger because
the sound is louder.
The frequency has increased
(there are more complete waves in the same time)
because the sound has a higher pitch.
What is an Echo?
Sound that has been reflected is called an echo.
Sound reflection best occurs from flat, hard surfaces.
The natural echo of a room is called reverberation.
Reverberation is a measure of how much the sound is
reflected around the room. Materials that
are soft and uneven
(like curtains, carpets and cushions) absorb sound
much more than they reflect it, and decrease
reverberation.
Reflected sound (as ultrasound) is used for
range and direction
finding, What Sound Frequencies are Heard by Humans
?
Sound frequencies between 20 and 20,000 Hz can
be heard by people. As people get older the
higher frequencies become more difficult to hear.
Hearing can be damaged by being close to very loud
sounds over a long period of time. Hearing very loud
machinery or music when you are young
can result in less sensitive hearing when you are older.
Unwanted sound is sometimes called noise pollution.
Noise pollution can cause serious distress. If you live in
a
noisy environment, for
example near an airport or railway,
the noise that you hear can be reduced by double
glazing.
If someone is working with noisy power tools, for
example
a drill or a saw, they can wear ear defenders.
Ear defenders look like headphones or ear muffs.
Infrasound and Ultrasound.
What is Infrasound?
Sound with a frequency lower than 20 Hz is
called infrasound.
These very low frequency sound waves
can be given off
by volcanoes and meterorite explosions.
Infrasound is used by some large animals for
communication.
Whales can communicate
over hundreds of miles using infrasound.

What is Ultrasound?
Sound with a frequency higher than 20,000 Hz is
called ultrasound.
Ultrasound echoes are used in
Scanning and Range and Direction Finding.
Ultrasound in liquids can be used to clean precious or
delicate items because
the compressions and rarefactions
of
the ultrasound will shake dirt and unwanted material free
without the risk of damage being caused
by handling the item.
scanning and cleaning.
What are the Uses of Ultrasound?
Ultrasound is used for scanning,
range and direction finding and cleaning.

What is Ultrasound Scanning?
When ultrasound is directed at the human body,
the surfaces of different tissues inside the body
partly reflect the ultrasound. A detector will receive
ultrasound echoes at different times, depending
on how deep inside the body the tissue surfaces are.
The detector produces electrical signals that are
sent to a computer and then displayed on a screen
as a picture. This is a clever way of
"seeing" inside a body without causing any damage.
Ultrasound scans can safely be used to
see an image of a developing baby
inside the uterus of a pregnant mother.
This is called "fetal imaging" or "pre-natal scanning"
and is useful to show if the baby is healthy.
A similar technique can be used in industry
to show cracks or flaws inside metal objects.
The Uses of Ultrasound.
What is Range and Direction Finding?
The difference in time between emitted and reflected ultr
asound
waves can be used to show how far away the reflecting
surface is.
A boat on the sea can send a beam of ultrasound
down to
the sea floor where it is reflected back upwards to
a detector
on the boat. If both the speed of sound in the water
and the time taken for the ultrasound echo to get back to
the boat are known, then the depth of the sea water at
that place can be calculated
since distance = speed x time.
Ultrasound can be used by fishing boats to find fish
since a shoal of fish between the boat and
the sea floor will return the echo more quickly.
Bats use ultrasound echoes to build up an
image of their environment in darkness.
They can locate insects for food in the air and know
their speed and direction by analyzing the reflected
sound.
Other uses of ultrasound are scanning and cleaning.
Waves
Light Waves

What is Light? What is the Speed of Light? What
is Colour?

Reflection from a Plane Mirror and a Concave Mirror

Refraction in Glass, along a Normal and in Lenses
Convex Lens Ray Diagrams Focal Length
Focal Point Image Principle
Axis Magnifying Glass

Total Internal Reflection Prisms Optical Fibres
Diffraction Line Spectra
What is Light?
Light is a transverse wave.
It is one part (region) of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Light is the visible region, it is the part used by
our eyes to see.
Like any electromagnetic wave, light can travel through
a vacuum.
Light travels through the vacuum of space from
the Sun to the Earth.

What is the Speed of Light?
Light travels very quickly. There is nothing that can
travel faster.
The speed of light is 300,000,000 m/s in air
(that is 300 million metres per second - not easy to
imagine!).
The speed of sound in air is approximately 330 m/s,
so light is almost one million times as fast.
You can sometimes notice that light is
travelling faster than sound.
In a storm, the light and the sound are generated at
the same time
but you see the lightning flash before
you hear the sound.
The light has travelled to your eyes more quickly than
the sound has travelled to your ears from the
same origin.

