A Case Study Plastic Waste in Accra Ghana

SUSTAINABLE PLASTIC WASTE
MANAGEMENT A CASE OF
ACCRA, GHANA.
MICHAEL MENSAH WIENAAH
April, 2007
TRITA-LWR Master Thesis
ISSN 1651-064X
LWR EX-07-10
Michael Mensah Wienaah TRITA LWR Masters

SUSTAINABLE PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT
A CASE OF AACRA, GHANA

MICHAEL MENSAH WIENAAH

SUPERVISOR:
Dr Erik Levlin

EXAMINATOR & SUPERVISOR

Associate professor Jan-Erik Gustafsson

Stockholm 2007

TRITA-LWR Master
ISSN 1651-064X
LWR-EX-07-10
ii
Sustainable Plastic Waste Management- A Case of Accra, Ghana

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am extremely grateful to my supervisors Dr Erik Levlin and Associate Professor Jan-Erik Gustafsson for their
invaluable support, guidance and direction. It is through their diligent guidance that this thesis work ended successfully. I
specially express my profound gratitude to Associate Professor Jan-Erik Gustafsson for showing personal interest in this
thesis work.
I also thank Mr. Manoj Lakhiani, managing director of Blowplast Ltd for his online contribution to this research work
and not forgetting Mr. Francis Javier Vilaplana, a PhD student at the department of Polymer Technology, KTH. To all
my other colleagues in the EESI program, I say thank you for your support and encouragement.
Lastly, my since gratitude goes to my parents, brothers and sisters whose support brought me this far. I specially dedicate
this thesis work to my beloved mother for her invaluable contribution to my education. May God richly bless her.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................................................... iv
Table of Content .......................................................................................................................................................... vi
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background and statement of the problem...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose and Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Scope of the Study .......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Literature Sources............................................................................................................................................ 2
1.5 Limitation of the Study.................................................................................................................................... 2
1.6 Justification of the Study ................................................................................................................................. 3
1.7 Description of the Study Area ......................................................................................................................... 3
2 plastic materials and production...................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 The History of Plastics .................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 What are Plastics ............................................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Types of Plastics.............................................................................................................................................. 5
2.3.1 Polyethylene (PE) ................................................................................................................................ 5
2.3.2 Polypropylene (PP).............................................................................................................................. 5
2.3.3 Polystyrene (PS) .................................................................................................................................. 5
2.3.4 Polyvinyl chloride (PCV). .................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Identifying the types of Plastics ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Plastic Waste ................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.6 Sources of waste plastics.................................................................................................................................. 8
2.6.1 Industrial waste ................................................................................................................................... 8
2.6.2 Commercial waste ............................................................................................................................... 8
2.6.3 Municipal waste................................................................................................................................... 8
2.7 Hazardous effects of Plastics ........................................................................................................................... 8
2.7.1 Polluting Substances............................................................................................................................ 8
2.7.2 Air pollution........................................................................................................................................ 9
3 Plastics Waste Recycling Processes............................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Mechanical Recycling .................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Feedstock or Chemical Recycling .................................................................................................................. 10
3.3 Energy Recovery ........................................................................................................................................... 10
4 Initial Upgrading Techniques........................................................................................................................ 12
4.1 Collection...................................................................................................................................................... 12
4.2 Cleaning ........................................................................................................................................................ 12
4.2.1 Washing ............................................................................................................................................ 12
4.2.2 Drying............................................................................................................................................... 12
4.3 Sorting .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
4.3.1 Manual sorting................................................................................................................................... 12
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4.3.2 Density-based sorting methods.......................................................................................................... 13
4.3.3 Sorting by selective dissolution.......................................................................................................... 13
5 Size Reduction Techniques............................................................................................................................ 13
5.1 Cutting.......................................................................................................................................................... 13
5.2 Shredding...................................................................................................................................................... 14
5.3 Agglomeration............................................................................................................................................... 14
6 Further Reprocessing Techniques................................................................................................................ 17
6.1 Pelletizing...................................................................................................................................................... 17
6.1.1 The Pelletizing Process...................................................................................................................... 17
6.1.2 Quality improvement......................................................................................................................... 17
6.2 Product Manufacturing.................................................................................................................................. 18
6.2.1 Extrusion .......................................................................................................................................... 18
6.2.2 Injection Moulding............................................................................................................................ 22
6.2.3 Blow moulding.................................................................................................................................. 23
6.2.4 Film Blowing..................................................................................................................................... 23
7 Importance and bottlenecks of Plastic Recycling......................................................................................... 23
7.1 Importance.................................................................................................................................................... 23
7.1.1 Environmental .................................................................................................................................. 23
7.1.2 Economic.......................................................................................................................................... 25
7.1.3 Social................................................................................................................................................. 25
7.2 Bottlenecks.................................................................................................................................................... 25
7.2.1 Technological .................................................................................................................................... 25
7.2.2 Market............................................................................................................................................... 25
8 Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 26
8.1 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................... 26
8.2 Recommendations. ........................................................................................................................................ 26
Reference..................................................................................................................................................................... 27
9 Appendix.......................................................................................................................................................... 28
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ABSTRACT
Sustainable Solid Waste Management is a critical problem not only for developing countries but for the developed
countries as well. Considerable amount of waste is generated in the municipality of Accra, Ghana due to increased
urbanization. There is indiscriminate littering of the city of Accra and its environs with plastic waste. This research
discusses sustainable ways of managing plastic waste in Accra, Ghana in order to minimize their adverse environmental
impacts. The need for such a study is justified as it is desirable to change the unsustainable pattern of consumption,
production and disposal associated with these materials. Plastic waste especially sachet water bags appear in very high
proportion in the municipal solid waste stream in Accra and is causing environmental problems such as choking of
animals and soils; blockage of waterways and rivers; blight of landscapes and trees; and resource depletion.
Of the various options considered, mechanical recycling was deemed appropriate because it is less expensive and does
not demand special expertise or skills for implementation. It is also best suited for developing countries and Accra,
Ghana, is no exception. Recycling was also preferred to the other methods of waste management since it has the
potential of leading to resource recovery and the creation of jobs for the unemployed. The various mechanical recycling
processes such as initial upgrading techniques, size reduction techniques to product manufacturing are all elaborated in
this thesis.
The theoretical background of the problem and that of possible remedies was investigated from literature sources.
Experiences of other developing countries on the issue were studied and incorporated into this thesis work. The
compiled information and suggestions are expected to be helpful in managing the plastic waste menace in Accra, Ghana,
and the related challenges due to unsustainable patterns of consumption, production and disposal.
Key words: Cutting, Shredding, Agglomeration, Recycling, Depolymerisation, Pellets, Extrusion, Injection
moulding, Blow moulding and Film blowing.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and statement of the problem
Sustainable Solid Waste Management is a crucial
problem not only for developing countries but for the
developed countries as well. Enormous amount of
Waste is generated through out the world and the most
crucially posed question is how to manage these wastes
effectively and efficiently to save the environment and
the continuous existence of mankind. Many
municipalities, cities and towns continue to grapple with
the problem of Solid Waste Management and the
Municipality of Accra, Ghana is no exception.
The Organic component of Municipal Solid Waste may
not be too much of a problem since that is
biodegradable. However, the Plastic Waste component
of the Municipal Solid Waste is quite problematic
because this is non-biodegradable and therefore can
stay in the environment for a considerable length of
time causing all sorts of problems. The management of
Plastic Waste through combustion (incineration) is not
environmentally friendly and sustainable since this may
release carbon dioxide, a major contributor to global
warming (greenhouse effect). Landfilling with Plastic
Waste is not also desirable since plastic is non-
degradable and no economic value would have been
derived from the waste in that case. The best option for
Sustainable Plastic Waste Management is through
recycling. This is because the benefits of recycling of
Plastic Waste are numerous and also environmentally
friendly compared to the other methods of waste
disposal. Through recycling of Plastic Waste, we can
have material and energy recovery and therefore value
will be derived from the waste instead of regarding it as
garbage or trash. According to a study conducted in
Accra, Ghana by GOPA Consultants in 1983, Plastic
Waste accounts for 1-5% (of net weight) of the total
amount of waste generated (Lardinois and Van de
Klundert, 1995). Since then, there has been a
tremendous increase in plastic waste particularly sachet
water bags due to increase urbanization and
consumption pattern.
The Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) comprises of
five administrated districts. The various modes of solid
waste disposal by these districts are shown in Table
1(see appendix). The rather unreliable statistics released
by the AMA Waste Management Department and other
waste management bodies indicate that about 9000
tonnes of waste is generated daily, out of which 315
tonnes are plastic related (Amankwah, 2005). In Ghana,
drinking water comes in plastic bags and not bottles.
The public have developed a strong taste for such
sachet water since it is portable and can easily be carried
from one place to another. There is also a perception
that such sachet water is cleaner and more mineralized
than tap water. After gulping down the liquid content,
these bags are discarded indiscriminately thereby
littering the whole environment. These bags now
constitute a major proportion of the plastic waste
generated throughout the country. Also over the years,
plastics have replaced leaves, glass and metals as a
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cheaper and more efficient means of packaging (IRIN,
2006). Soon after usage, these are randomly discarded.
They then collect around the city, choking gutters,
threatening small animals, damaging the soil and
polluting beaches. Almost all the major gutters in Accra
are currently choked with plastic waste and this has
resulted in floods, loss of property and in Ghana
recording high rate of malaria and cholera even in the
21st century. The whole country is gradually being
swallowed up by the plastic waste menace that the
Ghana government had to declare a recycling war on
plastic waste in 2004. This is what was said by the
minister for Local government, we expect recycling to
create a healthy environment for tourists, create jobs
and save foreign exchange in imports of drugs to fight
cholera and malaria that may result from the rubbish
heaps (IRIN, 2006). However, very little has been yet
done in this area. Hence the earlier the plastic waste
menace problem is tackled the better it would be for
the environment and sustainable livelihood.
1.2 Purpose and Objectives of the Study
The over-all objectives of this thesis work are three
fold.
To investigate the actual situation of plastic waste
management in Accra.
To investigate various ways of handling plastic
waste in the municipality of Accra.
To identify and propose future sustainable plastic
waste management in Accra.
This thesis work will also serve as a working document
for policy makers and as an exemplarily way of turning
garbage into wealth (money) and therefore providing
jobs to the urban poor. It is hoped that this document
shall be useful to other countries particularly in sub-
Saharan Africa where plastic waste is engulfing all the
major cities and causing all sorts of environmental
problems.
1.3 Scope of the Study

