CSP Direct Elections

COMPARATIVE STATE PRACTICE:
DIRECT ELECTIONS

Legal Memorandum

October 2013

DIRECT ELECTIONS

Executive Summary

The purpose of this memo is to explore the links between direct elections,
voter participation, and accountability of government officials. A direct election is
an electoral process in which eligible members of a population vote for politicians
to represent them, rather than elect an intermediary body, such as a political party
or an electoral college system, that then selects the politicians. In the last 30 years,
political movements and scholars have sought to encourage governments to adopt
direct elections to increase voter participation, curb political corruption, and
promote greater accountability of government officials to their constituents. Direct
elections may lead to increased voter participation; however, the switch from
indirect to direct elections may also decrease voter participation due to the actual
efficiency of the direct electoral process, voters perception of the fairness of the
direct electoral system, and the individual economic status and population density
of a state.

This memo discuses direct elections in Finland and Slovakia. In both
instances, direct elections were implemented to address fears of excessive
presidential powers. Although voter turnout in Finland and Slovakia have not
increased dramatically since the implementation of direct elections, in both states
voter confidence over the electoral process has increased.

Finland currently operates as a parliamentary democracy and first held direct
presidential elections in 1994 to curb executive power. Voter turnout in both
parliamentary and presidential elections has remained stable and relatively high
since 1994. The adoption of direct presidential elections has given the Finnish
people the power to hold their presidents accountable for their actions while in
office. This has resulted in greater voter confidence in the election process.

Slovakia operates as a parliamentary democracy with a president as the
ceremonial head of power and a prime minister as the head of the government and
the parliament. In 1999, the parliament adopted a new law to allow for direct
presidential elections to overcome a constitutional crisis, and to end the autocratic
reign of Prime Minister Vladimr Meciar. In the short term, direct elections
increased voter turnout, as many voters took to the polls to vote against Meciars
bid for the presidency in 1999. However, voter turnout has declined in recent
years due to reduced interest in voting, political corruption, and governmental
interference with the direct electoral voting process.
Direct Elections, October 2013

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Statement of Purpose 1

Introduction 1

Global Trends 2

Effect of Direct Elections on Voter Participation 3
Multiple Elections: Voter Fatigue 4
Voter Confidence in Electoral Fairness 5

Effect of Direct Elections on Accountability of Public Officials 6
Electoral Volatility 7
Well-Informed Electorate 7

Finland 8
Lead-up to Reform 9
Reform: Direct Presidential Election 9
Effects of Reform and Subsequent Actions 9
Lessons Learned 11

Slovakia 12
Lead-up to Reform 12
Reform: Direct Presidential Election 14
Effects of Reform and Subsequent Actions 15
Lessons Learned 16

Conclusion 17

1
DIRECT ELECTIONS

Statement of Purpose

The purpose of this memo is to explore the links between direct elections,
voter participation, and accountability of government officials.

Introduction

A direct election is an electoral process in which eligible members of a
population vote for the politicians they want to represent them.
1
In contrast,
indirect elections are those in which citizens vote for representatives who will elect
their leaders for them, such as a political party or an electoral college system.
2
A
majority of the democracies in the world hold direct elections to elect heads of
state, parliament, or other government officials.
3
In the last 30 years, a growing
movement has developed to push for governments to adopt direct elections in lieu
of indirect elections for a number of reasons.
4
Primarily, direct elections are
viewed as a way to increase voter participation, to curb political corruption, and to
promote greater accountability of government officials to the citizens who elected
them.
5
The push for direct elections in states such as Japan, the Czech Republic,
and Turkey has recently enlivened the debate as to whether direct elections lead to
increased voter participation and greater accountability of government officials.
6

In order to examine the relationship between direct elections, voter
participation, and accountability, this memo discusses the effect of direct elections
in Finland and Slovakia. Finland and Slovakia have utilized direct elections to

1
Reform Options for the Electoral College, THE CENTER FOR VOTING AND DEMOCRACY (Dec. 11, 2009), available
at http://archive.fairvote.org/e_college/reform.htm.
2
Andre Blais, Louis Massicotte and Agnieszka Dobrzynska, Direct Presidential Elections: a World Summary, 16.4
ELECTORAL STUDIES 441, 443 (1997).
3
4
5
Joel Rheuben, A Presidential Prime Minister: Japans Direct Election Debate, 24 JOURNAL OF JAPANESE LAW 81,
97 (2007), available at
http://sydney.edu.au/law/anjel/documents/ZJapanR/ZJapanR24/ZJapanR24_10_Rheuben.pdf.
6
http://sydney.edu.au/law/anjel/documents/ZJapanR/ZJapanR24/ZJapanR24_10_Rheuben.pdf; see also, Sinan Ikinci,
Turkey: Referendum Planned for Direct Election of President, INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE FOURTH
INTERNATIONAL (Oct. 6, 2007), available at https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2007/10/turk-o06.html; Czech
Republic to Hold First Direct Presidential Election in January, NEW EUROPE ONLINE (Aug. 2012), available at
http://www.neurope.eu/article/czech-republic-hold-first-direct-presidential-election-january.
2
curb excessive presidential powers, by increasing the power of voters to hold the
president accountable.

