Battery Sizing

1 Introduction
o 1.1 Why do the calculation?
o 1.2 When to do the calculation?
2 Calculation Methodology
o 2.1 Step 1: Collect the battery loads
o 2.2 Step 2: Construct the Load Profile
o 2. Step : Select !attery "ype
o 2.# Step #: $u%ber of Cells in Series
o 2.& Step &: 'eter%ine !attery Capacity
Wor(ed )*a%ple
o .1 Step 1 and 2: Collect !attery Loads and Construct Load Profile
o .2 Step : Select !attery "ype
o . Step #: $u%ber of Cells in Series
.# Step &: 'eter%ine !attery Capacity
Introduction
Figure 1 . Stationary batteries on a rack (courtesy of Power Battery)
This article looks at the sizing of batteries for stationary applications (i.e.
they dont !o"e). Batteries are used in !any applications such as #$ and %$
uninterruptible power supply (&PS) syste!s' solar power syste!s'
teleco!!unications' e!ergency lighting' etc. (hate"er the application'
batteries are seen as a !ature' pro"en technology for storing electrical
energy. )n addition to storage' batteries are also used as a !eans for
pro"iding "oltage support for weak power syste!s (e.g. at the end of s!all'
long trans!ission lines).
Why do the calculation?
Sizing a stationary battery is i!portant to ensure that the loads being
supplied or the power syste! being supported are ade*uately catered for by
the battery for the period of ti!e (i.e. autono!y) for which it is designed.
)!proper battery sizing can lead to poor autono!y ti!es' per!anent
da!age to battery cells fro! o"er+discharge' low load "oltages' etc.
When to do the calculation?
The calculation can typically be started when the following infor!ation is
known,
Battery loads that need to be supported
-o!inal battery "oltage
#utono!y ti!e(s)
Calculation Methodology
The calculation is based on a !i.ture of nor!al industry practice and
technical standards )/// Std 012 (1334' 56778)95eco!!ended Practice for
Sizing :ead+#cid Batteries for Stationary #pplications9 and )/// Std 1112
(6777' 56772)95eco!!ended Practice for Sizing -ickel+$ad!iu! Batteries
for Stationary #pplications9. The calculation is based on the a!pere+hour
!ethod for sizing battery capacity (rather than sizing by positi"e plates).
The focus of this calculation is on standard lead+acid or nickel+cad!iu!
(-i$d) batteries' so please consult specific supplier infor!ation for other
types of batteries (e.g. lithiu!+ion' nickel+!etal hydride' etc). -ote also that
the design of the battery charger is beyond the scope of this calculation.
There are fi"e !ain steps in this calculation,
1) $ollect the loads that the battery needs to support
6) $onstruct a load profile and calculate the design energy (;#h)
8) Select the battery type and deter!ine the characteristics of the cell
0) Select the nu!ber of battery cells to be connected in series
2) $alculate the re*uired #!pere+hour (#h) capacity of the battery
Step 1: Collect the battery loads
The first step is to deter!ine the loads that the battery will be supporting.
This is largely specific to the application of the battery' for e.a!ple an #$
&PS Syste! or a Solar Power Syste!.
Step 2: Construct the Load Profile
5efer to the :oad Profile $alculation for details on how to construct a load
profile and calculate the design energy' ' in ;#h.
The autono!y ti!e is often specified by the $lient (i.e. in their standards).
#lternati"ely' )/// 00<' 9)/// 5eco!!ended Practice for /!ergency and
Standby Power Syste!s for )ndustrial and $o!!ercial #pplications9 has
so!e guidance (particularly Table 8+6) for autono!y ti!es. -ote that )///
012 and )/// 1112 refer to the load profile as the 9duty cycle9.
Step 3: Select attery !ype
The ne.t step is to select the battery type (e.g. sealed lead+acid' nickel+
cad!iu!' etc). The selection process is not co"ered in detail here' but the
following factors should be taken into account (as suggested by )///),
Physical characteristics' e.g. di!ensions' weight' container
!aterial' intercell connections' ter!inals
application design life and e.pected life of cell
Fre*uency and depth of discharge
#!bient te!perature
$harging characteristics
=aintenance re*uire!ents
;entilation re*uire!ents
$ell orientation re*uire!ents (sealed lead+acid and -i$d)
Seis!ic factors (shock and "ibration)
-e.t' find the characteristics of the battery cells' typically fro! supplier
data sheets. The characteristics that should be collected include,
Battery cell capacities (#h)
$ell te!perature
/lectrolyte density at full charge (for lead+acid batteries)
$ell float "oltage
$ell end+of+discharge "oltage (/>%;).