Solid Waste Management all over the world is a
complex one. There is a proposed waste management
hierarchy which is shown in Figure 1. However, the
main focus of this research work is on how to manage
the plastic waste menace in Accra which is the
administrative capital of Ghana through recycling.
Recycling was chosen because it has numerous
advantages over the other modes of waste disposal and
comparatively less capital intensive. Plastic waste is only
a component or fraction of the municipal solid waste
generated in the city of Accra, Ghana.
There are three recycling processes namely mechanical
recycling, feedstock/chemical recycling and
incineration/energy recovery. This thesis work however
adopted mechanical recycling since that is more
appropriate for a developing country such as Ghana.
The thesis therefore covers the initial upgrading
techniques, size reduction techniques, reprocessing
techniques through to the final product manufacturing.
An integrated waste management approach as shown in
the waste hierarchy is however the preferred choice for
an efficient and effective waste management for any
country.
Though the viability and feasibility of recycling would
depend on a large extend to the availability of potential
markets for the reprocessed products, that is not
discussed within this thesis work. However considering
the income levels of majority of the populace, it is
obvious that reprocessed products would attract high
demand.
1.4 Literature Sources.
Literature information for this thesis was gathered from
diverse sources. A lot of information was obtained or
collected through the internet from different sources
such as journals, technical reports on international
research work on plastic waste recycling, press releases
on recycling and findings of research centres and pilot
projects.
A lot of usual information was obtained from some
Asian countries particularly India which is a developing
country such as Ghana. Also, important information
and recycling techniques were obtained from countries
such as Turkey, Egypt and South Africa. These are
countries with similar characteristics such as Ghana and
therefore it is worthwhile learning from their
experiences. Majority of the terminologies and
techniques on recycling and the practical
demonstrations were drawn from the research work of
WASTE Consultants on Plastic Waste.
:
1.5 Limitation of the Study
The major limitation is the fact that the author was
unable to visit recycling companies for first hand
experience. This was due to lack of funds for a trip to
Ghana. Much information was obtained through online
Figure 1. The waste management hierarchy. Source
Porteus, A., 2005
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correspondence and with the visit of my co- supervisor
to Ghana. It was not also possible to assess the market
base for reprocessed plastic products in Ghana though
that to a large extend determines the viability and
feasibility of recycling. Plastic recycling in Ghana is at a
very infant stage and therefore not much information
would be obtained and comparisons made.
It was not also easy obtaining accurate data from the
various departments concerned. Most of the statistics
given are very doubtful due to the fact that most of the
plastic wastes remain uncollected on the streets.
1.6 Justification of the Study
Plastic waste all over the world has become
problematic. Plastic bag waste has already become a
serious environmental dilemma in Ghana in general and
in Accra in particular. Concern has been expressed
from many stakeholders including the current president,
Mr. John Agyekum Kuffour, various government
organizations, environmental NGOs and the public at
large. Plastic waste manufactures and importers were
challenged to provide alternative ways for disposing
waste or face a temporarily ban on plastic
manufacturing and importation. Mr. Stanley Adjiri
Blankson, Chief Executive of the Accra Metropolitan
Assembly, who gave the warning, explained that plastic
manufacturers and importers had an alternative of using
biodegradable materials that were environmentally
friendly (GNA, 2005).
There is therefore the need to find a solution to this
problem to safe the environment and human health.
This research is essentially meant to contribute to the
ongoing endeavours in Africa and the world at large to
bring about a pattern of sustainable consumption and
production of plastic products and plastic bags in
particular. It is the authors hope that this thesis or
research work will contribute to finding a sustainable
way of handling the plastic waste menace in Accra and
indeed the country and beyond. The earths natural
resources are also fast dwindling and adopting recycling
of plastic waste into new products will safe the available
scarce resources from being depleted faster.
1.7 Description of the Study Area
Accra was founded as a fishing village by the Ga in the
16th century. But after being chosen by the British as
the seat of their administration in the late 19th century,
it began to grow very rapidly (Yankson and Gough,
1999). Accra is now the administrative capital of Ghana.
It consists of five administrative districts namely Accra
Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), Ga, Tema, Dangme
West, and Dangme East.
In recent decades, there has been influx of people from
the rural areas in search of white colour jobs

Figure 2. Map of Ghana (Ghanaweb.com)

which are non-existent. Currently the population of
Accra is estimated to be around two million people.
This has led to increased waste generation and
consequently waste management problems. Urbaniza-
tion also has its attended environmental implications.
Figure 2. Shows a map of Ghana with the red mark
indicating the study area.
2 PLASTIC MATERIALS AND
PRODUCTION
2.1 The History of Plastics
From a historical viewpoint, the development of
plastics can be regarded as one of the most important
technical achievements of the twentieth century. In just
50 years plastics have permeated virtually every aspect
of daily life, paving the way for new inventions, and
replacing materials in existing products. The success of
these materials has been based on their properties of
resilience, resistance to moisture, chemicals and photo-
and biodegradation, their stability, and the fact that they
can be moulded into any desired form (Lardinois and
Van de Klundert, 1995).
The original breakthrough for the first semi- synthetic
plastics material, cellulose nitrate, occurred in the late
1850s and involved the modification of cellulose fibres
with nitric acid. Cellulose nitrate had many false starts
following its invention by a Briton, Alexander Parkes,
who exhibited it as the worlds first plastics in 1862.
The worlds first plastics were produced at the turn of
the twentieth century, and were based mainly on natural
raw materials. Only in 1930 were thermoplastics, made
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from the basic materials styrene, vinyl chlorine and
ethylene, introduced onto the market. But the main
growth of the plastics industry did not take place before
the 1960s, reaching a peak in 1973, when production
reached over 40 million tonnes per year (Saechtling,
1987). Following a temporary drop in production
during the oil crises and the economic recession in the
beginning of the 1980s, the world production of plastics
continued to increase to approximately 77 million
tonnes in 1986 (Saechtling, 1987), and 86 million tonnes
in 1990(Schouten and Van der Vegt, 1991). Figure 3
shows the rapid development of plastics production
worldwide which now far exceeds the combined
production of non-ferrous metals such as aluminium,
zinc, lead and copper.
2.2 What are Plastics
Plastics are man-made organic materials that are
produced from oil and natural gas as raw materials.
Plastics consist of large molecules (macromolecules),
the building blocks of all materials. The molecular
weights of plastics may vary from about 20, 000 to
100,000 mg/L. Plastics can be regarded as long chains
of beads in which the so-called monomers such as

Figure 3. Development of plastics production worldwide
ethylene, propylene, styrene and vinyl chloride are
linked together to form a chain called a polymer.
Polymers such as polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS)
and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are the end products of
the process of polymerization, in which the monomers
are joined together. In many cases only one type of
monomer is used to make the material, sometimes two
or more. A wide range of products can be made by
melting the basic plastic material in the form of pellets
or powder (Warmer Fact Sheet, 1992).
Plastics can be either thermoplastics or thermosets.
Materials that repeatedly soften on heating and harden
on cooling are known as thermoplastics. They can be
melted down and made into new plastic end products.
Thermoplastics are similar to paraffin wax. They are
dense and hard at room temperature, become soft and
mouldable when heated, dense and hard again and
retain new shapes when cooled (see Figure 4a for a
schematic overview of the structure of thermoplastics).
This process can be repeated numerous times and the
chemical characteristics of the material do not change.
In Europe, over 80% of the plastics produced are
thermoplastics (Warmer Fact Sheet, 1992).
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Figure 4. The structure of (a) thermoplastic and (b) thermosets
Source: Nijenhuis, 1988