What is a light year?
In one year, light has travelled ten
thousand billion kilometres.
This very large distance is called a light year
and is used by astronomers to measure
the vast distances between stars and galaxies.
What is Reflection?
Any type of wave can be reflected.
We shall look at
the reflection of Sound, Water and Light Waves.
Reflection best occurs from flat, hard surfaces.
After reflection,
a wave has the same speed, frequency and wavelength,
it is only the direction of the wave that has changed.
For light (and other electromagnetic radiation)
a flat shiny surface, like a plane mirror, is a good
reflector.
A plane mirror is one that is straight and not curved.

The light ray that hits the mirror is called the incident ray.
The light ray that bounces off the mirror is called
the reflected ray.
The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, i =
r.
This means that whatever angle the light ray
hits the mirror,
it will be reflected off at the same angle
(like snooker balls bouncing off a cushion).
If the surface of
the mirror is not smooth but rough or bumpy,
then light will be reflected at many different angles.
The image in the mirror will be blurred and unclear.
This is called diffuse reflection (continued).
Light - Reflection (continued).
When you look into a mirror,
you see a reflection that is an image of the real object.

The image appears to be
the same distance behind the mirror
as the real object is in front of it.
This is because the brain thinks that light travels
in straight lines
without changing direction.
The image is called virtual because the light rays
(shown as dotted lines) never really go there
(compare this with a real image).
The virtual image in a mirror is the
same size as the object but with left and right reversed.
Reflection of Light from a Concave Mirror.
When light is a reflected from a curved mirror
the light rays change direction
in the same way that they do when they pass through
a lens.
A convex mirror disperses light like a concave lens
and a concave mirror focuses light like a convex lens.
A concave mirror is used in a reflecting telescope.

Parallel rays of light (or other electromagnetic rays) are
brought to a focus by the concave mirror to form
a real image.
What is Refraction?
Refraction is a change of direction of a wave.
Any type of wave can be refracted. We shall look at
the refraction
of Water
Waves, Light Waves and Waves from Earthquakes.
Refraction can occur when the speed of
a wave changes,
as it moves from one environment (medium) to another.
After refraction, the wave has the same frequency
but a different speed, wavelength and direction.
When a wave enters a new environment,
its change in speed will also change its wavelength
(see the definition of wavelength).
If the wave enters the new environment at any angle
other than normal to the boundary, then the
change in
the wave's speed will also change its direction.
This is most easily shown with water waves.
What is Refraction of Light?
A material is transparent if you can see through it.
If you can see through it, it means that light can travel
through it.
Transparent materials include air, Perspex, glass,
and water.
Light travels at different speeds in different materials
because they have different densities.
The higher the density,
the slower light travels. Light travels
fastest in space (a vacuum) and a little slower in air.
Light moves noticeably more slowly in glass than in air
because glass is obviously more dense.

Refraction of Light along a Normal.
A line drawn at right angles to the boundary
between the two media (air and glass) is called
a normal.

Light that enters a glass block along a normal does not
change direction but it does travel more slowly through
the glass and so its wavelength is smaller (continued).
Refraction of Light through a Glass Block.
When a ray of light enters a glass block at
an angle other
than the normal, it changes speed, wavelength
and direction as shown below. This also happens in
a Lens.

In going from a less dense medium (air) to a more
dense
medium (glass), light bends towards the normal.
This means that i > r (the angle i is greater than
the angle r).
In going from a more dense to a less dense medium
(glass to air),
light bends away from the normal.
How much the light bends depends on its colour.
The change in angle of the light ray is the same
when it enters and leaves the glass.
If the incident ray had continued without
changing direction,
then the emergent ray would be parallel to it.
What is a Lens?
A lens is a transparent curved device that is used
to refract light.
A lens is usually made from glass. There are two
different shapes for lenses. They are
called convex and concave.

What is a Convex Lens?
A convex lens is thicker in the middle and thinner at
the edges.
A convex lens is also called a converging lens.
A convex lens will focus light and make an image.
The image formed by a convex lens is real and inverted
(and can be bigger or smaller than the object)
unless it is being used as a magnifying glass when
the image will be virtual, upright and bigger than
the object.