Battery !anufacturers will often *uote battery #h capacities based
on a nu!ber of different />%;s. For lead+acid batteries' the
selection of an />%; is largely based on an />%; that pre"ents
da!age of the cell through o"er+discharge (fro! o"er+e.pansion of
the cell plates). Typically' 1.42; to 1.1; per cell is used when
discharging o"er longer than 1 hour. For short discharge durations
(i.e. ?12 !inutes)' lower />%;s of around 1.<4; per cell !ay be
used without da!aging the cell.
-ickel+$ad!iu! (-i$d) dont suffer fro! da!aged cells due to o"er+
discharge. Typical />%;s for -i+$d batteries are 1.7; to 1.10; per
cell.
Step ": #u$ber of Cells in Series
The !ost co!!on nu!ber of cells for a specific "oltage rating is shown
below,
%ated &oltage Lead'(cid #i'Cd
16; < 3+17
60; 16 11+67
01; 60 8<+07
162; <7 36+177
627; 167 110+677
@owe"er' the nu!ber of cells in a battery can also be calculated to !ore
accurately !atch the tolerances of the load. The nu!ber of battery cells
re*uired to be connected in series !ust fall between the two following li!its,
(1)
(6)
where is the !a.i!u! nu!ber of battery cells
is the !ini!u! nu!ber of battery cells
is the no!inal battery "oltage (;dc)
is the !a.i!u! load "oltage tolerance (A)
is the !ini!u! load "oltage tolerance (A)
is the cell charging "oltage (;dc)
is the cell end of discharge "oltage (;dc)
The li!its are based on the !ini!u! and !a.i!u! "oltage tolerances
of the load. #s a !a.i!u!' the battery at float "oltage (or boost "oltage
if applicable) needs to be within the !a.i!u! "oltage range of the load.
:ikewise as a !ini!u!' the battery at its end of discharge "oltage !ust
be within the !ini!u! "oltage range of the load. The cell charging
"oltage depends on the type of charge cycle that is being used' e.g.
float' boost' e*ualizing ' etc' and the !a.i!u! "alue should be chosen.
Select the nu!ber of cells in between these two li!its (!ore or less
arbitrary' though so!ewhere in the !iddle of the !inB!a. "alues would
be !ost appropriate).
Step ): *eter$ine attery Capacity
The !ini!u! battery capacity re*uired to acco!!odate the design load o"er
the specified autono!y ti!e can be calculated as follows,
where is the !ini!u! battery capacity (#h)
is the design energy o"er the autono!y ti!e (;#h)
is the no!inal battery "oltage (;dc)
is a battery ageing factor (A)
is a te!perature correction factor (A)
is a capacity rating factor (A)
is the !a.i!u! depth of discharge (A)
Table 1. Te!perature correction factors for "ented lead+acid cells (fro!
)/// 012)
Select a battery #h capacity that e.ceeds the !ini!u! capacity
calculated abo"e. The battery discharge rate ($ rating) should also be
specified' appro.i!ately the duration of discharge (e.g. for 1 hours of
discharge' use the $1 rate). The selected battery specification is
therefore the #h capacity and the discharge rate (e.g. 277#h $17).
#n e.planation of the different factors,
(geing factor captures the decrease in battery perfor!ance due
to age.
The perfor!ance of a lead+acid battery is relati"ely stable but drops
!arkedly at latter stages of life. The 9knee point9 of its life "s
perfor!ance cur"e is appro.i!ately when the battery can deli"er 17A
of its rated capacity. #fter this point' the battery has reached the end
of its useful life and should be replaced. Therefore' to ensure that
battery can !eet capacity throughout its useful life' an ageing factor
of 1.62 should be applied (i.e. 1 B 7.1). There are so!e e.ceptions'
check with the !anufacturer.
For -i+$d batteries' the principles are si!ilar to lead+acid cells. Please
consult the battery !anufacturer for suitable ageing factors' but
generally' applying a factor of 1.62 is standard. For applications with
high te!peratures andBor fre*uent deep discharges' a higher factor of
1.08 !ay be used. For !ore shallower discharges' a lower factor of
1.11 can be used.
!e$perature correction factor is an allowance to capture the
a!bient installation te!perature. The capacity for battery cells are
typically *uoted for a standard operating te!perature of 62$ and
where this differs with the installation te!perature' a correction
factor !ust be applied. )/// 012 gi"es guidance for "ented lead+
acid cells (see figure right)' howe"er for sealed lead+acid and -i+$d
cells' please consult !anufacturer reco!!endations. -ote that
high te!peratures lower battery life irrespecti"e of capacity and the
correction factor is for capacity sizing only' i.e. you $#-->T
increase battery life by increasing capacity.