Thermosets, on the other hand are not suitable for
repeated heat treatments because of their complex
molecular structures (see Figure 4b). The structure of
thermosetting materials resembles a kind of thinly
meshed network that is formed during the initial
production phase. Such materials cannot be reprocessed
into new products unlike thermoplastics. Thermosets
are widely used in electronics and automotive products.
The properties of plastics can be modified by a number
of substances known as additives.
2.3 Types of Plastics
In industrialized countries, literally hundreds of plastic
materials are available commercially. In economically
less developed countries however, fewer types of
plastics tend to be used. In both economically less
developed and industrialized countries, the four types
of plastics that are most commonly reprocessed or
recycled are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP),
polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Each of
these can be subdivided according to their density, the
type of process involved in their manufacture, and the
additives they contain. These four types are briefly
described below. For a more extensive list of common
recyclable plastics and their characteristics, see Table 2
in appendix.
2.3.1 Polyethylene (PE)
The two main types of polyethylene are low-density
polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene
(HDPE). LDPE is soft, flexible and easy to cut, with
the feel of candle wax. When very thin it is transparent,
when thick it is milky white, unless a pigment is added.
LDPE is used in the manufacture of film bags, sacks
and sheeting, blow-moulded bottles, food boxes,
flexible piping and hosepipes, household articles such
as buckets and bowls, toys, telephone cable sheaths, etc.
HDPE is tougher and stiffer than LDPE, and is always
milky white in colour, even when very thin. It used for
bags and industrial wrappings, soft drinks bottles,
detergents and cosmetics containers, toys, jerry cans,
crates, dustbins, and other household articles.
2.3.2 Polypropylene (PP)
Polypropylene is more rigid than PE, and can be bent
sharply without breaking. It is used for stools and
chairs, high-quality home ware, strong mouldings such
as car battery housings, domestic appliances, suitcases,
wine barrels, crates, pipes, fittings, rope, woven sacking,
carpet backing netting surgical instruments, nursing
bottles, food containers, etc.
2.3.3 Polystyrene (PS)
In its unprocessed form, polystyrene is brittle and
usually transparent. It is often blended (copolymerized)
with other materials to obtain the desired properties.
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High-impact polystyrene (HIPS) is made by adding
rubber. Polystyrene foam is often produced by incor-
porating a blowing agent during the polymerization
process. PS is used for cheap, transparent kitchen ware,
light fittings, bottles, toys, food containers, etc.
2.3.4 Polyvinyl chloride (PCV).
Polyvinyl chloride is a hard, rigid material, unless
plasticizers are added. Common applications for PCV
include bottles, thin sheeting, transparent packaging
materials, water and irrigation pipes, gutters, window
frames, building panels, etc. If plasticizers are added,
the product is known as plasticized polyvinyl chloride
(PPVC), which is soft, flexible and rather weak, and is
used to make inflatable articles such as footballs, as well
as hosepipes and cable coverings, shoes, flooring,
raincoats, shower curtains, furniture coverings,
automobile linings, bottles, etc.
Other types of plastics include polycarbonate (PC),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyurethane (PU)
and nylon or polyamide (PA).
2.4 Identifying the types of Plastics
When recycling plastics it is essential that the materials
are correctly identified. If not, this can create severe
problems during reprocessing, leading to products with
a poor appearance and impaired mechanical properties.
It is usually difficult to tell exactly which type of plastic
is present solely from the type of product. Many
different types of plastics may look identical, or one
type of plastic may appear to have several physical and
chemical characteristics depending on the type of
additive that has been used. Detailed chemical tests,
such as infrared analysis, may be needed to make a
definite identification of a polymer.
However, experience in this field can be gained with
practice, and in case of doubt, testing is the only option.
Some simple tests using basic equipment can provide
adequate information for identification. In Istanbul, for
example, some reprocessors claim to be able to
distinguish plastics by touch (Konings, 1989), but when
in doubt, they apply the "burning test" or the "flotation
test.
1. To make a general distinction between
thermoplastics and thermosets, heat a piece of
wire just below red hot and press it into the
material. If it penetrates the material, it is a
thermoplastic; if it does not, it is a thermoset.
2. The type of plastic can be identified by
scratching it with a fingernail or from the
flexibility of the material. However, these tests
are not always reliable. For example, PE that
has been exposed to all kinds of weather
conditions may have become rigid and brittle,
and cannot be scratched. Also, very thin
material made of any polymer may seem
flexible, very thick may seem rigid (Vogler,
1984).
3. Flotation test. This test can be used to
disentangle larger quantities of mixed or
shredded polymers, as well as to separate them
from non-plastics. The test is also useful for
making the complicated distinction between PP
and HDPE, and between HDPE and LDPE.
When placed in a tube of water and alcohol in
certain proportions (this can be tested using a
"hydrometer", with arrange of 0.9-1.0) the
materials will separate according to their
density; one material will sink and the other will
float. For example, in a mixture with an exact
density of 0.925, the PP will float and HDPE
will sink; in one with a density of 0.93, LDPE
will float and HDPE will sink. Note, however,
that the flotation test is not exact enough to
distinguish between PP and LDPE, since their
densities can overlap as shown in Table 2 (see
appendix). In this case the fingernail test and
the visual appearance of the material may be
more conclusive indicators.
Another flotation test using pure water and salt can be
used to distinguish between PS and PVC, both of
which sink in pure water. When a specific amount of
salt is added to the water, the PS will float to the
surface, while the PVC and dirt will remain on the
bottom of the container. The amount of salt need not
be measured, but may be determined by experience.
4. Burning test. This test is carried out as follows
(Vogler, 1984). Cut a 5 cm long sliver of the
plastic material, 1 cm wide at one end, and
tapering to a point at the other. Hold the
sample over a sink or stone, and light the
tapered end. The colour and smell of the flame
can be used to tell the type of polymer. PVC
can be confirmed by touching the sample with
a red hot copper wire and returning the wire to
the flame; it should burn with a green flame.
Burn of all residues before repeating the test
with the same wire.
Caution: When conducting this test, be sure to hold the
sample at a safe distance from the body and clothing,
since the melted material may drip and burn if it falls
directly from the flame. Do not breathe in the smoke,
since it may contain dangerous substances. Figure 5
shows a demonstration of the burning test.
In economically less developed countries, particularly in
the informal sector, polymers are usually identified by
manual/visual inspection, whereas in industrialized
countries, mechanical separation techniques are used.
6

Technology is also becoming available to sort plastics
using instrumental analytical methods, such as infrared
spectroscopy and thermal analysis. Even in Europe and
North America, the recovery of household plastics is
burdened with several problems, including the high
costs of separation and the general low level of purity
of the waste materials. The packaging industry, for
example, uses more than 60 different kinds of plastics.
These are often mixtures or combinations of plastics
and other materials, which preclude the melting option,
as uncontrolled mixing of different kinds of plastics
leads to inferior properties of the resulting material. The
plastics may also be contaminated with residues of the
packaged product, particularly food, or other packaging
material (paper, aluminium).
Even elaborate sorting and cleaning procedures cannot
resolve these problems satisfactorily. A number of
measures have been proposed to reduce the number of
different kinds of plastics, combined with the
introduction of an effective system for coding such
plastics during their manufacture. These measures,
which would certainly make identification easier, are
now gaining general acceptance and changes in the
packaging of some products, for example using less
material or only one type of material, are slowly
becoming apparent (Halbekath, 1989). To facilitate
identification, in the United States, the Society of
Plastics Industry (SPI) has developed a model coding
system (using numbers combined with the
abbreviations PE, PP, etc.), which is now also being
introduced in Europe (see Figure 6). This coding
system is especially suitable for moulded products
where the coding can be engraved onto the moulds. In
this way, households will be able to identify and
separate the various types of plastics before disposal.
2.5 Plastic Waste
The quantity and composition of the solid waste
generated by a society provide a mirror that reflects
among others the cultural habits of the population. The
amount of solid waste generated is also closely related
to the overall economic level of the population from

Figure 5. Demonstration of the
burning test
Source: WASTE consultants
Figure 6: American SPI coding system
Source: APME and PWMI

which it originates. There are a lot of plastic
manufacturing industries in Accra, Ghana. Also Accra
is heavily populated due to rural-urban migration. There
is heavy influx of people from the rural areas in search
of white colour jobs which are non-existent. All these
people finally settle in the city contributing immensely
to the waste problem.
Basically, there are two types of plastic waste that is
generated in Accra, Ghana namely primary and
secondary waste. A distinction between these is relevant
for recycling/reprocessing.
Primary waste plastics are generated within the plastics
producing and goods manufacturing industries
themselves. A characteristic of primary waste is that the
quality of plastics recovered for reprocessing is almost
as high as that of virgin plastics. The waste is pure and
suitable for reprocessing with standard equipment into
the same kind of products manufactured from virgin
materials. The processing of primary waste into
products with characteristics similar to those of the
original products is called primary recycling (Ehrig,
1992). Primary plastic waste is usually homogeneous
and therefore its recycling is comparatively economical
and easier.
The term secondary waste refers to waste plastics
from sources other than the industrial ones. This type
of plastic waste is enormous in Accra, Ghana due to the
consumption and littering habits of the inhabitants.
These plastic wastes are impure, i.e. they may be
contaminated and often consist of mixtures of various
types of plastics. The direct reprocessing of such mixed
7