The Finnish direct electoral system demonstrates a successful transition
from an indirect to a direct electoral process. Finland employed an indirect
electoral system until 1994, when the Finnish government reformed the
constitution and adopted direct elections, in part to lessen Finnish presidential
power. Finnish voter turnout has remained steady in both parliamentary and
presidential direct elections since 1994.

Slovakias transition from an indirect to direct electoral system reflects an
electoral process altered during a period of great constitutional reform. Slovakia
maintained an indirect electoral system until 1998, when the Slovak government
reformed the constitution and adopted direct parliamentary elections to remove an
authoritarian ruler, Vladimr Meciar, from power. In 1999, Slovakia held its first
direct presidential election, in which voter turnout was high and Meciar was not re-
elected. Slovak voter turnout has declined since 1999, in part because interest in
the electoral process has declined since the constitutional crisis was resolved. This
decline in voter turnout also reflects that Slovak voters are more concerned with
the accountability of their governmental officials when there is significant, ongoing
constitutional reform or political crisis.
7

Global Trends

In theory, the adoption of direct elections creates a more responsible and
representative democracy in which voter participation is relatively high and
government officials are held accountable for their actions.
8
In the last 30 years,
many states have either switched to direct presidential or prime ministerial
elections or have discussed the possibility of doing so. In August 2012, the Czech
Republic enacted a bill to allow for direct presidential elections. The first direct
presidential election was held in early 2013.
9

7
Alexander C. Pacek, Grigore Pop-Eleches and Joshua A. Tucker, Disenchanted or Discerning: Voter Turnout in
Post-Communist Countries, 71. 2 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS 473 (2009), available at
http://www.princeton.edu/~gpop/Turnout%20JOP%202009_Pacek_PopEleches_Tucker.pdf.
8
9
Czech Republic Holds First Direct Presidential Election, NEW EUROPE ONLINE (August 2, 2012), available at
http://www.neurope.eu/article/czech-republic-hold-first-direct-presidential-election-january.
3
Additionally, in Japan and Turkey, proposals to adopt direct elections of top
leaders have become increasingly popular. In Japan, direct election of the prime
minister gained popularity because the Diet (parliament), which elects the prime
minister, consists of two houses that are often controlled by different parties.
10

This situation has led to instability in the political sphere as each party vies to win
the prime minister position.
11
Furthermore, election of chief executives at the local
level occurs through direct election, resulting in a disjointed process between the
national and regional levels.
12
Although Japans Constitution still calls for indirect
election of the prime minister, annual turnover in prime ministers since 2006 and
concerns of backroom dealings in past elections have sparked greater debate
among the Japanese population regarding the possibility of introducing a change to
the constitution.
13

In Turkey, direct election of the president gained support in order to permit
a renewable presidential term, rather than the non-renewable term system under the
former indirect electoral process.
14
Recent constitutional and legislative reforms
have opened the way for the first direct election of the Turkish president to occur
in 2014.
15
The popularity of the direct election movement in both Japan and
Turkey has enlivened the debate on the merits of direct elections.

Effect of Direct Elections on Voter Participation

Many political theorists have hypothesized that the incorporation of direct
popular elections has a positive effect on voter participation.
16
By giving voters
the opportunity to directly elect their leaders, voters believe that their votes

10
Hitora Tadashi, Should the Public Elect the Prime Minister? NIPPON (June, 2012), available at
http://www.nippon.com/en/genre/politics/l00027/.
11
12
13
JAPAN CONST., art. 67 (1947), available at
http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html; see also Hitora
Tadashi, Should the Public Elect the Prime Minister? NIPPON (June, 2012), available at
14
Turkey Seeks Directly Elected President, REUTERS, (May 8, 2007), available at
http://www.b92.net/eng/news/world.php?yyyy=2007&mm=05&dd=08&nav_id=41114.
15
TURKEY CONST., art. 101 (1982), available at http://global.tbmm.gov.tr/docs/constitution_en.pdf; see also Robert
Elgie, Turkey Law on Presidential Election, (Feb. 23, 2012), available at
http://www.semipresidentialism.com/?p=92.
16
4
actually make a difference in shaping their political system
17
and, as a result,
participate in the electoral process more willingly.
18
However, evaluating the
impact of direct elections on voter turnout is extremely difficult because voting
trends are largely tied to a states own practices and history.
19
State-specific
factors, such as the economic situation, population size and density, the efficiency
of the electoral process, voter fatigue from numerous elections, the voting
populations belief in the fairness of the electoral system, and the religious and
ethnic makeup of the voting population, all impact voter participation in
elections.
20

Although the following case studies demonstrate that, in some situations,
there has been a decrease in voter participation when a state has switched from
indirect to direct elections, this decline cannot be attributed exclusively to the
adoption of direct electoral voting.
21
State-specific issues have played a role in the
declining levels of voter turnout, such as in Slovakia.
22