What is a Concave Lens?
A concave lens is thinner in the middle and thicker at
the edges.
A concave lens is also called a diverging lens.
A concave lens will disperse light and make an image
that is always virtual, upright and smaller than
the object.
Refraction of Light through a Convex Lens.
When light rays go through a convex
lens the rays are refracted.
For any ray entering the lens that is not along a normal
the light will change direction at both surfaces
(see below) where the air meets the glass.
A ray entering along the normal will pass straight
through.
The normal for a lens is also called the principle axis.

The light ray is often not shown changing direction
at both surfaces of the lens but just changing direction
once to give the overall effect. Sometimes the lens
is just shown as a thin straight line instead of a
curved surface. The picture below gives both ways of
showing the same thing. Either way is acceptable.

What are Ray Diagrams?
Ray diagrams for a convex lens and
a concave lens are different
but to draw any ray diagram you only need to know two
things.
1. A ray passing through the centre of a lens
will go straight through.
2. A ray parallel to the principle axis of a lens
will go through the focal point.

What is the Principle Axis and the Focal Point of
a Convex Lens?
The principle axis is a horizontal line going through the
centre of a lens (shown as the normal on the previous
page).

Any light ray parallel to the principle axis will
be refracted,
change direction and cross the principle axis at
the focal point.

What is the Focal Length of a Convex Lens?
The distance from the focal point to the centre of
the lens
is called the focal length.
Almost parallel rays of light come from any object that is
a long way (more than 5 metres) from
the lens (continued).
Ray Diagrams for Images made by a Convex Lens.
The type of image made by a convex lens
depends on how far away the object is.
The first picture below shows how to draw a ray diagram
for an object that is further away from the lens than 2F.
Further down the page there is a picture showing
a ray diagram for an object that is between F and 2F.
Click here for a ray diagram for
an object that is nearer the lens than F.
F is at the focal point of the lens.
The distance from F to the centre of the lens is
the focal length.
2F is twice the focal length.

Ray diagram for an object that is
further away from the lens than 2F.
The bottom of the object is placed on the principle axis.
Two rays of light are drawn from the top of the object.
The first ray of light is parallel to the principle axis
and therefore passes through the focal point.
The second ray of light goes from the top of the object
and passes straight through the centre of the lens.

The top of the image is formed where the
two rays of light cross.
The bottom of the image is still on the principle axis.
You can see that the image is not the same as
the object.
The image is smaller than the object.
The image is real meaning that the light rays really go
there
(compare this with virtual).
The image is inverted (meaning it is upside down).

The next picture shows a ray diagram
for an object that is between F and 2F.

As above, you can see that the image is
not the same as the object. The image is still real
and inverted but it is now bigger than the object.
A Convex Lens as a Magnifying Glass.
The type of image made by a convex lens
depends on how far away the object is.
The picture below shows how to draw a ray diagram
for an object that is nearer to the lens than F.
Click here for a ray diagram for
an object that is further away than F.
When the object is nearer to the lens than F
(less than the focal length)
a convex lens acts as a magnifying glass.

What is the Ray Diagram for a Magnifying Glass?
and therefore passes through the focal point.
and passes straight through the centre of the lens.

Unlike the previous page, the rays are
diverging (moving apart) on the right side of the lens.
The eye looks back along the rays that seem to have
come
from a point behind the object where the
This is where you draw the top of the image.
The image made by a magnifying glass
is virtual, upright and bigger than the object.
never really go there (compare this with a real image).
The virtual light rays are drawn as dotted lines.
The image is called upright because it is the right way
up
(compare this with an inverted image).
The image is bigger than the object
and on the same side of the lens as the object.
The eyepiece of a telescope is
a convex lens used as a magnifying glass.
What is the Ray Diagram for a Concave Lens?
A concave lens is a diverging lens which
makes the rays of light disperse and spread further
apart.
It does the opposite of a convex lens.

and bends away from it on the right hand side of
the lens.
To find the correct angle for this ray of light you
trace it back through the focal point F on the left side.
This part of the ray is virtual and is drawn with a
dotted line because the light never really goes there.
and passes through the centre of the lens. The second
ray of light does not change
direction (see ray diagrams).
You draw the top of the image where the
You can see that the image is not the same as
the object.
never really cross there (compare this with
a real image).
The image is called upright because it is the right way
up
(compare this with an inverted image).
The image is smaller
than the object and on the same side of the lens as
the object.
What is the Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection?
1. When a light ray emerges from glass into air,
it is refracted and bends away from the normal, so i < r.
2. As i is made bigger, the refracted ray
gets closer and closer to the surface of the glass.
When i equals the critical angle, the refracted ray
is just touching the glass surface.