plastics/supplies is called secondary recycling and
results in products with poor mechanical properties
because of the different characteristics of the plastics
they contain. The potential for marketing these
materials is relatively low.
2.6 Sources of waste plastics
As becomes clear from section 2.2, plastics can be used
for many purposes, and thus, waste plastics are
generated from a wide variety of sources. The main
sources of plastic waste in Ghana can be classified as
follows: industrial, commercial and municipal waste.
2.6.1 Industrial waste
Industrial waste and rejected material (so-called primary
waste) can be obtained from large plastics processing,
manufacturing and packaging industries. Most of this
waste material has relatively good physical
characteristics, i.e. it is sufficiently clean, since it is not
mixed with other materials. It has been exposed to high
temperatures during the manufacturing process which
may have decreased its characteristics, but it has not
been used in any product applications. Many industries
discard polyethylene film wrapping that has been used
to protect goods delivered to the factory. This is an
excellent material for reprocessing, because it is usually
relatively thick, free from impurities and in ample
supply. Many industries may provide useful supplies of
primary waste plastics:
The automotive industries: spare-parts for cars,
such as fan blades, seat coverings, battery
containers and front grills.
Construction and demolition companies: e.g. PVC
pipes and fittings, tiles and sheets.
Electrical and electronics industries: e.g. switch
boxes, cable sheaths, cassette boxes, TV screens,
etc.
This type of plastic waste is not common in Ghana.
Plastics processing industries in Ghana sometimes
recycle the waste they generate but this is relatively very
low. Considerable amounts of waste plastics generated
by many industries remain uncollected or end up at the
municipal dump. Industries are often willing to
cooperate with private collecting or reprocessing units.
2.6.2 Commercial waste
Workshops, craftsmen, shops, supermarkets and
wholesalers may be able to provide reasonable
quantities of waste plastics for recovery. A great deal of
such waste is likely to be in the form of packaging
material made of PE, either clean or contaminated.
Hotels and restaurants are often sources of
contaminated PE material.
2.6.3 Municipal waste
Waste plastics can be collected from residential areas
(domestic or household waste), streets, parks, collection
depots and waste dumps. In Ghana, considerable
amounts of plastic waste can be found within the
Municipal Solid Waste stream due to the littering habit
of the population. The most common type of plastic
waste within the municipal waste stream is the sachet
water film bags that are discarded indiscriminately soon
after consuming its contents. In Asian countries in
particular, the collection of this type of waste is
widespread. However, unless they are bought directly
from households, before they have been mixed with
other waste materials, such waste plastics are likely to
be dirty and contaminated. Sometimes the plastics can
be separated and cleaned quite easily, but contamination
with hazardous waste is not always visible and may be
more difficult to remove. Litter that has been waiting
for collection for some time may have been degraded
by sunlight. This is mainly a superficial effect, however,
and does not always mean that the plastics cannot be
reprocessed.
2.7 Hazardous effects of Plastics
2.7.1 Polluting Substances
In terms of environmental and health effects it is
important to differentiate between the various types of
plastics. Most plastics are considered nontoxic (PVC is
an important exception). Polyethylene (PE) and
polypropylene (PP), for example, are inert materials
(Mewis, 1983), but it should be realized that plastics are
not completely stable. Under the influence of light, heat
or mechanical pressure they can decompose and release
hazardous substances. For example, the monomers
from which polymers are made may be released and
may affect human health. Both styrene (which is used
to make polystyrene, PS) and vinyl chloride (used to
make PVC) are known to be toxic, and ethylene and
propylene may also cause problems (Beumer, 1991).
The environmental effects of plastics also differ
according to the type and quantity of additives that
have been used. Some flame retardants may pollute the
environment (e.g. bromine emissions) .Pigments or
colorants may contain heavy metals that are highly toxic
to humans, such as chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), cobalt
(Co), selenium (Se), lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) are
often used to produce brightly coloured plastics.
Cadmium is used in red, yellow and orange pigments.
In most industrialized countries these pigments have
been banned by law. The additives used as heat
stabilizers (i.e. chemical compounds that raise the
temperature at which decomposition occurs), frequently
contain heavy metals such as barium (Ba), tin (Sn), lead
and cadmium, sometimes in combination (Nagelhout,
1989).

8

t

Manicipal
Industrial
t
commercial
t
agricaltural
t
collection
cleaning
sorting
Size reduction
Sorted clean plastic pieces
Extrusion Injection moulding Blow moulding Film blowing
Extrusion
Pellets
Pelleting
Strands/strings
Pipes,tubes Miscellaneous Bottles Bags, sheets
Figure 7: Flow chart of a typical waste plastics processing stream in a low-income
country .Source: WASTE Consultants.
From the heavy metals mentioned, lead and cadmium
are the most serious environmental pollutants, and have
different effects on human health, depending on their
concentrations. When present at or above specific
concentrations, they interfere with processes in plant
and animal tissues, and in the soil. Plastics such as PVC
may also have serious impacts on the environment
because they contain a number of hazardous
substances. For example, PVC contains chlorine which
can be released during heating as hydrochloric acid
(HCl). Other potentially hazardous substances in PVC
include the relatively large quantities of additives such
as plasticizers (up to 60%) and heat stabilizers
(sometimes up to 3%) (Nagelhou, 1989). In the opinion
of some environmental and consumer organizations in
Western Europe, the use of PVC and other plastics
containing chlorine (or bromine), especially for
packaging, should be halted entirely.
Apart from the afore mentioned effects of waste
plastics, the waste plastic water sachets are discarded
randomly after usage. These then scatter around the
city, choking drains, threatening small animals,
damaging the soil and polluting beaches. Plastic waste
has had a terrible impact on tourism, particularly on the

beaches east of Accra where rain water carries the
waste. Almost all the major gutters in Accra are
currently choked with plastic waste and this has resulted
in floods, loss of property and in Ghana recording high
rate of malaria and cholera even in the 21st century.
2.7.2 Air pollution
Taking into consideration the process of plastic
recycling, the most important environmental problem
caused by the (afore mentioned) polluting substances is
air pollution, either within the reprocessing units or in
the open air. During the extrusion process several
substances such as additives, may be released. Since PE
and PP do not contain large amounts of additives,
potential problems with PE and PP are far less than
with PVC. While extruding PVC additives may be
released, but also vinyl chloride and HCl.
It is very common to see plastic waste being burnt in
Ghana. However, unless the combustion is complete,
burning plastics release considerable quantities of
polluting substances. The incomplete combustion of
PE, PP, PS and PVC can cause further problems, as
CO and smoke may be produced. As a result of
incomplete combustion of PVC also dioxins and other
hazardous substances may be formed. The burning of
9

plastics releases CO
2
which is a major contributor to
the global warming problem.
3 PLASTICS WASTE RECYCLING
PROCESSES
Plastics recycling or reprocessing is usually referred to
as the process by which plastic waste material that
would otherwise become solid waste are collected,
separated, processed and returned to use (Lardinois and
Van de Klundert, 1995). Figure 7 shows an online of
the waste plastics reprocessing stream in Accra, Ghana
and other economically less developed countries.
Developing an efficient and cost-effective method for
recycling waste plastics that have served their intended
purpose, retrieving them from the waste stream and
getting them back into the manufacturing process
requires collection, sorting and cleaning and finally
reclamation. For homogeneous plastic waste streams
recycling by mechanical (or physical) methods is the
economically preferred recovery option. Heterogeneous
plastic waste streams however are more efficiently
treated or handled by chemical and thermal processes,
for recovery of basic chemicals and /or energy (Gaiker-
IVL and KTH, 2005). These processes are briefly
discussed below.
3.1 Mechanical Recycling
Mechanical recycling is the material reprocessing of
waste plastics by physical means into plastics products.
The sorted plastics are cleaned and processed directly
into end products or into flakes or pellets of consistent
quality acceptable to manufactures. The steps taken to
recycle post-consumer plastics may vary from operation
to operation, but typically involve inspection for
removal of contaminants or further sorting, grinding,
washing and drying and conversion into either flakes or
pellets.
Pellets are made by melting down the dry plastic flakes
and then extruding it into thin strands that are chopped
into small, uniform pieces. The molten plastic is forced
through a fine screen (filter) to remove any
contaminants that may have eluded the washing cycle.
The strands are cooled, chopped into pellets and stored
for sale and shipment. Different plastics may also under
different reforming conditions such as different
processing temperatures, the use of vacuum stripping,
or other procedures that could influence contaminant
levels. During the grinding or melting phases, the
reprocessed material may be blended with virgin
polymer or compounded with additives.
Mechanical recycling is the preferred recovery route for
homogeneous and relatively clean plastics waste
streams, provided end markets exist for the resultant
recyclate. It is the second largest recovery technique
after energy recovery in Europe representing 13.6% and
14.8% in 2002 and 2003 respectively of total plastic
waste recovered (APME, 2002-2003). This technique is
also well suited for developing countries since it is less
cost-intensive compared to the others. It is mechanical
recycling that is currently being employed in Accra,
Ghana to recycle about 50% of the plastic waste that is
generated in the city daily.
3.2 Feedstock or Chemical Recycling
Chemical recycling or feedstock recycling means that a
polymeric product could be broken down into its
individual components (monomers for plastics or
hydrocarbon feedstock synthesis gas) and that these
components could then be fed back as raw material to
reproduce the original product or others. Feedstock
recycling include chemical depolymerisation (glycolysis,
methanolysis, hydrolysis, ammonolysis etc), gasification
and partial oxidation, thermal degradation (thermal
cracking, pyrolisis, steam cracking, etc), catalytic
cracking and reforming, and hydrogenation. Besides
conventional treatments (pyrolisis, gasification), new
technological approaches for the degradation of
plastics, such as conversion under supercritical
conditions and co processing with coal are being tested
(Aguado and Serrano, 1999).
This technique of recycling is however not suitable for
developing countries. This is because it requires a lot of
expertise, capital intensive and is quite cumbersome.
Even in the developed countries, it is still under
development and is being practiced by only a few
companies. A number of companies have successfully
developed and demonstrated technologies many of
which can process mixed plastics streams. There has
been some renewed interest in other areas of feedstock
recycling, such as the depolymerisation of PET or
treatment of PVC to make chemicals which can then be
used in the production of new plastics (APME, 2002-
2003).
3.3 Energy Recovery
Plastics are almost all derived from oil and plastic
wastes is a waste with a high calorific value. Energy
recovered from plastic waste can make a major
contribution to energy production. Plastics can be co-
incinerated with other wastes or used as alternative fuel
(e.g. coal) in several industry processes (cement kilns).
The energy content of plastic waste can be recovered in
other thermal and chemical processes such as pyrolisis.
As plastic waste is continuously being recycled, they
loss their physical and chemical properties at their end-
of-life cycle. Continuous recycling could lead to
substandard and low quality products. Hence it would
no longer be economically profitable to recycle any
longer. Incineration with energy recovery would be the
economically preferred option at this stage. Table 3(see
appendix) shows the Lock In Potential (LIP) rating
10

waste

Small
reprocessing
industries
Initial reprocessors/scrape
dealers
Dumpsite
contractors
Small traders Scrap dealers
Waste pickers Itinerant waste buyers
Municipal waste Commercial Industrial/Agricu
ltural waste
Figure 8 Informal plastics recycling network in Istanbul (Source: Adapted from Konings, 1989)
for a range of common plastics compared with that of
conventional fuels (Horrocks, 1996). It can be seen for
a range of common plastics compared with that of
conventional fuels (Horrocks, 1996). It can be seenfrom
the above figure that the energy of 1 litre of diesel oil =
LIP of 1 kgm of polyolefin.
In 2003, 4,750,000 tonnes of post-user plastics waste
collected in Western Europe was reclaimed through
energy recovery. This represented 22.5% of total
collectable waste plastics and means energy recovery
remains the most common recovery route for post-user
plastics waste in Western Europe. Capacity expansions
and new incineration plants have led to an increase in
energy recovery capabilities in countries across Western
Europe (APME, 2002-2003). This technique of
recycling if not developed to the highest level can result
in emissions which will pollute the atmosphere and also
contribute to the current global warming issue. There is
an exemplary incineration plant in Austria that is
worthy of emulation. It has been developed with such
high technology that emission levels are very low and
conforms to EU directives on climate change.
Numerous other examples also abound in Sweden.
Ghana as a developing country may not be able to
adapt it now for lack of capital and technological know-
how.
11