Multiple Elections: Voter Fatigue

Frequency and multiplicity of direct national elections effect voter turnout.
Governments that hold numerous elections for different political posts induce
voter fatigue a situation where voters become overwhelmed and lose interest in
their democratic rights.
23
Studies have shown that in parliamentary systems with a

17
18
Sarah Birch, Perceptions of Electoral Fairness and Voter Turnout, 12 COMPARATIVE POLITICAL STUDIES, 1, 1
(2010), available at http://www.essex.ac.uk/government/electoralmalpractice/workingpapers.htm.
19
Emanuele Ottolenghi, Why Direct Election Failed in Israel, 12 4 JOURNAL OF DEMOCRACY 109 (2001), available
at
http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_democracy/v012/12.4ottolenghi.html.
20
Bryan J. Dettrey, Voter Turnout in Presidential Democracies, 42.10 COMPARATIVE POLITICAL STUDIES 1317,
1317 (2009), available at http://web.missouri.edu/~schwindtbayerl/docs/dettrey_schwindtbayer2009_CPS.pdf; see
also Andr Blais and Agnieszka Dobrzynska, Turnout in Electoral Democracies, 33 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF
POLITICAL RESEARCH 239, 251 (1998).
21
Margit Tavits, Direct Presidential Elections and Turnout in Parliamentary Contests, 62.1 POLITICAL RESEARCH
QUARTERLY 42, 49 (2009); see also Sarah Birch, Perceptions of Electoral Fairness and Voter Turnout, 12
COMPARATIVE POLITICAL STUDIES, 1601,1602 (2010), available at
http://www.essex.ac.uk/government/electoralmalpractice/workingpapers.htm.
22
Emanuele Ottolenghi, Why Direct Election Failed in Israel, 12.4 JOURNAL OF DEMOCRACY 109 (2001), available
at
http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_democracy/v012/12.4ottolenghi.html.
23
5
president as head of state, voter turnout is higher for both presidential and
parliamentary elections when they are held concurrently, as opposed to at different
times.
24
In Taiwan, voter participation in legislative elections, which typically
have lower turnout rates, increases when legislative elections are held in
conjunction with presidential elections, which are more high profile.
25
In 2012,
voter turnout in the legislative election, held concurrently with the presidential
election in Taiwan was 74.7% as opposed to when held separately from the
presidential election in 2008, when voter turnout was 58.7%.
26

Voter Confidence in Electoral Fairness

Voters are more likely to vote if they are confident that their vote will be
counted equally, if the election is viewed as free and fair, and if they feel their vote
can affect the responsiveness of the elected official.
27
In contrast, voter turnout
decreases if an electorate does not have confidence in the integrity of the electoral
system.
28
Studies indicate that voter confidence can be affected by anything that
occurs throughout the entire electoral process.
29
For instance, in the United
Kingdom, the voting populations perception of fairness in the 1997 election, in
which the Conservative party was impacted by party disunity and ultimately lost to
the Labour Party, affected voter confidence for the 2001 election.
30
In 1997, full
confidence in the election by voters was at 56.66% with broad confidence at
80.55%.
31
Thus, although the quantitative evidence of voter turnout is important to
gage the effectiveness of elections, other more qualitative factors often should be
considered as well.

24
25
Chi Huang & Ying-Iung Chou, Disentangling the Turnout Effect: The Case of Taiwans 2012 Concurrent
Elections, SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH NETWORK 1-27, 1-2 (Aug. 25, 2013), available at
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2315745.
26
Chi Huang & Ying-Iung Chou, Disentangling the Turnout Effect: The Case of Taiwans 2012 Concurrent
Elections, SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH NETWORK, 1, 2 (Aug. 25, 2013), available at
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2315745.
27
Sarah Birch, Perceptions of Electoral Fairness and Voter Turnout, 4312 COMPARATIVE POLITICAL STUDIES
1601,1602 (2010), available at http://www.essex.ac.uk/government/electoralmalpractice/workingpapers.htm.
28
Sarah Birch, Perceptions of Electoral Fairness and Voter Turnout, 43.12 COMPARATIVE POLITICAL STUDIES
29
30
31
Sarah Birch, Perceptions of Electoral Fairness and Voter Turnout, 4312 COMPARATIVE POLITICAL STUDIES 1601,
Appendix at Table 1 (2010), available at
6

Effect of Direct Elections on Accountability of Public Officials

Direct elections are also viewed as a way to promote greater accountability
of government officials to the citizens who elected them.
32
Voters can hold elected
officials accountable by voting them personally out of office when they act
unfavorably.
33
Some commentators see the threat of not being re-elected due to
voter dissatisfaction as the greatest incentive to keep government officials
accountable for their actions.
34
The voter possesses the ultimate power to control
the trajectory of an officials career by choosing whether he or she is worthy of re-
election. If a government official acts in a manner that dissatisfies the electorate,
the voters have the power to strip the official of his or her position by not re-
electing that official.
35

However, like indirect elections, direct elections do not always guarantee
governmental accountability, especially when government dealings are shrouded in
secrecy.
36
Because voters are not privy to what takes place behind closed doors, it
may prove difficult to determine whether or not a politician is truly acting in the
interests of his or her constituents. This concept, known as moral hazard, may
result in political inaction if the elected official feels immune from scrutiny by the
voters, which is often the case in indirect elections.
37
However, some factors, such
as electoral volatility and a well-informed electorate, in conjunction with direct
elections, can increase the likelihood of accountability.