The critical angle is different for different materials.
For glass it is about 42 degrees.
Total internal reflection happens when
i is bigger than the critical angle (see the next page).
What is the Total Internal Reflection of Light?
When a light ray tries to move from glass to air at an
angle greater than the critical angle (see the previous
page)
the refracted ray cannot escape from the glass.
Refraction cannot happen and all of the light is reflected
at the glass / air boundary, as if it had hit a mirror, i = r.

It is called internal reflection because it
occurs inside the glass, and it is called total
because all the light must be reflected.
Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
has uses in prisms and optical fibres.
he Total Internal Reflection of Light in Prisms.
A right angle prism can be used
to change the direction of
a light ray by 90 degrees or 180 degrees.
A prism can also be used to disperse white light into
a spectrum.
How is a Right Angle Prism used to
Change the Direction of a Light Ray by 90 degrees?
A right angle prism is used
to change the direction of light
by 90 degrees as shown in the picture below.

The light ray enters the prism along a normal and
continues straight on until it hits the back face of
the prism.
Total internal reflection occurs here
because light strikes the surface at 45 degrees
which is greater than the critical angle.
The light ray then emerges from the prism along
a normal
and so continues straight through the glass surface.
This type of prism can be used in a periscope.
Using Total Internal Reflection of Light to Make
a Periscope.
Two right angle prisms can be used to make
a periscope.
At the back face of the prisms there is total internal
reflection.
Please see the picture below.

What are the Uses of a Periscope?
A periscope may be used by people
1. In a submarine to see above the sea surface.
2. To see over the heads of people in a crowd.
The Total Internal Reflection of Light in Prisms.
to change the direction of
a light ray by 90 degrees or 180 degrees.
A prism can also be used to disperse white light into
a spectrum.
How is a Right Angle Prism used to
Change the Direction of a Light Ray by 180 degrees?
to change the direction of light
by 180 degrees, as shown in the picture below.

The same effect can result from having two
right angle prisms arranged as shown in
the picture below.

Either of these arrangements may be used to
make binoculars
or the plastic reflectors on the rear of cars and bicycles.
he Total Internal Reflection of Light in Optical Fibres.
What is an Optical Fibre?
An optical fibre is a long thin strand of glass
that has an outer plastic coating. See the picture below.

How does an Optical Fibre Work?
Light from a laser enters at one end of the fibre, striking
the
surface of the glass at an angle greater than the critical
angle.
Total internal reflection occurs at the glass surface and
the light cannot escape until it reaches the other end of
the fibre.
The plastic
coating prevents the glass surface from getting
scratched
which might allow the light to escape through the side of
the fibre.

What are the Uses of Optical Fibres?
Optical fibres are used
for telecommunications and to make endoscopes.
The use of Optical Fibres in Telecommunications.
What are Telecommunications?
Telecommunications means
"the transmission of information over long distances".
Information is transmitted (sent) using
electrical signals in copper wires or by using
electromagnetic waves including light in optical fibres.
Electromagnetic waves can be used
to transmit information
as a digital signal or as an analogue signal.
A digital signal has a higher quality than an analogue
signal.
The transmitted information can be used in many ways,
including radio, telephone, television, fax and
the internet.

How are Optical Fibres used in Telecommunications?
A laser can be made to produce little
bits of light (called pulses)
which are sent along the optical fibre in the form of
a digital signal.
The digital signal contains the information.
Many different digital signals can be sent
down the same optical fibre at the same time.
The optical fibre is said to have a higher capacity
than a copper wire of the same thickness
(this means that the optical fibre can
carry more information).
The Use of Optical Fibres to Make an Endoscope.
What is an Endoscope?
An endoscope is an instrument used
by Doctors and Surgeons.
An endoscope has a bundle of very thin optical fibres
which are used with lenses to see inside a body. Only a
small hole in the skin is necessary to insert
the endoscope.
This minimizes the trauma and possible damage to
the patient.