4 INITIAL UPGRADING
TECHNIQUES
4.1 Collection
Waste plastics from municipal sources (i.e. refuse
containers and waste dumps), are collected by hand and
are roughly pre-selected by waste pickers or primary
traders. This stage is labour-intensive and requires little
capital investment. There are several points within a
municipal solid waste system where waste can be
retrieved for recovery: at source, i.e. directly from
private homes; from waste bins; from refuse collection
vehicles; and at municipal waste dumps (Cointreau,
1984). In general, the nearer to the source, the less
mixed and dirty will be the materials.
In Ghana, the only medium scale recycling company,
Blowplast Limited has an organized network of about
100 people engaged in collecting plastic waste sachets.
They supply the companys 14 trucks that regularly pick
up the waste in the various areas of Accra. The plastic
wastes are transported to Tema where they are stored in
a depot or warehouse that belongs to the company. The
company collects between 7-8 tonnes of waste plastics
sachet per day, but the capacity of the recycling plant is
24 tonnes. The company pays 2000 cedis per kilo of
waste plastic sachet. One kilo contains about 200 plastic
waste sachets. Some people can collect up to 200 kg per
day. Hence some collectors have become so rich that
they have also organized people below them to collect
the plastic sachets.
An organizational network such as the one shown
below could be adapted if the recycling process is well
developed. Figure 8 shows an informal plastics
recycling network in Istanbul.
4.2 Cleaning
The cleaning stage consists of washing and drying the
plastic items. A number of these techniques are
described in the following, together with some
illustrative examples of the cleaning processes that are
used in a number of cities.
4.2.1 Washing
It is important that the waste plastics are washed,
because clean waste materials fetch better prices and
they improve the quality of the end product. The
plastics can be washed at various stages of reprocessing:
before, after, or even during sorting. Films and rigid
materials are usually cleaned before the size reduction
stage. Foreign materials such as glued paper labels are
also removed. Rigid plastics are often washed a second
time after they are shredded.
The plastic waste material can be washed manually or
mechanically. Manual washing may be done in oil
drums that have been cut in half, in bath tubs or in
specially built basins, and the water may be stirred with
a paddle. If the waste is greasy, hot water with soap,
detergent (e.g. from scrap detergent bottles) or caustic
soda should be used (Lardinois and Van de Klundert,
1995).
The waste plastics can also be washed mechanically. At
Blowplast, the waste plastics are washed mechanically.
In the mechanical washing installation, a water-filled
basin is equipped with a motor that drives a set of
paddles at low speed. The plastic materials are left to
soak for several hours, while they are stirred
continuously by the paddles. Dirt (mainly sand) settles
out during the process, and the clean plastic material is
removed with a drainer.
All waste plastics need to be washed, except for some
rejected materials from industrial and commercial
sources. The washed and unwashed fractions should be
kept separate from non-plastics and dirt.
4.2.2 Drying
Washing and drying waste plastics are not separate
activities but tend to be carried out within the same
unit. As with washing, plastics waste can be dried either
manually or mechanically. With the manual method the
plastics are spread out in the sun to dry, and turned
regularly. Plastic films can be hung on lines and thus
require only half the area normally used when plastics
are spread out to dry. At Blowplast, the drying process
is carried out mechanically. A water drier, which in
principle is a thermal drying machine at 70
0
C, is used to
dry the washed shredded plastic waste.
4.3 Sorting
While plastics waste can be recycled in mixed form to
make plastic lumber products, separated plastics have
higher values and are preferred by most reclaimers.The
degree of sorting of plastics waste varies considerably,
depending on the demand and the special wishes of the
manufacturers to whom it will be sold. The waste
plastics may be sorted at any stage in the recycling
process, according to colour, type of plastic, etc. The
sorting stage is therefore crucial in plastic recycling and
for that reason available sorting techniques are
described below.
4.3.1 Manual sorting
Manual sorting of waste plastics is the identification of
different materials by people with a trained eye while
the materials pass by them on a moving conveyor
(Scheirs, 1998). The materials are identified by the id-
codes and by the different characteristics of the plastics
that distinguishes it for visual identification.
At Blowplast in Ghana, the sorting is done manually
using a flat conveyor with about five boys on each side
who try to look for metals, stones, etc. But sorting of
materials is not necessary as Blowplast only recycles one
specific grade of material PE
(HDPE+LDPE/LLDPE). There are also metal
12

detectors attached to the conveyor which rejects ferrous
and non-ferrous metals.
Manual sorting techniques can be used where the
plastic components are large enough to justify the time
and effort involved, since the method is very labour
intensive, has bad working environment and is
economically unviable. The possibility of human errors
should not be neglected. The materials are used for low
value applications (Scheirs, 1998).
4.3.2 Density-based sorting methods
Sorting by density technique is carried out in a float-
sink tank or hydrocyclone. This method however is
poor for polyolefins as these have very similar densities.
It is also impossible to separate PVC and PET, since
their specific gravities overlap. The density can be
altered by different fillers in the materials, which makes
it difficult to have a complete separation (Tall, 2002).
In the float-sink separation, the plastics are placed in a
fluid that has a density in-between the materials making
it possible for less dense materials to float and the
heavier to sink. Common fluids used are: water for the
separation of polyolefins from other plastics.
Water/methanol mixtures for separation of plastics
with lower specific gravities, NaCl solutions and ZnCl
2
solutions for plastics with higher specific gravities
(Scheirs,1998). Float baths can be arranged in a series,
with each bath set at a desired specific gravity to sort
the materials. Pumps provide circulation and direct the
flow.
The problems with this method are that the separation
can be slow, difficult to control and give low-purity
products. To achieve good separation, long retention
times are required to allow the flakes to settle. Since the
method uses gravity for separation, it is essential that
the sizes of the material flakes are equal throughout the
mix.
One of the advantages of this separation is that before
the plastic mixture is introduced to the separation fluid,
the collected materials are exposed to wet grinding,
where the paper labels and dirt particles are removed
(Scheirs, 1998).
The hydrocyclone uses the principle of centrifugal
acceleration to separate plastic mixtures. The mixed
plastics waste is separated first from polyolefins, then
polystyrene and finally PVC and other materials.
Plastics that are hard to separate with float-sink
method, such as PE from PP or PS from a mixture of
PVC and nylon, can be sorted by using an appropriate
medium in the centrifuge. Dirt and paper labels are
pulled off in the process.
The technique can selectively separate, wash and
dewater plastic flakes from a mixture of plastics waste
materials. The apparatus used is a double-cone, solid
bowl screw centrifuge. This achieves efficiency of over
99.5% purity. The separation is fast and has a high
selectivity, achieved by high speed rotation, because the
equipment can produce a centrifugal field of 1000-1500
times higher than the acceleration accomplished due to
gravity.
4.3.3 Sor ing by selective dissolution t
Sorting by selective dissolution is based on batch
dissolution of mixed plastics using solvents. A complete
separation of the plastics can be obtained by careful
control of temperature and selection of solvent.
The same solvent can be used for separation of PS,
LDPE, HDPE, PP and PVC, because these plastics
dissolve at different temperatures. When the plastic mix
is added to the solvent tank, PS dissolves almost
immediately. The PS solution is drained and another
hotter batch (75
0
C) of solvent is added dissolving
LDPE. The solution is drained again and a batch of
120
0
C warm solvent is added and HDPE dissolves and
so on. If PVC and PET are to be separated, a mixture
of solvents is used in which PVC dissolves at a lower
temperature than PET (Gaiker-IVL and KTH, 2005).
The advantages of this method are that: individual
plastics can be separated from complex mixtures,
contaminations such as dirt or soil or food residues do
not cause any problems, labour requirement is minimal
and the recycled plastics are chemically and functionally
equivalent to the virgin plastics.
The disadvantage of this technique is the amount of
solvent used, even though most of the solvents are
recycled within the process. It is also important to
control the levels of residual solvent in the recycled
plastic and to restabilise the separated material since
additives are extracted during dissolution (Baldisimo,
1985).
Other sorting techniques are: Optical sorting,
Spectroscopic-based sorting, Electrostatic sorting and
sorting by differential melting temperature.
5 SIZE REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
Size reduction techniques such as cutting, shredding
and agglomeration of the waste plastic articles serve to
increase the density of the material. This "densification"
helps to reduce transport costs, and the smaller pieces
can be more easily fed into further reprocessing
machines. There are many variations of the techniques
and procedures that can be applied. These are described
below with some illustrative examples from
economically less developed countries.
5.1 Cutting
The first step in the process of plastics waste
transformation involves cutting up the waste plastic
materials into smaller pieces. This is needed for items
such as jerry cans, plastic bottles and buckets which are
too large to fit into the hopper of the shredder. These
13