32
Michael Smart and Daniel M. Sturm, Term Limits and Electoral Accountability, CENTER OF ECONOMIC
PERFORMANCE (CEP) DISCUSSION PAPER NO 770 (2006), available at
http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp0770.pdf.
33
Kaare Strom, Democracy, Accountability and Coalition Bargaining, THE CENTRE OF THE STUDY OF DEMOCRACY
WORKING PAPERS (1997), available at http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/4x02v7j6#page-1.
34
Alcia Adser, Carles Boix and Mark Payne, Are You Being Served? Political Accountability and Quality of
Government, THE JOURNAL OF LAW, ECONOMICS, AND ORGANIZATION, 445, 448 (2000), available at
http://www.iadb.org/res/publications/pubfiles/pubwp-438.pdf.
35
36
WORKING PAPERS 1, 2 (1997), available at http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/4x02v7j6#page-1.
37
7
Electoral Volatility

Government officials are more likely to act responsibly if there is a high
level of electoral volatility in their constituency.
38
Electoral volatility exists when
a significant percentage of voters are willing to switch between parties, or not vote
at all, if they are unsatisfied by a governments performance.
39
In states where
voters are not wedded to a particular party and willing to switch between voting
and non-voting from election to election, politicians are incentivized to implement
policies amenable to their constituents.
40
Therefore, electoral volatility may
provide a credible threat to a politician if his or her supporters are not satisfied with
the officials actions. Additionally, electoral volatility may affect a politician if
swing voters, those who are not loyal to particular parties or candidates, do not
support a politicians actions, as they can easily change their vote.
41

Well-Informed Electorate

Government officials are also more likely to be held accountable in states
that have a well-informed electorate.
42
Governmental corruption and
mismanagement is curbed with the presence of a free and informed media, as well
as civil society groups that scrutinize governmental decisions and policies and
publish their findings.
43
Well-informed voters who have access to free media and
civil society reports are more likely to hold government officials accountable by
choosing not to reelect disappointing candidates.
44

38
39
40
41
42
Alcia Adser, Carles Boix, and Mark Payne, Are You Being Served?: Political Accountability and Quality of
43
The Importance of the Media to Elections, THE ACE PROJECT (2012), available at http://aceproject.org/ace-
en/topics/me.
44
8
Finland

Finland is a parliamentary democracy. Although the president plays a large
role in foreign policy, the cabinet, led by the prime minister, holds most of the
executive powers.
45
Additionally, Finland has a unicameral parliament (the
Eduskunta) consisting of 200 directly elected members who are elected every four
years.
46
The parliament holds the legislative power of the government and is
tasked with electing the prime minister.
47

Finland instituted constitutional amendments in both 1991 and 2000 to curb
the power of the president, with the 1991 amendments installing direct elections.
While these reforms have not necessarily increased voter turnout, they have been
helpful in increasing official accountability and voter confidence.

Lead-up to Reform

Finnish electoral reform was brought about by the fact that, prior to 1991,
the Finnish president possessed extensive executive powers.
48
As a result, the
1980s were characterized by a growing demand of the people to be directly
involved in their choice of a leader. In particular, the Finnish people sought direct
elections to prevent the Electoral College from voting in a black horse,
candidate, one known to the political elite within the Electoral College, but
relatively unknown to the general population.
49

Parliament responded to this demand by reforming the electoral process
before the 1988 election to include two concurrent elections: one in which the
people directly voted for a presidential candidate and another simultaneous
election in which the people also elected an Electoral College, that would have
electing power in certain scenarios. This system was a hybrid of direct and indirect
election: if no presidential candidate achieved a majority of 50 percent plus one
from the direct electoral vote of the people, then the Electoral College, also
adopted by the people in the concurrent election, would vote on and determine the

45
Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD), Finland: Presidential Elections, EUROPEAN ELECTION
DATABASE (Oct. 3, 2012), available at
http://www.nsd.uib.no/european_election_database/country/finland/introduction.html.
46
47
DATABASE, (Oct. 3, 2012), available at
9
president.
50
The Finnish people did not consider the 1988 hybrid election system a
strong enough reform, and the process was abandoned after only one election
through a constitutional amendment in 1991, which permitted the first complete
direct presidential election in 1994. Before the first direct presidential election in
1994, voter turnout for the 1991 parliamentary election was calculated at 68.39
percent.
51

Additionally, constitutional amendments in 1991 and 2000 curtailed
presidential powers and gave more control to the prime minister and parliament by
permitting the parliament, as opposed to the president, to elect the prime minister.
52

Reform: Direct Presidential Election

Since 1994, Finlands president has been directly elected for a six-year term
using a two-ballot system.
53
If no candidate obtains a majority of the direct vote
(50 percent plus one) in the first round of an election.
54
The two candidates with
the highest percentage of directly cast votes from the first election run against each
other in a second round, allowing the voting population to directly decide the
candidate of its choice.
55