How does an Endoscope Work?
Some of the optical fibres take light down to the end of
the
endoscope which shines inside the body. Other optical
fibres
in the bundle collect the reflected light using lenses.
The reflected light is sent along the fibres to a computer
which displays the information as a picture on a monitor.
It is sometimes possible to
perform medical operations inside people
by using an endoscope, rather than making a large
cut in the skin.
The Refraction of White Light to Produce Colours.
What is a Spectrum?
The dispersing of light or other electromagnetic radiation
into its component parts produces a spectrum.
A glass prism of angle 60 degrees can disperse
white light into its different colours. See
the picture below.

What are the Colours of the Spectrum of White Light?
The seven colours of light are
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and violet.
You can remember the colours and order by
remembering
Richard of York gave battle in vain.
The different colours of light have each
a different frequency and wavelength.
The different colours are refracted by different amounts.
Red light has the longest wavelength and
is refracted least.
Violet light has the shortest wavelength and
is refracted most.

The source of light may also emit infra-
red and ultraviolet light.
Infra-red is heat radiation with a longer
wavelength than red light.
A thermometer placed at IR will show
a rise in temperature.
Ultraviolet light has
a shorter wavelength than violet light.
A fluorescent material will glow when placed at UV.
Water Waves.

What Type of Waves travel through Water?
What is the Origin of Water Waves?
The Speed of Waves in Water
Using Water Waves to Generate Electricity
Reflection, Refraction and Diffraction of Water
Waves
What type of Waves travel through Water?
Both longitudinal and transverse waves can travel
through water.
How do Longitudinal Waves travel through Water?
Longitudinal waves travel through water
underneath the surface.
This is under water sound and it can be used by
fishing boats for echo location and by sea creatures
(for example whales including dolphins)
to communicate.

How do Transverse Waves travel through Water?
Transverse waves travel on the water surface and these
are the
waves which we see as they make
the surface go up and down.
Transverse water waves are shown as
a series of parallel lines.
See the picture below. These parallel lines represent the
peaks of the wave, as you are looking down on them
from above.

Transverse water waves can be used to show
the effects of reflection, refraction and diffraction.
The Reflection of Water Waves.
What Type of Surfaces Best Reflect Water Waves?
Water waves are best reflected from hard flat surfaces
as shown in the picture below.

Note that the total length of
the line representing the wave peak
stays the same where it is being reflected.
The red part of the incident wave plus the blue part of
the reflected wave is the same length as the original
line.
After reflection a wave has the same
speed, frequency and wavelength,
it is only the direction of the wave that has changed.
The Refraction of Water Waves.
What Causes Water Waves to Refract?
Water waves travel faster on the surface of deep water
than they do on shallow water.
The change in speed of the wave will cause refraction
as shown in the picture below.

As you can see, the change in speed has changed
the direction of the wave. The slower wave
in the shallow water has a smaller wavelength.
The amount of refraction increases
as the change in speed of the wave increases.
What is Diffraction?
Any type of wave can be diffracted.
A diffracted wave will "spread out".
When does Diffraction happen?
Diffraction occurs when the wavelength of a wave
is of a similar size to an obstacle or a gap in a barrier.
After diffraction,
a wave will have
the same speed, frequency and wavelength.

The Diffraction of Sound Waves.
A sound wave with a frequency of 500 Hz
has a wavelength of 066 m (see calculations).
Sound waves will diffract (spread out) when they pass
through a doorway (which is approximately 08 m wide)
because the wavelength (066 m)
is of a similar size to the doorway (08 m).

The Diffraction of Electromagnetic Waves.
Electromagnetic waves have a huge
range of wavelengths.
Radio waves can diffract around hills,
mountains or even the whole planet.
Light waves can diffract through tiny slits.
X-rays can diffract around atoms.

The Diffraction of Water Waves.
Water waves can diffract
when passing through a gap in a harbour wall.
The Diffraction of Water Waves in a Harbour.
The wavelength of water waves may be several metres.
If the wavelength is of a similar size to a gap in
a harbour wall,
then the wave will diffract as shown in the picture below.

If the wavelength does not match the size of the gap,
then only a little diffraction will occur at the edge of
the wave.
See the picture below.

The part of the wave which hits the wall in the
above two pictures is reflected straight back on itself.
Waves
Revision Questions
Waves - Sound - Light - Water
(See also Electromagnetic Waves and Plate Tectonics)
chapter
the correct page.
the
the correct page.

