Air-conditioning

11
AIR-CONDITIONING
Introduction
The primary function of an air-conditioning system is to maintain conducive conditions
for human comfort. Comfort air-conditioning, is defined as the process by which the
temperature, moisture content, movement and quality of air are maintained within
required limits.
An air-conditioning system has to perform the following functions:
Cooling and dehumidification for summer conditioning.
Heating and humidification for winter conditioning.
Air filteration and proper ventilation round the year.
ecessarily, these functions involve control of temperature, humidity, purity and
movement of air.
Comfort Conditions
There is nothing li!e a "best temperature# for human comfort since it depends on several
factors. These factors are:
$eason of the year
Temperature differential between outside and inside
%sychological condition of the human being
%hysiological condition of the human being
&ressing style
However, the universally accepted temperature range for comfort is '( ) to '* ) during
summer and +( ) to +* ) during winter. The humidity for human comfort should be
between ,- and +- per cent.
Unit of Air-conditioning Capacity
The capacity of air-conditioning plants is always e.pressed as so many Tons of
/efrigeration 0T/1. 2ne ton of refrigeration is defined as the amount of cooling yielded
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by melting one ton of ice 0assumed as (,--- lbs1 at 6(7 ) to water at 6(7 ) over a (,-
hour period. 8hen one pound of ice at 6(7 ) melts, it absorbs 9,, :T; 0:ritish Thermal
;nits1. $o, when one ton of ice at 6(7 ) melts, it absorbs (,--- < 9,, = (**,--- :T;.
Therefore, one ton of refrigeration 0T/1 is equal to (**,--- :T; over a (,-hour period or
9(,--- :T; over an hour or (-- :T; over a minute. The metric equivalent is 6,---
!Cal4hour.
Refrigeration Cycle
The refrigeration cycle line diagram is shown in )ig. 9. >echanical refrigeration is
achieved by alternately compressing and e.panding the refrigerant with the help of a
compressor and pressure reducing device 0such as e.pansion valve1.
Compressor serves two purposes: first, it draws the refrigerant from the evaporator
0cooling coil1 and forces it into the condenser and secondly, it increases the pressure of
the refrigerant. :y suc!ing the refrigerant, the compressor reduces the pressure in the
cooling coil and maintains it at a level low enough to permit the refrigerant to boil or
vapori?e and consequently absorb heat in the process.
Fig. 1: Refrigeration Cycle Line Diagram
The compressed gas hot vapour flows to the condenser, where it is condensed into
liquid at high pressure giving up heat to atmospheric air or water depending upon
whether the condenser is air cooled or water cooled.
The liquid refrigerant then passes through a pressure reducing device li!e an e.pansion
valve 0or capillary tube1, where its pressure is reduced enabling it to start boiling at
the evaporator, resulting in refrigerating effect.
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System ypes
:asically, all air-conditioning systems can be divided into two broad categories:
i! D" type System: 3n &< system, air is cooled by the refrigerant flowing inside the
evaporator coil.
ii! C#illed $ater System: 3n chilled water system, air is cooled by means of chilled
water flowing inside the coil.
&< type can be further classified as follows:
0a1 $elf Contained
8indow type 0or room air-conditioners1, commonly available in 9, 9.@ and ( T/
capacities. These are invariably air-cooled.
%ac!age type, commonly available either as air-cooled or water-cooled models.
0b1 $plit type
Aither air-cooled or water-cooled. Available capacities are (.-, 6.@, '.@ and 9-
T/.
0c1 Central or :uilt up Type. Aither air-cooled or water-cooled, commonly available
above 9- T/ upto (-- T/.
System Components
Compressor
The equipment used for compression of the refrigerant forms the heart of the
refrigeration unit. The positive displacement refrigerating compressor is the
compression system most commonly used today.
All reciprocating compressors consist of one or more cylinders, suitable valves for
suction and discharge of the refrigerant gas and reciprocating pistons for compression.
The design of the cylinders is of multi-cylinder type with automatic capacity control
mechanism. Compressors are usually equipped with forced lubrication system involving
a separate oil pump to maintain circulation.
Condenser
3t is a heat e.changer. 3t is in the condenser that the refrigerant must give up the heat
absorbed in the evaporator plus the heat added by the compressor. $ome amount of
sub-cooling of the liquid refrigerant is also provided before it leaves the condenser. The
pressure of the refrigerant in the condenser is little-less than at the compressor
discharge, where it is higher than at any other part in the system. Hence, the condenser
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and other equipment in the system between the compressor discharge and e.pansion
valve are often referred to as high pressure side equipment.
There are three types of refrigeration condensers:
air-cooled condenser,
water-cooled condenser and
a combination of air and water-cooled condenser 0evaporative condenser1.