Effects of Reform and Subsequent Actions

Finland typically has relatively high voter turnout, and voter participation
has remained largely static, despite the reforms. In 1994, the majority of the
population was very excited for the first direct presidential election. Initial voter
turnout was 78.43 percent and grew to 78.68 percent for the second round, which
was held because no candidate achieved a 50 percent plus one majority in the first

48
49
Pertti Pesonen, The First Direct Election of Finland's President, 17 SCANDINAVIAN POLITICAL STUDIES 3 (1994),
available at https://tidsskrift.dk/index.php/scandinavian_political_studies/article/view/13236/25219.
50
51
Voter Turnout Date for Finland, INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR DEMOCRACY AND ELECTORAL ASSISTANCE (Oct.
2011), available at http://www.idea.int/vt/countryview.cfm?id=74.
52
Seppo Tiitinen, Constitutional Reform in Finland, 104, INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION 110 (2000), available at
http://www.asgp.info/Resources/Data/Documents/NJTCYJXYUTISQLTGGTUUWLCDXVEPCE.pdf.
53
Presidential Elections, FINLAND MINISTRY OF JUSTICE (2013), available at http://www.vaalit.fi/15505.htm.
54
Ministry of Justice of Finland, Presidential Elections: General Information, available at
http://www.vaalit.fi/15505.htm.
55
Ministry of Justice of Finland, Presidential Elections: General Information, available at
http://www.vaalit.fi/15505.htm.
10
election.
56
For both election days, over 43 percent of voters cast their ballots in
advance.
57
After the first direct presidential election, voter turnout remained
largely the same in parliamentary elections, with an average of 67 percent of voters
participating in the elections of 1995, 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2011.
58
Voter turnout
in the 2000 and 2006 presidential elections remained similar to other presidential
elections, with approximately 77 to 74 percent of voters casting ballots,
respectively.
59

While the reforms did not substantially increase voter turnout, the adoption
of direct presidential elections gave the Finnish people the power to hold their
presidents more directly accountable for their actions while in office.
60
The
knowledge that the electorate has the power to not re-elect the official provides an
incentive to uphold campaign promises and to act in the interests of the people.
61

Direct presidential elections operate as a control mechanism to ensure that the
concerns of the voters are reflected in the actions of the politicians they elect.
62

This purpose is furthered by the personalized nature of direct elections, as the
presidents integrity and trustworthiness are of paramount importance to the
electorate.
63
If the president compromises his or her integrity while in office, the
people have the power to hold the president accountable in the next election.
64

56
DATABASE, (Oct. 3, 2012), available at
http://eed.nsd.uib.no/webview/index.jsp?study=http://129.177.90.166:80/obj/fStudy/FIPR19941_Display&node=0&
mode=cube&v=2&cube=http://129.177.90.166:80/obj/fCube/FIPR19941_Display_C1&top=yes.
57
Pertti Pesonen, The First Direct Election of Finland's President. 17 SCANDINAVIAN POLITICAL STUDIES 3 (1994),
58
2011), available at http://www.idea.int/vt/countryview.cfm?id=74#pres.
59
60
Jaakko Nousiainen, From Semi-Presidentialism to Parliamentary Government: Political and Constitutional
Developments in Finland, 24. 2 SCANDINAVIAN POLITICAL STUDIES 95, 103 (2001); see also Pertti Pesonen, The
First Direct Election of Finland's President. 17 SCANDINAVIAN POLITICAL STUDIES 3 (1994), available at
https://tidsskrift.dk/index.php/scandinavian_political_studies/article/view/13236/25219.
61
Government, 19. 2 THE JOURNAL OF LAW, ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION 9 (2000), available at
62
Government, 19. 2 THE JOURNAL OF LAW, ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION 16 (2000), available at
63
Pertti Pesonen, The First Direct Election of Finland's President, 17 SCANDINAVIAN POLITICAL STUDIES, 3 (1994),
64
Alcia Adser, Carles Boix and Mark Payne, Are You Being Served?:Political Accountability and Quality of
Government, 19. 2 THE JOURNAL OF LAW, ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION 445, 438 (2000), available at
11

The importance of the personalized nature of direct elections was evident in
the 2000 election and 2006 re-election of Tarja Halonen, Finlands first female
president, who is viewed by the Finnish population as a modern, working-class
citizen with Finlands interests at heart.
65
Halonen successfully led Finland to
membership in the European Union and developed friendly interactions with
Russia. She was re-elected to a second term in 2006 with 51.8 percent of the direct
vote.
66
President Halonens popularity stems from public perception that her
policies closely align with those of modern Finland and the consistency with which
she follows through on her campaign promises.
67

Lessons Learned

Although electoral reforms in Finland have produced relatively static voter
turnout when compared to elections before 1994, the reforms have been successful
in increasing voter confidence in the electoral process. Voter turnout in both
parliamentary and presidential elections has remained stable and relatively high,
compared to other states, since the establishment of direct presidential elections in
1994.
68