items can be cut first with a circular saw or with a
bandsaw, as shown in Figure 9. The cut pieces either
fall to the floor to be collected later, or are thrown
directly into a washbasin before being fed into the
shredder. Uncut soft plastics tend to stick in the spiral
screw of an extruder and therefore usually not fed
directly into this machine.
In Manila, soft plastics such as films and sheets are cut
into 5cm strips with ordinary scissors to prevent
damage to the palletizing machine (CAPS, 1992). In
Cairo, the sorted and washed plastics are cut into small
pieces with special scissors fixed on a wooden base. It is
estimated that three labourers, each using a pair of
scissors can cut up one tonne, of sorted plastics per day
(EQI, 1991).
5.2 Shredding
The shredding process consists of feeding the cut
plastic pieces into a shredder. The clean pieces selected
according to product form, plastic type and colour are
fed into the hopper on top of the shredder as shown in
Figure 10 below. In Ghana, the rotating cutting blades
of the shredder then shred the plastic sachets into
pieces of 50 mm in diameter. When the pieces are small
enough, they fall through a grid into a tray.
In the shredder shown above, the rotating blades are
driven by an electric motor located behind the machine;
the belt transmission is visible on the left. A bag or
piece of cloth covers the hopper to prevent pieces of
plastic being thrown back by the rotating blades. The
shredded material is scooped into bags from the tray to
be stored, or is fed directly into an extruder. Figure 11

l

Figure 10.
Shredder with
a horizonta
axis in
Istanbul
Source: Waste
consultants
shows a schematic overview of the interior of a
shredder, which can have either a horizontal or a
vertical axis.
Figure 12 shows the inside of a shredder equipped with
two rotating cutting blades, one of which is visible on
top of the rotor. On the right, attached by three bolts,
the adjustable blade can be seen. At the bottom of the
drum is a grid with holes that determine the size of the
final pieces. The cutting continues until the pieces are
small enough to fall through the grid.
Figure 9. Cutting of plastics with bandsaw
Source: WASTE Consultants
The end products of shredding are irregularly shaped
pieces of plastics that can then be sold to reprocessing
industries and workshops. Figure 13 shows shredded
PE produced from plastic water sachets, detergent
bottles, jerry cans, and other waste plastic containers.
The materials have been sorted according to colour, in
this case white. If the waste plastics have not already
been washed, the shredded pieces may then be washed
at this stage to remove any dirt or dust.
Depending on the quality and type of raw material, and
the desired quality of the end product, different types of
plastic waste may be mixed to a certain extent.
5.3 Agglomeration
Agglomeration is the coalescing of small particles into a
clump. It is not advisable to feed soft plastic waste,
such as bags and sheet plastics, directly into a shredder
or extruder. Preferably, an agglomerator should be used
to cut, pre-heat (or pre-plasticize) and dry these plastics.
Agglomeration improves the quality of the final
product. Also, it will increase the density of the
material, which results in a more continuous flow of
material in the extruder and thus, in an increase of
efficiency. The agglomerator is filled through the lid at
the top and its contents are emptied into bags via the
valve below. The plastic waste fed into the
agglomerator should be clean, since all foreign objects
will be processed together with the plastics, and will be
evident in the partially plasticized materials. They can
only be removed during the extrusion process. Figure
14 shows an agglomerator in use in Istanbul. In such a
machine, mechanical energy produced by the rotation
of the cutting blade at high speed is transformed into
heat through friction.
14

Figure. 11 Shows the interior of a Shredder with a horizontal axis

Source: Vog

ler, 1984

of a shredder.
Figure 12: The
rotor and
cutting blades
Source:
WASTE
Consultants.
15

Figure 13: Shredded PE

Figure 14: An agglomerator in Istanbul
Source: WASTE consultants

Figure 15: Inside of an agglomerator showing the cutting blade and
remains of fine- cut film.

Source: WASTE Consultants.

16

Figure 16: Agglomerated PE film
Source: WASTE Consults
The materials in the
gl shrinkage and partial
RTHER EPROCESSING
TECHNIQUES
le
steps ng process. These processes
ality of the
Pelletizing is the process of melting and extruding
plastics into small regularly

bulk density of the raw
omerator increases through ag
plasticization. When the material is cooled rapidly at
this stage, it solidifies as it is being cut, resulting in
coarse, irregularly shaped grains, often called crumbs.
Figure 15 shows the inside of an agglomerator, a cutting
blade with the remains of fine-cut film and Figure 16
shows the resulting product, in this case agglomerated
PE film
6 FU R
Pel tizing and product manufacturing are the final
in the plastics recycli
require that the waste plastics have first been sorted
according to plastic type, and that they have been cut
into small, relatively uniformly sized pieces. Shredded
and agglomerated materials can be used directly for
product manufacturing processes (except the pelletizing
stage), although this is not usually done.
Normally, the shredded and agglomerated waste
plastics are pelletized first. This way, the qu
moulded end products can be improved. The use of
pellets also increases the efficiency of the product
manufacturin process, due to the lower bulk density of
shredded and agglomerated waste plastics compared to
pellets. The most common moulding processes in low-
income or less economically developed countries are
extrusion, injection moulding and blow moulding. Film
blowing, the last technique described, is used in the
manufacture of plastic bags.
6.1 Pelletizing
g
small, clean pieces of
shaped pellets.
6.1.1 The Pelletizing Process
Shredded rigid plastic objects or agglomerated films are
subjected to the process of extrusion and pelletizing to
produce plastic pellets. These can then be used as the
input materials for various moulding processes. Besides
plastics, the process is also used to produce such
diverse materials as pasta (spaghetti) and some metals.
Figure 17 shows an example of an extruder in India.
The main parts of the extrusion phase are:
compounding (mixing) the various substances,
homogenization, compression, degassing, plasticization
and melt filtration. The pieces of plastic raw materials
(compounded with any desired additives, such as
pigments) are fed into the hopper of the extruder.
Figure 18 gives a schematic overview of the pelletizing
process.
The materials are picked up from the hopper by a
rotating screw, and are forced down the barrel to the
extrusion die head. Heat from friction and the heating
elements fitted around the barrel cause plasticization
and the special geometry of the screw compresses the
material. Electric heaters, water or air coolers are fitted
around the barrel to control the temperature. Just
before the materials reach the extrusion die head, they
are forced through a filter screen to remove any solid
particles.
The spaghetti-like plastic strings that emerge from the
extrusion die head are then cooled by passing them
through a basin of water or a ventilator. The strings
supported by rollers placed at the end of the water
basin, are then drawn by a mechanical system into the
pelletizer. Figure 19 shows the strings being extruded
from a machine in Turkey. The die head showed here
produces 24 strings to be cut into pellets. It is tilted in
such a way that a large part of each string is under
water. Figure 20 shows an example of a pelletizer.The
pelletizer chops the strings into short, uniform,
cylindrical pellets that are ready for use in
manufacturing processes. The plastic waste generated
by this process can be extruded again. The production
capacity of the pelletizing process depends on the size
of the extruder that is used.
6.1.2 Quality improvement
The quality of the pellets and thus of the final
manufactured products can be improved by adding the
following steps:
Virgin plastic pellets may be added at a ratio
depending on the desired quality of the end
product. The higher the percentage of virgin
material, the higher will be the quality.
If shredded rigid plastics are pre-heated in a
drying installation, the resulting pellets will be
higher in quality.

17

If the quality of the pellets is not high enough
ed with a ventilator to
In Manil the
6.2 Product Manufacturing
turing processes are
iping and tubing);
products);
Usually the demands on

aste plastics can be utilized. With other
Extrusion
of forming continuous shapes
of manufacturing

for the manufacture of consumer articles, the
pellets may be extruded a second time through
a finer filter screen. This reduces the moisture
content of reprocessed pellets that have been
cooled in a basin of water and therefore
increases its quality.
An extruder equipp
release humid hot air, reduces the porosity of
the pellets and thus improves their quality.
a, a classification system is used to denote
purity and quality of plastic pellets: Triple A (the
highest quality), double A, single A, B and C. The prices
of the pellets differ accordingly (CAPS, 1992).
A number of mechanical manufac
used by recycling enterprises to produce particular final
products, including:
Extrusion (p
Injection moulding (miscellaneous
Blow moulding (bottles); and
Film blowing (plastic bags).
the type of product and
physical properties will determine the ratio of
reprocessed to virgin plastics that can be used. For
massive final products, such as furniture and (fence)

Figure 17: Extruder in Bombay, India.

posts, 100% w
finer items, such as fishing nets, only a minimal amount
of waste plastics can be used in the form of shredded or
agglomerated waste plastics as well as pellets (CAPS,
1992). At Blowplast in Ghana however, film blowing is
the only product manufacturing process that is under
taken. The pellets obtained from recycling the plastic
waste are consumed or used at the plastic bag making
factory.
6.2.1
Extrusion is the process
by forcing molten plastic through a shaped die by
means of pressure. Extrusion moulding is similar to the
extrusion process preceding the pelletizing process
described in Section 6.1.1, except that the end product
is a continuous, parallel stream of plastic such as tubing.
This is made by a special die - a steel plate pierced with
a hole that determines the shape of the product. The
extruded material is cooled and solidified in air, in a
water bath, or on a chilled drum, before being wound
onto a reel or cut into straight lengths. The principle of
the technique is shown in Figure 21.
Figures 22 and 23 shows the process
soft PVC tubing which has two extrusion cycles. In the
first cycle, shredded PVC scrap is used to produce a
string of undefined shape. During this cycle, the
moisture content of the material is reduced and the
material is filtered and compounded with additives or
pigments. The second cycle uses the shredded strings

18

Figure 18: Extruder with a pelletizer
Source: Vogler, 1984

Figure 19

nts.
Extruder used
in Turkey.
Source:
A W STE
Consulta

19

Figure 21: The principle of extrusion moulding
Source: Vogler, 1984.
Figure 20: A
pelletizer

Consultants.
Source:
WASTE

20

Figure 22: Feeding extruded soft PVC into a shredding machine (first cycle).