Longitudinal - Transverse - Amplitude - Wavelength -
Frequency
1 What do Waves do? Answer
2 Describe the movement of Particles in a Longitudinal Wave. Answer
3
Give an Example of something which travels as a Longitudinal
Wave.
Answer
4 Describe the movement of Particles in a Transverse Wave. Answer
5
How would you measure the Amplitude of
a Transverse Wave?
Answer
6 What does the Amplitude tell you about a Wave? Answer
7
How would you measure the Wavelength of
a Transverse Wave?
Answer
8 What Unit is Wavelength measured in? Answer
9 Define Frequency. Answer
10 What Unit is Frequency measured in? Answer
11 What is the Period of a Wave? Answer
12 Give the Equation which connects Period and Frequency. Answer
13
Give the Equation which
connects Velocity, Frequency and Wavelength.
Answer
14
What Velocity has a Wave with Frequency 3250
Hz and Wavelength 01 m?
Answer
15
What Wavelength has a Wave with Frequency 500
Hz and Velocity 330 m/s?
Answer
16
What Frequency has a Wave with Wavelength 10
m and Velocity 25 m/s?
Answer

Sound - Loudness - Pitch - Echo - Ultrasound
17 Is Sound a Longitudinal or a Transverse Wave? Answer
18 Can Sound travel through a Vacuum? Answer
19 How can an Object produce Sound Waves? Answer
20 Does Sound travel Faster under Water or in Air? Answer
21 Does Sound travel Faster than Light? Answer
22 What does the Loudness of Sound depend on? Answer
23 What does Pitch mean? Answer
24 What does the Pitch of Sound depend on? Answer
25 What is an Echo? Answer
26 What is the Natural Echo of a Room called? Answer
27 What is the Frequency Range of Sound that People can Hear? Answer
28 How can Hearing be Damaged? Answer
29 Give one Example of Noise Pollution. Answer
30 What is Ultrasound? Answer
31 What is Pre-Natal Scanning? Answer
32
How can Ultrasound be used to measure the Depth of Sea
Water?
Answer
33 How can Ultrasound be used to Catch Fish? Answer

Light - Reflection - Refraction - Lenses - Optical Fibre -
Colour
34 Is Light a Longitudinal or a Transverse Wave? Answer
35 Is Light an Electromagnetic Wave? Answer
36 Can Light travel through a Vacuum? Answer
37 Does Light travel Faster than Sound? Answer
38
After Reflection, has
the Direction, Speed, Frequency or Wavelength Changed?
Answer
39 What type of Surface would be a Good Reflector for Light? Answer
40 Which Light Ray is called the Incident Ray? Answer
41 For Reflection, what does the Angle of Incidence Equal? Answer
42 What type of Surface would cause Diffuse Reflection? Answer
43 What is a Virtual Image? Answer
44 When does Refraction occur? Answer
45 After Refraction, has Answer
46 Give two Examples of Transparent Materials. Answer
47
Why does Light travel at Different
Speeds in Different Materials?
Answer
48 Does Light travel Faster in Air or in Glass? Answer
49 What is a Normal? Answer
50 Does Light Change Direction along a Normal? Answer
51
Does Light Change Direction when it travels not along
a Normal?
Answer
52 When does Light Bend Towards the Normal? Answer
53 Is a Convex Lens a Converging Lens? Answer
54 Is a Convex Lens Thicker in the Middle? Answer
55 What is the Principle Axis? Answer
56 When does a Convex Lens act as a Magnifying Glass? Answer
57 Does a Concave Lens produce an Image which is Virtual? Answer
58 Does a Concave Lens produce an Image which is Upright? Answer
59 What does Critical Angle mean? Answer
60 When does Total Internal Reflection occur? Answer
61
Show a Right Angle Prism changing a Light
Ray Direction by 90 Degrees.
Answer
62
Show how two Right Angle Prisms can be used to make
a Periscope.
Answer
63 How can a Periscope be used? Answer
64
Show a Right Angle Prism changing a Light
Ray Direction by 180 Degrees.
Answer
65 What is an Optical Fibre? Answer
66 How does an Optical Fibre Transmit Light? Answer
67 What does Telecommunications mean? Answer
68
Can an Optical Fibre carry More Information than a Copper
Wire?
Answer
69 Who would use an Endoscope? Answer
70 How does an Endoscope use Optical Fibres? Answer
71 What are the Seven Colours of Light called? Answer
72 Do Different Colours of Light have Different Frequencies? Answer
73 Do Different Colours of Light have Different Wavelengths? Answer
74 Which Colour is Refracted Most through a 60 Degree Prism? Answer