Capacity rating factor accounts for "oltage depressions during
battery discharge. :ead+acid batteries e.perience a "oltage dip
during the early stages of discharge followed by so!e reco"ery. -i+
$ds !ay ha"e lower "oltages on discharge due to prolonged float
charging (constant "oltage). Both of these effects should be
accounted for by the capacity rating factor + please see the
!anufacturers reco!!endations. For -i+$d cells' )/// 1112 #nne.
$ suggests that for float charging applications' Kt C rated capacity
in #h B discharge current in #!ps (for specified discharge ti!e and
/>%;).
Wor+ed ,-a$ple
Figure 6. :oad profile for this e.a!ple
Step 1 and 2: Collect attery Loads and Construct Load Profile
The loads and load profile fro! the si!ple e.a!ple in the /nergy :oad Profile
$alculation will be used (see the figure right). The design energy de!and
calculated for this syste! is Ed C 8'606.1 ;#h.
Step 3: Select attery !ype
;ented lead acid batteries ha"e been selected for this e.a!ple.
Step ": #u$ber of Cells in Series
Suppose that the no!inal battery "oltage is Vdc C 167;dc' the cell charging
"oltage is Vc C 6.62;dcBcell' the end+of+discharge "oltage is Veod C
1.1;dcBcell' and the !ini!u! and !a.i!u! load "oltage tolerances
are Vl+min C 17A and Vl+max C 67A respecti"ely.
The !a.i!u! nu!ber of cells in series is,
cells
The !ini!u! nu!ber of cells in series is,
cells
The selected nu!ber of cells in series is <6 cells.
Step ): *eter$ine attery Capacity
Di"en a depth of discharge kdod C 17A' battery ageing factor ka C
62A' te!perature correction factor for "ented cells at 87 deg $
of kt C 7.32< and a capacity rating factor of kc C 17A' the !ini!u!
battery capacity is,
#h
:oad Profile
Contents
,hide-
1 Introduction
o 1.1 Why do the calculation?
o 1.2 When to do the calculation?
2 Calculation Methodology
o 2.1 Step 1: Prepare the Load List
2.1.1 Calculating the Consu%ed Load ./
o 2.2 Step 2: Construct the Load Profile
o 2. Step : Calculate 'esign Load and )nergy 'e%and
2..1 'esign Load
2..2 'esign )nergy 'e%and
Co%puter Soft0are
# What $e*t?
Introduction
Figure 1. /.a!ple of a load profile (using the autono!y !ethod)
The energy load profile (hereafter referred to as si!ply 9load profile9) is an
esti!ate of the total energy de!anded fro! a power syste! or sub+syste!
o"er a specific period of ti!e (e.g. hours' days' etc). The load profile is
essentially a two+di!ensional chart showing the instantaneous load (in ;olt+
#!peres) o"er ti!e' and represents a con"enient way to "isualise how the
syste! loads changes with respect to ti!e.
-ote that it is distinct fro! the electrical load schedule + the load profile
incorporates a ti!e di!ension and therefore esti!ates the energy de!and
(in k(h) instead of Eust the instantaneous load B power (in k().
Why do the calculation?
/sti!ating the energy de!and is i!portant for the sizing of energy storage
de"ices' e.g. batteries' as the re*uired capacity of such energy storage
de"ices depends on the total a!ount of energy that will be drawn by the
loads. This calculation is also useful for energy efficiency applications' where
it is i!portant to !ake esti!ates of the total energy use in a syste!.
When to do the calculation?
# load profile needs to be constructed whene"er the sizing of energy storage
de"ices (e.g. batteries) is re*uired. The calculation can be done once
preli!inary load infor!ation is a"ailable.
Calculation Methodology
Figure 6. /.a!ple of a load profile (using the 60 hour profile !ethod)
There are two distinct !ethods for constructing a load profile,
1) (utono$y !ethod is the traditional !ethod used for backup power
applications' e.g. &PS syste!s. )n this !ethod' the instantaneous
loads are displayed o"er an autono!y ti!e' which is the period of ti!e
that the loads need to be supported by a backup power syste! in the
e"ent of a power supply interruption.
6) 2" .our Profile !ethod displays the a"erage or e.pected
instantaneous loads o"er a 60 hour period. This !ethod is !ore
co!!only associated with standalone power syste! applications' e.g.
solar syste!s' or energy efficiency applications.