21

Figure 24: The principle of injection moulding
Source: Vogler, 1984.

resulting from the first cycle to produce tubing. Again
e moisture content is reduced, the material is filtered
tion moulding process is similar to that of
ion lten plastic is forced from
th
and a die is put on the extruder to form the end
product
6.2.2 Injection Moulding
The injec
extrus , except that the mo
the barrel through a nozzle into a strong, split steel
mould, as shown in Figure 24.The rotating screw
conveys the plastic pellets or powder forward and the
heating elements plasticize it. The screw then stops
moving, allowing the melt to accumulate in the front
part of the barrel. When an adequate amount has

Figure 23: Soft PVC tubing being extruded (second
cycle).
Source: WASTE Consultants.

22

Figure 25: Shoe soles being removed from the
mould.

accumulated, the screw moves forward again, pushing
e melt into a closed steel mould. The mould is kept
ool so that the material quickly solidifies. The mould is

such as bottles,
where the tops or bottoms are narrower than the body
The ar to the one used in blowing
ost complicated of the
ct m processes. Various techniques
S
OF PLASTIC RECYCLING
7.1
The benefits of recycling can be categorized into
and social. These are briefly
environment and it must be treated
. If raw materials have
ances such as
th
c
then opened, the product is removed, and the mould is
then made ready for the next amount of melt. The
shape of the mould determines the type of product
produced. Figure 25 shows a mould used for the
production of flexible PVC shoe soles.
6.2.3 Blow moulding
The term "blow moulding" is used to describe the
process of producing hollow articles
itself. process is simil
glass objects. The principle of the process, which takes
place in two stages, is shown in Figure 26. First, a piece
of plastic tube or "parison" is extruded, and is then
transferred to a split mould with the shape of the final
product. The mould is then closed around the parison.
Compressed air is blown into the open end to expand
the parison to the shape of the mould. The formed
shape is allowed to cool until the finished object
solidifies, which is then ejected from the mould and the
cycle is repeated. The production capacities of the blow
moulding machines used in Cairo, for example, vary
between 100 and 200 kg of final products per day,
depending on the power of the motor, which can range
from 10 to 15 HP (EQI, 1991).
6.2.4 Film Blowing
Film blowing is technically the m
produ anufacturing
are used. The process of making garbage bags for
example shown in Figure 27 is as follows. After
extrusion from a tubular die, the product, in this case a
thin tube, moves upward to a film tower that contains a
collapsing frame, guide rolls and motor-driven pull
rolls. Compressed air is passed through the centre of
the die and inflates the tube. The outside surface is
cooled by air from an air ring mounted above the die.
When the tube has passed through the pull rolls, it is
sealed and cut to form the bag. For this process only
high-quality pellets can be used as the raw material.
7 IMPORTANCE AND BOTTLENECK
Importance
environmental, economic
explained below.
7.1.1 Environmental
There is only one
with the respect it deserves
already been extracted then it makes sense to use them
again if possible. This means that reserves last longer
into the future. Moreover, recycling of plastic waste
conserves natural resources, particularly raw materials
such as oil and energy. The more that is recycled, the
longer will natural resources be available for future
generations. It means that there is less environmental
impact due to mining, quarrying, oil and gas drilling,
deforestation and the likes. If there are fewer of these
operations, the environment will be safe from
continuous destruction and degradation.
Another positive effect of recycling on the environment
is that it may reduce emissions of subst
carbon dioxide (CO
2
) into the atmosphere. From life-
cycle analysis of reprocessed plastics and virgin plastics,
it is known that the emissions of CO
2
, SO
2
, NO
X
(NO
and NO
2
) are much smaller for recycled plastics
compared to that for virgin materials (Lardinois and
Van de Klundert, 1995). Hence the environment will be
better safe from air pollution and global warming if
recycling is adopted on large scales. Recycling of plastic
wastes will also safe both ground and surface waters
from pollution. This is because if discarded randomly,
they choke gutters and even find their way into water
bodies that serve as sources of drinking water for
communities and towns. They also help to breed
leachate that can seep into the ground thereby
contaminating groundwater bodies as well.

23

Figure 26: The principle of blow moulding.

4. Source: Vogler, 198

Figure 27: The production of garbage bags.


24

7.1.2 Economic
esource recovery reduces the quantity of raw materials
eeded in production processes. The reuse of plastics
ay therefore help to reduce the dependence on
ported raw materials and to save foreign currency.
f virgin plastics as a result of
o fight cholera
y result from the rubbish heaps.
the waste
management requirements that our society needs in
lopment. There are still some
terms of polymer composition and the
an extensive cleaning and
TH).
ration

d technical
to the
ds and specifications of
R
n
m
im
Due to increasing cost o
dwindling oil reserves, the use of reprocessed pellets for
product manufacture will save recycling companies
from folding up as a result of high cost of importation
of virgin pellets. According to Mr. Manoj Lakhiani, the
managing director of Blowplast Ltd, a plastic
manufacturing company in Ghana, that is one of his
main reasons for establishing a recycling company. The
funds that accrue as a result can then be channeled into
other areas that could lead to higher profits. The
University of Nottingham in the UK has recently
conducted life-cycle analyses of materials
consumption, energy use and emissions for both virgin
and recycled low-density polyethylene (LDPE), a type
of plastic. From this study it can be concluded that the
use of reprocessed pellets in the production of plastic
bags saves around 70% in energy use and 90% in water
use, compared to the use of pellets made of virgin
material (Lardinois and Van de Klundert, 1995). The
low energy and water consumption will save recycling
companies from paying huge bills that could otherwise
have adverse effect on their operations.
7.1.3 Social
Recycling of plastic wastes helps to keep the
environment clean. Therefore diseases associated with
filth will be prevented and this will save foreign
exchange in the importation of drugs t
and malaria that ma
Recycling will also create a healthy environment for
tourists attraction Recycling is a source of job creation.
Through recycling, numerous poor people will get
employed particularly at the collection stage and hence
be able to earn their living. This will help raise social
standards and to eliminate vices in society.
7.2 Bottlenecks
Plastic waste recycling has increased the world over and
has been largely successful. Nevertheless, much more
effort must be done in order to reach
terms of sustainable deve
difficulties that the plastic recycling industry must
overcome regarding technological bottlenecks and
those of demand from end-markets for the recycled
materials.
7.2.1 Technological
Development of automatic and effective separation
methods for mixed plastic waste streams continues to
be a problem. The complex nature of the plastic waste
streams in
presence of impurities require
separation pre-treatments prior to reprocessing. Some
studies have been done in order to evaluate to what
degree separation brings value to waste plastics as raw
materials for new products (Gaiker-IVL and K
There is also still no known technology for the recycling
of mixed plastic wastes. The plastic waste may contain a
large number of hazardous compounds that makes
difficult the recycling processes, such as degradation
products of additives, brominated flame retardants, etc.
It is therefore necessary to develop techniques to
identify, quantify and extract these products from
plastic prior to recycling them. Some efforts have been
done in this direction (Gaiker-IVL and KTH).
The optimal solution to the plastic waste management
problems will be provided by the conjunction of the
different treatment alternatives available (i.e. mechanical
recycling, feedstock recycling and energy recovery).
Therefore, it is necessary to achieve a good integ
between all the aspects of the recycling activity
(collection and separation of the waste streams,
characterization methods for recycled plastics,
identification of the optimal treatment technique, etc)
7.2.2 Market
The potential demand for plastic recyclates by end
market is determined by two factors. These are market
acceptance, i.e. whether consumers are willing to accept
recycled products based on the image of recyclates or
on health and safety requirements an
acceptance, i.e. the need to assess the desired
performance of products and suitability for
manufacturing processes. Regarding these factors, the
following general bottlenecks may be considered.
Quality assessment is a matter of significant importance
in order to guarantee a suitable usage of recycled plastic
materials in further applications, since the properties of
the recyclates must be specified and guaranteed within
narrow tolerances by the manufactures according
needs of their customers. Some researchers have cited
three key properties in order to guarantee the quality of
the recycled materials. These are degree of mixing
(composition), degree of degradation and the presence
of low-molecular weight compounds (degradation
products, contaminants, etc).
There are no standardized methods for measuring the
critical properties of recycled plastic materials. This
goes a long way to affect the quality of recycled plastic
products and hence their marketability.
Characterization, test metho
plastic families should be made putting the stress on the
identification and quantification of significant
properties and their critical values for specific recycled
groups depending on their source and their foreseen
end applications (Gaiker-IVL and KTH). There is also a
mismatch between the availability of potential plastic
waste material and demand of recycled plastic products
25