Air-Cooled Condenser: ;nits upto 9- T/ are predominantly air-cooled. >ain
advantages are simplicity, easy maintenance and low installation cost. Aven
some units having 6- T/ capacity are air-cooled. The disadvantages are high
noise level and reduced efficiency at high ambient temperatures.
$ater-Cooled Condensers: 8ater-cooled condensers are used with compressors of
9- H% or larger. This, usually, constitutes the most economical and efficient
choice of condenser, where an adequate supply of clean water of least chemical
components cause scale formation and corrosion is available.
%&aporati&e Condenser: This type of condenser was designed to combine the
functions of a condenser and a cooling tower and is used where high cost of water is a
serious obBection and use of cooling tower is not practical.
Cooling o'er and Spray (onds
Cooling towers may be classified as atmospheric draught or natural and mechanical
draught.
atural draught cooling towers are either installed away from buildings or at the top of
the buildings to enable free flow of atmospheric air through the louvres fitted inside.
atural draught cooling towers are installed in places where reasonable flow of air
movement is there throughout the year for better efficiency. atural draught cooling
tower requires more space for installation compared to mechanical one.
>echanical draught cooling towers can be classified as follows:
a. )orced draught
b. 3nduced draught
3n forced draught tower, water from the condenser output is pumped to cooling tower
and is allowed to reach the sump through headers, spreaders and louvers through
gravity. Air from atmosphere is forcibly flown inside the tower with the help of a fan and
escapes bac! to atmosphere through the top of the tower after absorbing the heat from
the water. )orced draught cooling towers are normally used for lower tonnage capacity
plants.
3n induced draught, atmospheric air is suc!ed by a fan fitted on the top through the air
inlet opening provided in the tower. Air passing through the louvres ta!es away the heat
from the water. Assentially, heat is given away by evaporation of water droplets and,
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consequently, the quantity of water in circulation is reduced. This is compensated by
drawing water from the ma!e-up tan! through a floor valve.
8hen air is used to cool water, the role of heat transfer depends upon
the difference between wet bulb temperature of air and the water temperature.
the area of the water surface e.posed to the air.
the relative velocity of air and water.
3n order to provide a greater area of e.posed water surface, ponds are developed. )or
this, no??les are located to spray the discharge water into the air. They should brea! up
the water into droplets, but not into a mist which would easily drift off. A normal cooling
tower should typically cool the water to within '
o
) of the wet bulb temperature of the
ambient air.
%&aporator )Cooling coil!
This component is common to both the air cycle and refrigerant cycle. 3t is the cooling
coil where heat from circulating air is absorbed by the refrigerant. The cooling coil serves
as a heat transfer device. Heat is transferred from the air to the coil surface and then to
the refrigerant in the coil. 3n the process, the liquid refrigerant boils and turns into
vapour.
%*pansion +al&e
The e.pansion valve reduces the pressure of the refrigerant liquid and in doing so, cools
the liquid. The refrigerant enters the valve under pressure. As it passes through the
small valve port, it enters the low pressure area of the cooling coil. The valve port acts
as metering device between a high pressure area 0condenser1 and low pressure area
0evaporator1.
Refrigerant
The refrigerant performs the function of e.tracting heat from the air in the evaporator and
reBecting it to water or air in the condenser. $everal chemicals can be used as
refrigerant. A few e.amples are Ammonia, Carbon-dio.ide, )reon, etc. 3n plants of low
capacity )reon-9( 0CCl()(1 is used, whereas in higher capacity plants, )reon-((
0CHCl)(1 is used. :oth belong to the Chloro-)louro Carbon family. :ut, due to its o?one
depleting property, manufacture and sale of )9( has been banned. A chemical call H)C-
96,a 0Tetrafluoroethane1 is slowly replacing )9(.
The desirable properties of a refrigerant are:
9. 3t should be non-irritating, non-poisonous, non-to.ic and non-inflammable. 3t should
also be free from e.plosion ha?ards.
(. 3t should have an acceptable odour, so that it can be detected easily, if there is a
lea!age.
6. 3t should be non-corrosive, even in the presence of oil or water, to ferrous and non-
ferrous materials used in the entire refrigerant path.
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,. 3t should be easily miscible with the cran!case lubricant oil.
@. The vapour pressure corresponding to 6- C in the condenser should not be high,
necessitating thic!er pipes, fittings, etc., thus boosting the system cost.
+. The vapour temperature 0saturation temperature1 at atmospheric pressure should
be sufficiently low to give the desired temperature in the evaporator.
'. 3t should have a high critical temperature so that it remains in the vapour stage at the
highest wor!ing temperature.
*. 3n the liquid stage, the specific heat should be low to reduce the quantity of vapour
formed during throttling in the e.pansion valve. 3n the vapour stage, however, the
specific heat should be as high as possible to minimi?e the amount of superheat.