Political analysts attribute the slightly higher voter participation in 1994 to
the personified politics adopted during that particular presidential race.
69
For the
first time in Finnish history, the people were presented with a clear and direct
choice between candidates.
70
In addition, presidential candidates used media,
including a 30-minute primetime interview broadcast nationally, to attract voters.
71

As a result, candidates distanced themselves from their party associations and
attempted to connect with their electorate directly.
72
This campaign strategy was

65
Iver Ekman, In Finland, Its Over Before Its Over, NEW YORK TIMES, Jan. 8, 2006, available at
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/08/world/europe/08iht-finland.html.
66
Finlands Leftist President Wins Re-election, NEW YORK TIMES, Jan. 29, 2006, available at
67
Iver Ekman, In Finland, Its Over Before Its Over, NEW YORK TIMES, Jan. 8, 2006, available at
68
69
70
71
Republic of Finland, Presidential Election 22 January 2012, OFFICE FOR DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS AND HUMAN
RIGHTS (November 2012) available at http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/Finland/85410.
72
Pertti Pesonen, The First Direct Election of Finland's President 17 SCANDINAVIAN POLITICAL STUDIES 3 (1994),
available at https://tidsskrift.dk/index.php/scandinavian_political_studies/article/view/13236/25219; see also,
Associated Press, Conservative Chosen as Finlands President for First Time in Fifty Years ASSOCIATED PRESS IN
12
crucial in bolstering public interest in the presidential elections and thereby
increasing voter turnout.
73

Slovakia

Slovakia has been a parliamentary democracy with a president as the head of
government since 1993 when Czechoslovakia was dismantled and Slovakia
proclaimed its independence.
74
The presidents role is largely ceremonial,
although he does have the power to appoint the prime minister as head of
government and to veto legislation.
75
However, the National Council (parliament)
has the power to overturn a veto with a simple majority.
76
Slovakia has a
unicameral parliamentary system with a 150 member National Council of the
Slovak Republic (Nrodn rada Slovenskej republiky, NRSR) vested with the
legislative powers of the government.
77

Slovakia adopted reforms to begin direct presidential elections in 1999.
Although voter turnout was relatively high for the first direct presidential election,
it has declined since then. This can be attributed to the fact that the goals of
switching to direct elections were met early on, so the subsequent stakes in
winning were much lower.

Lead-up to Reform

Prior to 1999 presidential elections, the president was elected by a three-
fifths majority of parliament.
78
In 1998, however, parliament amended the
constitution to allow for direct presidential elections.
79
The amendment was

HELSINKI, Feb. 5, 2012, available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/feb/05/finland-presidential-election-
sauli-niinisto.
73
74
Political System of the Slovak Republic, SLOVAKIA SITE (2013), available at
http://www.slovakiasite.com/government.php.
75
Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD), Slovakia: Introduction EUROPEAN ELECTION DATABASE (Oct. 3,
2012), available at http://www.nsd.uib.no/european_election_database/country/slovakia/introduction.html.
76
Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD), Slovakia: Introduction EUROPEAN ELECTION DATABASE (Oct. 3,
2012), available at http://www.nsd.uib.no/european_election_database/country/slovakia/introduction.html.
77
Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD), Slovakia: Presidential Elections, EUROPEAN ELECTION
http://www.nsd.uib.no/european_election_database/country/slovakia/introduction.html.
78
Carol Conragan, The 1998 Parliamentary Election Law of the Slovak Republic: Amendments in Controversy
INTERNATIONAL FOUNDATION FOR ELECTION SYSTEMS 6 (Oct. 1999), available at
http://www.ifes.org/Content/Publications/Reports/1999/~/media/Files/Publications/VRC/Reports/1999/R01844/R01
844.pdf.
79
Carol Conragan, The 1998 Parliamentary Election Law of the Slovak Republic: Amendments in Controversy
13
designed to end the constitutional crisis, which began in March 1998 when Prime
Minister Vladimr Meciar seized presidential power after parliament failed to elect
a successor to the retiring President Michal Kovac.
80
Meciars usurping of
presidential power caused widespread demonstrations within Slovakia and earned
the international communitys condemnation, particularly from the EU.
81
Meciar
completely disregarded the rule of law, and used his new powers to dismiss
approximately half of Slovakia's ambassadors and to overturn many of Kovacs
decisions.
82

A coalition of five anti-Meciar parties ultimately changed the countrys
political course.
83
Formed in 1997, the united opposition won 93 of the 105 seats
in the 1998 parliamentary election.
84
Following the ousting of Meciars
government, the united opposition successfully gained the three-fifths
parliamentary majority threshold needed to amend the constitution.
85
Direct
presidential elections were adopted in January 1999, and the first direct
presidential election was held in March, in which Meciar was not elected to the
presidency.
86

In the months leading up to the 1998 parliamentary election in which Meciar
was voted out of power, many NGOs were set up to ensure that the 1998 election
would be free and fair.
87
For instance, dozens of NGOs banded together to form
OK 90, an open, non-partisan civic campaign, and the NGOs prepared educational
projects, cultural activities, commercials, and discussion forums to inform the