due to a probable mistrust of the consumers for the
properties of the recyclates. This inconvenience is
related to the above mentioned requirements of
methods for quality assessment and standardization of
the properties of the recycled materials and to the lack
of information and appropriate marketing for the use of
post-consumer products.
8 CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 Conclusion
From the viewpoint of environmental health
disposal of waste is
al considered to be the responsibility of
gove tions. However,
municipalities in many low-income countries are often
e ever-growing quantities of
nical recycling, should be
st recycling. It is my candid
ded purpose of
contributing to waste management in Accra, the
be helpful.
will be
levy can be
waste
ding or power rationing. Hence for
management, the collection and
usu ly
rnment or municipal institu
unable to cope with th
waste because of inadequate public funds, increasing
populations, the lack of equipment and spare parts, and
often poorly trained staff.
It is against this background that informal resource
recovery (recycling) needs to be supported in order to
improve existing practices and to integrate it within
municipal solid waste management systems. The
various recycling possibilities enumerated in this thesis
work particularly mecha
incorporated at both the implementation and policy
levels of municipal waste management. For recycling to
achieve its intended purpose, government authorities
must play an important role in the promotion and
viability of plastics reprocessing activities not only by
their approaches to local waste management but also by
the economic policies they adopt. For example, import
regulations on virgin pellets may determine the viability
and feasibility of recycling. Mechanical recycling is a
major consumer of energy and giving subsides to
recycling companies on their energy consumption, will
boost their profit margins and enable them stay in
business for a longer time.
The AMA which is the body responsible for waste
management in the city of Accra also needs to provide
public reclamation facilities at vantage points for
residence to drop their waste in. In this way, source
separation could be encouraged or enhanced and that
would go a long way to boo
hope that if the recycling processes outlined in this
thesis work are implemented, the plastic waste menace
and its environmental impacts in Accra, Ghana will be
minimized if not eliminated. For an effective and
efficient waste management however, there should be
an integrated approach as depicted in the waste
management hierarchy.
8.2 Recommendations.
For recycling to achieve its inten

following recommendations might
Environmental consciousness is certainly of paramount
importance. This is where well designed and continued
public awareness campaigns and education
useful. People must be educated on the need to protect
and preserve the environment. Environmental by-laws
on improper littering and illegal dumping must be
strictly enforced. Offenders must be reprimanded to
serve as detriment to others. In this vain, the AMA
should endeavour to provide litter bins at vantage
points for people to drop in their waste.
The plastic manufacturing companies in Accra should
be made to contribute some finances towards the
plastic waste management in the city. A
placed on each water sachet bag or polyethylene bag
produced. All such monies can be channeled to the
AMA waste management department who can then
employ people to clean up the waste plastics on the
streets. These can then also be sold to the recycling
companies for use in their production processes.
Redemption points can be established for presentation
and collection of the used plastic sachet bags and
polyethylene bags for a token. In this case, the
plastic sachets become money and people will be willing
to deposit this for some cash. Thus a thrown away
sachet bag or polyethylene bag becomes money and
could be collected by anybody and redeemed for cash.
With this strategy, more people would be engaged in
plastic waste collection thereby cleaning up the
environment.
Mechanical recycling is a major consumer of energy but
Ghana is currently experiencing energy crisis resulting
in load shed
mechanical recycling to be successful, the current
energy situation must be addressed and recyclers given
subsidies to enable them stay in business. In this light, I
recommend future studies of energy recovery from
plastic waste to determine which one is the
economically viable option for plastic waste
management in Accra.

26

REFERENCE
Aguado, J. and Serrano, D. (1999). Feedstock Recycling
of Plastic wastes. RSC Clean Technology
Monographs. Royal Society of Chemistry,
Cambridge.
Association of Plastics Manufacturers in Europe
(APME) (2002-2003). Plastics in Europe-An
analysis of plastics consumption and recovery
in Europe.
Amankwah, A. (2005). Plastic Waste Wahala.
http:www.ghanaweb.com/public_agenda/arcticle
(access on 08 June, 2006).
Baldisimo, J.M.(1985). Recycling Potential of Solid
Wastes at source and disposal sites in Manila,
The Philippines.
Beumer, P.F.M. et al (1991). Arbeidsomstandigheden in
de chemische industrie: Overzicht van de
voornaamste knelpunten wat betreft de
blootstelling aan geluid, trillingen, gassen,
dampen en stof. Directoraat-Generaal van de
Arbeid Van het Ministerie Van Sociale Zaken
en Werkgelegenheid, Den Haag.
CAPS (1992). Recycling Activities in Metro Manila.
WAREN project WASTE CONSULTANTS,
The Netherlands
Cointreau, S. et al (1984). Recycling from municipal
refuse: A state-of-the-art review and annoted
bibliography. Integrated Resource Recovery.
Technical Paper Number 30 World Bank,
Washington, DC.
Ehrig, R.J. (1992). Plastics Recycling: Products and
Processes. Hanser Publishers, Munich.
Environment and Plastics Industry Council (EPIC).
Plastic Recycling Overview. Summary Report
by Environment and Plastics Industry Council
(EPIC). A Council of the Canadian Plastic
Industry Association. Available in
www.plastic.ca/epic.
EQI (1991). The recycling of solid waste in Cairo,
Egypt. WAREN project, WASTE
Consultants, The Netherlands.
Gaiker-IVL and KTH (2005). Technological Reference
Paper on Recycling Plastics.
GNA (2005). AMA to temporarily ban use of plastics.
http://www.ghanaweb.com/ghanahomepage/newsarch
ive/article(accesson12 June, 2006)
Halbekath, J. (1989). The hazards of recycling plastics.
Horrocks, R. A. (1996). Recycling Textile and Plastic
Waste. Woodhead publishing Limited,
Cambridge, England.
IRIN (2006). Government declares recycling war on
plastic waste
http://www.irinnews.org (access on 08 June, 2006)
IRIN (2004). Ghana: No to water in plastic bags.
http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/ghanaplastic.htm
(08 June, 2006)
Konings, P. (1989). Small-scale industrial reprocessing
of plastics: A fieldstudy in Istanbul, Turkey.
Waste Consultants/Delft University of
Technology, Netherlands.
Lardinois, I. and Klundert, A. (1995). Plastic Waste:
Options for Small Scale Recovery. The
Netherlands: Waste Consultants.
Mewis, J. (1983). Gevaarlijke stoffen. Monografieen
leefmilienu. De Nederlandse boekhandel,
Antwerp/Amsterdam.
Nagelhout, D. (1989). Information document waste
plastics. Report number 738902005. RIVM,
Bilthoren.
Scheirs, J. (1998). Polymer Recycling. Wiley, Chiches,
UK.
Saechtling, H. (1987). International Plastics Handbook
for the Technologist, Engineer and User, 2nd
edition. Hanser Publishes, Munich.
Schouten, A.E. and Van der Vegt, A.K. (1991). Plastics,
9th edition. Delta Press BV, Amerongen.
Tall, S. (2002). Recycling of Mixed Plastic Waste Is
Separation Worthwhile? PhD Thesis,
Department of Polymer Technology, Royal
Institute of Technology, Stockholm-Sweden.
TNO (1993). Emissiefactoren Kunststof-en
rubberverwerkende industrie. Publikatiereeks
Emissieregistratie Nr.11. Ministry of
Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en
Milieubeheer, The Hague, Netherlands.
Vogler, J. (1984). Small-Scale Recycling of Plastics.
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environmental impact of rapid urbanization in
the peri-urban area of Accra, Ghana.

27

9 APPENDIX
Table 1 Households by mode of solid waste disposal and district
Solid waste disposal AMA Ga Tema
Dangme
West
Dabgme
East
All Districts
Collected 20.9 12.0 29.5 2.1 0.4 19.5
Burned by household 6.9 24.5 11.6 21.0 33.7 12.2
Public dump 62.7 33.9 37.9 37.8 32.0 51.4
Dumped elsewhere 5.8 21.6 13.7 32.8 26.2 11.5
Buried by household 3.1 7.7 5.9 5.3 7.4 4.6
Others 0.7 0.3 1.4 0.9 0.3 0.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Population 364,841 119,316 105,520 18,641 17,426 625,744

28

Table 2. Characteristics of Recyclable Plastics

Resin type

Density
(g/cm
3
)

Softening or
melting range (
0
C)
Properties/applications

Low-density
Polyethylene
(LDPE)
0.910-0.925

102-112

Largest volume resin for packaging;
moisture proof transparent film.
High-density
polyethylene
(HDPE)

0.94-0.96

125-135

Tough, flexible and translucent
material, used primarily in packaging;
product examples include milk and
detergent bottles, heavy-duty films,
wire and cable insulation
Polypropylene
(PP)

0.90

160-165

Stiff, heat and chemical resistant,
used in furniture and furnishings,
packaging; product examples include
drinking straws, finishing nets, food
containers, and vehicle bumpers.
Polystyrene
(PS)

1.04-1.10

70-115

Brittle, transparent, rigid, easy to
process, used in packaging and
consumer products; product
examples include foam take-away
containers insulation board, cassette
and compact disc cases.
Polyvinyl
chloride
(PVC)

1.30-1.35

150-200

Hard, brittle and difficult to process,
but processed easily using additives;
a wide variety of properties and
manufacturing techniques are
possible using different copolymers
and additives; product examples
include sheet bottles, house siding,
cable insulation.
Source: Hegberg, B.A et al (1992)

29

Table 3. Locked-in potential (LIP) expressed as calorific value for a range of material

Product Energy
Polymer

LIP (MJ/kg)

Prolypropylene

Polyethylene

Polystrene

Polyurethane

Polyester

PVC
46

46

41

24-31

19-30

20
Conventional Fuels

Energy (MJ/kg)
Diesel Oil

Naphtha

Carbon

Wood

Paper

46

42-46

21-33

16-21

16-19

Source: Horrocks, R., 1996

30

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