C. 3t should have as large a latent heat of evaporation as possible, so that minimum
quantity of refrigerant can be utili?ed for the same amount of tonnage.
9-. 3ts specific volume 0volume4weight1 should be as low as possible for minimum si?e of
the compressor.
99. 3t should have a low viscosity for improving the flow rate, and to reduce si?es of
pipes and valves and pressure drop.
9(. 3t should have high thermal conductivity for increasing the efficiency of the condenser
and evaporator.
96. 3t should have a high dielectric strength, particularly when used as a refrigerant in
hermetically sealed compressor.
9,. 3t should be cost effective.
9@. 3t should be environment friendly.
3t should, however, be remembered that none of the available gases 0including )reon1
meet all the above requirements.
Air cycle
3ndoor air may be too cold, too hot, too dry, too wet, too drafty or too still. These
conditions are changed by circulating the air and these treatments are provided in the
air-conditioning air cycle.
Air distribution system directs the treated air from the air-conditioning equipment to the
space to be conditioned and then bac! to the equipment.
The main components in the air cycle are:
0i1 )an 0ii1 $upply duct
0iii1 $upply 2utlets 0iv1 /eturn outlets
0v1 /eturn duct 0vi1 )ilter
0vii1 Cooling coil 0or heating coil1.
The total resistance of these components to the flow of the air plus the friction resistance
caused by the air passing through the duct run are maBor factors in determining the si?e
of the fan and fan motor and the amount of air pressure that is required. )or a
:roadcast $tudio setup, this resistance is of the order of (@ mm to @- mm of water
gauge.
Centrifugal fan is most commonly used in commercial and residential installations. 3t
consists of a scroll, a shaft and a wheel. The scroll is actually a housing for the shaft
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and wheel and the shaft serves as an a.le for the wheel. The wheel is cylindrical in
shape and has many blades. Centrifugal fans are available with forward or bac!ward
curved blades. A forward curved fan can deliver required quantity of air at low fan
speeds.
The air velocity and speed of the fan wheel 0tip speed1 not only play a maBor part in
determining the efficiency of the fan, but also affect the level of noise generated by the
fan. High tip speed and high velocity usually result in more noise.
/emote location of the fan reduces the noise but the system becomes more e.pensive.
&ucts may be circular, rectangular or square in shape. )rom the appearance and
practical point of view, rectangular ducts are generally adopted.
&ucts are fabricated from a wide variety of materials. &ucts made of sheet metal are
very common. The ducts are lined with glass wool or mineral wool slabs of (@ mm
thic!ness wrapped in copper naphthanate treated cloth.
2utlets are important from the point of view of appearance, functions and performance.
The primary function of the outlets is to provide properly controlled distribution of air to
the room and removing the air from the room. Ceiling diffusers, grilles and registers are
used as supply outlet and grilles are used as return outlets.
Cooling load capacity selection
The air-conditioning plant should be of adequate capacity to maintain comfort condition
during periods of ma.imum outside temperature. The plant should ta!e care of all the
heat load coming from different sources.
,utdoor -eat Source
$olar heat enters the structure either directly through glass which is immediately
absorbed in the room or as conducted heat through walls and roof, which is not
immediately absorbed in the room. The effect of the conducted heat may not be felt for
several hours depending upon the thermal properties of construction material used.
3nfiltration of air entering the conditioned space through crac!s, crevices, opening,
closing of doors for dilution of unwanted odour also ma!e a significant contribution
towards the load.
Indoor -eat Source
Human occupancy, lights and electrical equipments are indoor heat sources.
2ccupantDs load depends upon the number of people wor!ing inside and their activities.
The heat given off by incandescent lights is directly related to its wattage.
-eat Load Reduction
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$everal methods of reducing the heat load are available. %roper orientation of the
building reduces considerable load. ;se of double pan glass, insulating walls and roofs,
and false ceiling help to a large e.tent in heat reduction.
3t may be noted that heat load contributed by various sources do not reach pea! value
simultaneously. )or e.ample, transmission heat load due to outside-inside temperature
difference attains pea! value at about 9 pm, whereas heat due to solar heat through
walls and roof is mostly felt at about ' pm Human occupancy may be ma.imum at 99
am. All these aspects have to be seen for proper load estimate.
,peration
:efore starting the plant, ensure that proper functioning of safety controls including
interloc! circuit have been chec!ed and correctly set, and that all motors are megger-
tested, direction of rotation verified, all bearings lubricated and refrigeration system fully
charged. The cran! case heater must be energised well in advance.
%roceed step by step for operating the system as follows:
$tart the air handling unit, ensuring that dampers in the supply duct are fully
open.