Both !ethods share the sa!e three general steps' but with so!e
differences in the details,
Step 1, Prepare the load list
Step 6, $onstruct the load profile
Step 8, $alculate the design load and design energy de!and
Step 1: Prepare the Load List
The first step is to transfor! the collected loads into a load list. )t is si!ilar in
for! to the electrical load schedule' but is a little si!plified for the purpose
of constructing a load profile. For instance' instead of categorising loads by
their load duty (continuous' inter!ittent or standby)' it is assu!ed that all
loads are operating continuously.
@owe"er' a key difference of this load list is the ti!e period associated with
each load ite!,
)n the autono$y $ethod' the associated ti!e period is called the
9autono!y9 and is the nu!ber of hours that the load needs to be supported
during a power supply interruption. So!e loads !ay only be re*uired to ride
through brief interruptions or ha"e enough autono!y to shut down safely'
while so!e critical syste!s !ay need to operate for as long as possible (up
to se"eral days).
)n the 2" hour profile !ethod' the associated ti!e period is represented in
ter!s of 9>-9 and 9>FF9 ti!es. These are the ti!es in the day (in hours and
!inutes) that the load is e.pected to be switched on and then later turned
off. For loads that operate continuously' the >- and >FF ti!e would be 7,77
and 68,23 respecti"ely. # load ite! !ay need to be entered in twice if it is
e.pected to start and stop !ore than once a day.
Calculating the Consu$ed Load &(
For this calculation' we are interested in the consu!ed apparent power of the
loads (in ;#). For each load' this can be calculated as follows,
(here is the consu!ed load apparent power (;#)
is the consu!ed load power (()
is the load power factor (pu)
is the load efficiency (pu)
Step 2: Construct the Load Profile
The load profile is constructed fro! the load list and is essentially a chart
that shows the distribution of the loads o"er ti!e. The construction of the
load profile will be e.plained by a si!ple e.a!ple,
Figure 8. :oad profile constructed for this e.a!ple
Suppose the following loads were identified based on the #utono!y =ethod,
*escription Load /&(0 (utono$y /h0
%$S $abinet 677 0
/S% $abinet 677 0
Teleco!!unications $abinet 127 <
$o!puter $onsole 37 6
The load profile is constructed by stacking 9energy rectangles9 on top of each
other. #n energy rectangle has the load ;# as the height and the autono!y
ti!e as the width and its area is a "isual representation of the loads total
energy. For e.a!ple' the %$S $abinet has an energy rectangle of height 677
(;#) and width 0 (hours). The load profile is created by stacking the widest
rectangles first' e.g. in this e.a!ple it is the Teleco!!unications $abinet
that is stacked first.
For the 60 @our !ethod' energy rectangles are constructed with the periods
of ti!e that a load is energized (i.e. the ti!e difference between the >- and
>FF ti!es).
Step 3: Calculate *esign Load and ,nergy *e$and
*esign Load
The design load is the instantaneous load for which the power con"ersion'
distribution and protection de"ices should be rated' e.g. rectifiers' in"erters'
cables' fuses' circuit breakers' etc. The design can be calculated as follows,
(here is the design load apparent power (;#)
is the peak load apparent power' deri"ed fro! the load profile (;#)
is a contingency for future load growth (A)
is a design !argin (A)
)t is co!!on to !ake considerations for future load growth
(typically so!ewhere between 2 and 67A)' to allow future loads to
be supported. )f no future loads are e.pected' then this contingency
can be ignored. # design !argin is used to account for any potential
inaccuracies in esti!ating the loads' less+than+opti!u! operating
conditions due to i!proper !aintenance' etc. Typically' a design
!argin of 17A to 12A is reco!!ended' but this !ay also depend
on $lient preferences.
,-a$ple, Fro! our si!ple e.a!ple abo"e' the peak load apparent
power is <07;#. Di"en a future growth contingency of 17A and a
design !argin of 17A' the design load is,
;#
*esign ,nergy *e$and
The design energy de!and is used for sizing energy storage de"ices. Fro!
the load profile' the total energy (in ter!s of ;#h) can be co!puted by
finding the area underneath the load profile cur"e (i.e. integrating
instantaneous power with respect to ti!e o"er the autono!y or 60h period).
The design energy de!and (or design ;#h) can then be calculated by the
following e*uation,
(here is the design energy de!and (;#h)
is the total load energy' which is the area under the load profile
(;#h)
is a contingency for future load growth as defined abo"e (A)
is a design contingency as defined abo"e (A)
,-a$ple, Fro! our si!ple e.a!ple abo"e' the total load energy
fro! the load profile is 6'<17;#h. Di"en a future growth contingency
of 17A and a design !argin of 17A' the design energy de!and is,
;#h