Water - Reflection - Refraction - Diffraction
75 Can a Longitudinal Wave travel through Water? Answer
76 Can a Transverse Wave travel through Water? Answer
77
After Reflection, has
Answer
78 When will a Water Wave Refract? Answer
79 What will change the Amount of Refraction? Answer
80 What will a Diffracted Wave do? Answer
81 When will Diffraction occur? Answer
82
After Diffraction, has the Speed, Frequency or Wavelength
Changed?
Answer
83
Show a Water Wave Diffracting through a Gap in a Harbour
Wall.
Answer

Revision Questions
Electromagnetic Waves and Plate Tectoni
cs
(See also Sound, Light and Water)
chapter
the correct page.
the
the correct page.

Electromagnetic Waves
Uses - Dangers - Transmission - Analogue - Digital
78 Are Electromagnetic Waves Longitudinal or Transverse? Answer
79 What travels Faster than Electromagnetic Waves? Answer
80 Can Electromagnetic Waves travel through a Vacuum? Answer
81
Give
the Electromagnetic Spectrum from Radio Waves to Gamma
Rays.
Answer
82
As the Wavelength Decreases does the Frequency
Increase or Decrease?
Answer
83 Give one Use of Radio Waves. Answer
84 What are Ground Waves, Sky Waves and Space Waves? Answer
85 What do Medium Wavelength Radio Waves Reflect from? Answer
86
What type of Wave would be used
to Transmit Information to Satellites?
Answer
87 How do Microwave Cookers work? Answer
88 Give one Danger of Microwaves. Answer
89
What is the Difference between Infra-red Waves and Infra-
red Radiation?
Answer
90 Give one Use of Infra-red Waves. Answer
91 Give one Danger of Infra-red Waves. Answer
92
What is
the Difference between Ultraviolet Waves and Ultraviolet
Light?
Answer
93 What does Fluorescent mean? Answer
94 Give one Use of Ultraviolet Light. Answer
95 Give one Danger of Ultraviolet Light. Answer
96 Give one Use of X-rays. Answer
97 Give one Danger of X-rays. Answer
98
How can People Protect themselves from the Dangers of X-
rays?
Answer
99 Where do Gamma Rays come from? Answer
100 Give one Danger of Gamma Rays. Answer
101 What does Radiotherapy do? Answer
102 What is Transmission? Answer
103
Give two types of Electromagnetic Waves which are used
for Transmission.
Answer
104 Describe an Analogue Signal. Answer
105 What is a Carrier Wave? Answer
106 Draw a Picture of a Digital Signal. Answer
107 What is Decoding? Answer
108
Give one Advantage that a Digital Signal has over
an Analogue Signal.
Answer
109 What is the Quality of a Signal? Answer
110 What is Noise? Answer
111 What does an Analogue Signal do with Noise? Answer
112 What does a Digital Signal do with Noise? Answer

Earthquakes - Plate Tectonics
113 What produces Seismic Waves? Answer
114 What are Earthquakes caused by? Answer
115 What is the Outer Crust of the Earth made from? Answer
116 What is the Mantle of the Earth made from? Answer
117 Does the Mantle behave more like a Solid or a Liquid? Answer
118 What is the Core of the Earth made from? Answer
119 Is the Outer Core Liquid? Answer
120 Is the Inner Core Liquid? Answer
121 What causes P Waves and S Waves? Answer
122 Are P Waves Longitudinal or Transverse Waves? Answer
123 Are S Waves Longitudinal or Transverse Waves? Answer
124 Do P Waves travel Faster than S Waves? Answer
125 Can S Waves travel through the Mantle? Answer
126 Can S Waves travel through the Outer Core? Answer
127 Why do S Waves Curve? Answer
128 Can P Waves travel through the Mantle? Answer
129 Can P Waves travel through the Outer Core? Answer
130 What are Plates? Answer
131 What makes the Plates move? Answer
132 What happens to Rocks during Tectonic Activity? Answer
133 Give one Piece of Evidence that the Plates move. Answer
134 Where do Plate Boundaries occur? Answer
135 What happens when Plates Slide Past Each Other? Answer
136 What are Plates Under the Ocean called? Answer
137 What is Sea Floor Spreading? Answer
138 What causes a Tsunami? Answer
139 How can Rocks become Magnetic? Answer
140
How
can Magnetic Rocks provide Evidence for Sea Floor Spreading?
Answer
141 What is Subduction? Answer
142 How do Fold Mountains occur?

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