INTERNATIONAL FOUNDATION FOR ELECTION SYSTEMS 1012 (Oct. 1999), available at
http://www.ifes.org/Content/Publications/Reports/1999/~/media/Files/Publications/VRC/Reports/1999/R01844/R01
844.pdf.
80
BBC News Europe, Slovakia Profile, BBC, Oct. 3, 2012, available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-
17848213.
81
17848213.
82
17848213.
83
Rodger Potocki, Slovakias Elections: Outcomes and Consequences, THE WILSON CENTER (Oct. 21,1998),
available at http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/167-slovakias-elections-outcomes-and-consequences.
84
Rodger Potocki, Slovakias Elections: Outcomes and Consequences, THE WILSON CENTER (Oct. 21, 1998),
85
86
87
available at http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/167-slovakias-elections-outcomes-and-consequences; see also
NGOs Unite for Fair Elections in Slovakia, PARTNERS FOR DEMOCRATIC CHANGE, (1999), available at
http://www.partnersglobal.org/network/slovakia/slovakia-success-stories/supporting-free-and-fair-elections.
14
voting public of their electoral options.
88
Other NGOs analyzed the objectivity of
the national media and trained members of electoral committees to ensure that the
elections would be free from corruption.
89
These measures guaranteed that when
election day arrived, Meciar would be held accountable by the people in a free and
fair election.
90

Reform: Direct Presidential Election

Following the 1999 adoption of direct presidential elections, a presidential
candidate may be nominated in one of two ways. Either fifteen members of the
National Council may nominate a presidential candidate, or fifteen thousand voters
sign a petition to support a particular candidate.
91
The president is then directly
elected for a five-year term in a two-ballot system.
92
If no candidate wins the first
round of elections, the two candidates with the highest percentages enter a second
round of voting.
93

The adoption of direct presidential elections was just one change among a
series of constitutional reforms. These reforms, which spanned 19992002,
included a decentralization of governmental power, the development of regional
parliaments, and an increase in the authority of the judiciary branch of
government.
94
These reforms were adopted in order to satisfy the Slovakian desire
to end the political corruption within parliament.
95

88
89
Martin Btora and Zora Btorov, Slovakia's Democratic Awakening, 10.1 JOURNAL OF DEMOCRACY 80 (1999);
see also NGOs Unite for Fair Elections in Slovakia, PARTNERS FOR DEMOCRATIC CHANGE, (1999), available at
http://www.partnersglobal.org/network/slovakia/slovakia-success-stories/supporting-free-and-fair-elections.
90
see also Rodger Potocki, Slovakias Elections: Outcomes and Consequences, THE WILSON CENTER (Oct. 21, 1998),
91
Manuel Alvarez-Rivera, Presidential and Legislative Elections in Slovakia, ELECTION RESOURCES ON THE
INTERNET (March 2012), available at http://electionresources.org/sk/.
92
93
94
17848213.
95
17848213.
15
Effects of Reform and Subsequent Actions

Before the first direct presidential election, a CTK National News Wire poll
in late 1998 indicated that approximately 80 percent of respondents were in favor
of direct presidential elections.
96
This enthusiasm to directly choose a leader was
reflected in the voter turnout in the first direct presidential election in January 1999
when 75.42 percent of eligible citizens voted.
97
This relatively high turnout
declined drastically in the next two direct elections.
98
In the 2004 presidential
elections, only 49.71 percent voted in the first round and 43.48 percent in the
second round.
99
More recently, in the 2009 presidential elections, only 43.63
percent voted in the first round and 51.67 percent voted in the second round.
100

The stakes-based approach political theory, which stipulates that citizens
in post-communist states are more likely to vote when the stakes are high, sheds
light on these statistical results.
101
The stakes were relatively high in the first direct
presidential election because it was held in a time of great political reform within
Slovakia, where the accountability of public officials was of paramount
importance.
102
This theory also explains why the voter turnout was unusually high
in the 1998 parliamentary election that ousted the Meciar government (84.15
percent).
103
Since that critical election, voter turnout dropped to 70 percent in
2002, 54.67 percent in 2006, and 58.84 percent in 2010.
104

96
QUARTERLY 42, 49 (2009).
97
Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD), Slovakia: Presidential Elections EUROPEAN ELECTION
DATABASE (Oct. 3, 2012), available at http://eed.nsd.uib.no/webview/.
98
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), Voter Turnout Data for Slovakia (Oct.
2011) available at http://www.idea.int/vt/countryview.cfm?id=202#pres.
99
European Election Database, Dataset: Slovakia: Presidential Election 2004 (2013), available at
http://eed.nsd.uib.no/webview/index.jsp?study=http://129.177.90.166:80/obj/fStudy/SKPR19991_Display&mode=c
ube&v=2&cube=http://129.%20177.%2090.%20166:80/obj/fCube/SKPR19991_Display_C1&top=yes.
100
http://eed.nsd.uib.no/webview/index.jsp?study=http://129.177.90.166:80/obj/fStudy/SKPR19991_Display&mode=c
ube&v=2&cube=http://129.%20177.%2090.%20166:80/obj/fCube/SKPR19991_Display_C1&top=yes.
101
102
103
2011) available at http://www.idea.int/vt/countryview.cfm?id=202#pres; see also Rodger Potocki, Slovakias
Elections: Outcomes and Consequences, THE WILSON CENTER (Oct. 21, 1998), available at
http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/167-slovakias-elections-outcomes-and-consequences.
104
2011) available at http://www.idea.int/vt/countryview.cfm?id=202#pres.
16
The 1998 parliamentary election brought about a distinct change in the voter
demographic.
105
Prior to the 1998 election, Slovakia seemed to follow the
Southeastern European Model, where a large rural electorates votes frequently
determined which political party would gain power.
106
However, in the 1998
election, the exit polls determined that voter turnout was highest among first time
voters, namely young, well-educated people from big cities.
107
This change in
demographic reflected that the people of Slovakia were evolving into discerning
democratic voters who cared enough about Slovakias future to participate in the
1998 parliamentary and 1999 presidential elections.
108

Lessons Learned

The populations success in holding the Meciar government accountable in
the 1998 parliamentary election translated to high voter turnout in the first direct
presidential election in 1999, in which Meciar ran, but ultimately lost.
109
In the
1999 presidential elections, the voting population was eager to elect a president,
knowing that he would be held accountable to the people for his actions, in a way
that Meciar was not.
110
The voting population also sought a more democratic
government that supported increased interaction with Europe.
111

Although voter turnout has since decreased, the stake-based approach argues
that this is because the stakes have not been as high as they were in the 1999
election.
112
In addition, public frustration regarding dysfunctional political
processes, political corruption, and interference with the direct electoral voting

105
see also Michal Ivantysyn, Main Trends in Slovakias Political System IWM JUNIOR VISITING FELLOWS CONFERENCES
1- 13, 10 (1999) available at http://www.iwm.at/publ-jvc/jc-07-05.pdf.
106
see also Michal Ivantysyn, Main Trends in Slovakias Political System IWM JUNIOR VISITING FELLOWS CONFERENCES
1- 13, 10 (1999) available at http://www.iwm.at/publ-jvc/jc-07-05.pdf.
107
108
109
Slovaks Choose Pro-Europe Democrat as President, NEW YORK TIMES, May 31, 1999, available at
http://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/31/world/slovaks-choose-pro-europe-democrat-as-president.html.
110
DATABASE (Oct. 3, 2012), available at http://eed.nsd.uib.no/webview/.
111
Slovaks Choice: Reformer or Ex- Prime Minister, NEW YORK TIMES, May 30, 1999, available at
http://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/30/world/slovaks-choice-reformer-or-ex-prime-minister.html.
112
17
process has contributed to low voter turnout.
113
Voter turnout has also decreased
due to government instability following the 2011 disagreements over Slovakias
support of euro-zone bailouts.
114

If the success of Slovakias reform process was entirely based on voter
participation, the incorporation of direct presidential elections might be seen as a
failure.
115
All in all, however, Slovakias constitutional and electoral reforms met
their key goals: the end of the autocratic leadership of Prime Minister Meciar in
1998 and accession to the EU in 2004.
116
Civil society had a strong impact on
seeking constitutional reform and leveling the playing field against Meciar.
Through the establishment of the civic campaign OK 98, nongovernmental
organizations carried out a concerted effort at voter education and mobilization,
specifically targeting youth and first-time voters.
117
Overall, about 80 percent of
eligible first-time voters participated in the parliamentary election of 1998 and
young people voted significantly in favor of the united opposition.
118

Conclusion

Direct elections may increase or decrease voter participation based on state-
specific factors, such as the efficiency of the electoral system, the economic
situation, and the population density of a nation. In addition, direct elections do
not always produce the political reforms that governments and civic organizations
hope to achieve, as the actions of public officials can be not transparent or
negatively impacted by corruption. As a result, determining whether public
officials are truly accountable to those that elected them may be more difficult than
anticipated. The overall influence of direct elections will become increasingly
apparent as various governments continue to utilize direct elections in an effort to
increase transparency of the electoral process, as well as to allow voters to play a
larger role in shaping their political system.

113
The Economist Online, Slovakias Voters: Whatever, THE ECONOMIST, Sept. 10, 2010, available at
http://www.economist.com/blogs/easternapproaches/2010/09/slovakias_referendum.
114
Leos Rousek, Record Low Turnout Seen in Slovak Elections, THE WALL STREET JOURNAL, Mar. 10, 2012,
available at http://blogs.wsj.com/emergingeurope/2012/03/10/record-low-turnout-seen-in-slovak-elections/.
115
QUARTERLY 42, 49 (2009); see also The Economist Online, Slovakias Voters: Whatever, THE ECONOMIST, Sept. 10,
2010, available at http://www.economist.com/blogs/easternapproaches/2010/09/slovakias_referendum.
116
See also, Slovakia Profile, BBC (Oct. 2012) available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17848213.
117
118

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