2pen all water valves and start the water pump. 2bserve pressures at
condenser inlet and outlet.
2pen hot-gas valve on the condenser and the discharge service valve on the
compressor. 2pen discharge gauge valve to read the pressure.
)ollow the same procedure and read the suction pressure.
2pen liquid line valve. 2bserve standing pressure on the gauges. This should
be appro.imately '.-6 !g4cm
(
09-- psi1 for /-9( and 9-.@ !g4cm
(
09@- psi1 for /-
(( to indicate that the system is tight with no lea!age.
2pen suction service valve and start the compressor. 2bserve the refrigerant
and oil pressures. Chec! the current drawn by the compressor motor, observe
the oil level in the compressor sight glass. 2il should be clear without foam after
operation has stabilised.
Compressor (ump-Do'n
3t is essential to collect the refrigerant in the condenser with isolation to prevent any loss
before opening the compressor or any other part of the system. This is called pump-
down and the operation involves the following procedure:
$hort the low pressure switch with a temporary Bumper wire so that the
compressor does not stop before the refrigerant from it is emptied.
$lowly close the suction valve with the compressor running.
8hen the suction pressure drops to about -.9@ !g4cm
(
0( psi1, stop the
compressor.
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ever pump the compressor below -.9@ !g4cm
(
to prevent infiltration of moisture
and dirt into the cran! case.
After a few minutes, the dissolved refrigerant will leave the cran! case raising the
suction pressure. This additional refrigerant can be pumped to the condenser by
operating the compressor again for a short while.
/epeat the above procedure till the suction pressure does not rise above -.9@
!g4cm
(
after closing the service valves.
Remo&ing Refrigerant from t#e System
3t may be necessary to remove the refrigerant from the system into a cylinder, if there is
an e.cess charge or there is a lea! in the condenser. Ta!e the following steps for this
operation:
Connect a suitable line between the angle valve provided for charging and an
empty refrigerant cylinder.
%urge the air from the connection line.
Eeep the cylinder cold by immersing it in ice cold water to ensure a faster
refrigerant flow from the system.
$tart the compressor and open the liquid line charging valve, allowing the liquid
into the empty cylinder. 3f e.cess refrigerant is to be removed, hold the charging
valve open only until the discharge pressure reaches the normal reading. After
this operation, remove the charging line and close the charging valve.
&o not overcharge the cylinder as e.cessive pressure is dangerous.
(urging .on-Condensi/le 0ases
%resence of non-condensibles gases such as air causes high discharge pressure,
resulting in reduction of capacity and high power consumption. 3n case such symptoms
are present, the following chec! should be done:
$hut down the system overnight, long enough for the temperature of all
components to level off.
/ead the standing pressure and compare it with the refrigerant saturation
pressure corresponding to the temperature of the system. 3f the standing
pressure e.ceeds the saturation pressure by -.'@ !g4cm
(
09- psi1, the non-
condensibles are e.cessive and must be removed.
)or e.ample, if /-(( is used and the system temperature is *@
o
) 0(C.,
o
C1 and standing
pressure is 9(.* !g4cm
(
09'@ psi1, then there is e.cess of non-condensibles. $aturation
pressure for /-(( corresponding to *@
o
) is 99 !g4cm
(
. The difference is 9.-@ !g4cm
(
more than -.'@ !g4cm
(
, indicating corrective purging. )or purging, ta!e the following
steps:
%ump down the system as described earlier.
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3mmediately after stopping the compressor, close the compressor discharge
valve.
/un the water through the condenser for complete condensation of refrigerant
vapour.
Crac! open the purge valve on the top of the condenser for an instant, shut it
again.
Allow the system to stabili?e for a few minutes before reopening and closing the
purge valve. /epeated purging and closing operation should clear the system of
non-condensibles.
/estore normal system operation, chec! the improvement in discharge pressure.
Chec! refrigerant charge and compressor oil pressure.
Refrigerant C#arging
A correct operating charge of refrigerant in the system is essential. Foss due to lea!age
in the system has to be made up. 3t may be necessary to replace the entire charge. An
over charge results in unduly high temperatures, pressures and operating costs and may
damage the system components. An undercharged system leads to insufficient cooling,
high operating cost, and, in hermetic system, the compressor motor may fail.
/efrigerant may be added to the system either as a vapour or liquid depending upon the
location of charging point and quantity required. 5enerally, for adding ma!e-up
refrigerant, vapour charging method is more convenient. )or total system charge, liquid
charging at the high side followed by vapour charging at compressor low side will be
quic!er.
;nder no circumstances should liquid refrigerant be allowed to enter the compressor to
avoid damage to the compressor. The procedure for vapour charge method is described
below:
2pen the suction and discharge shut-off valves of the compressor. 3nstall a
gauge in the discharge gauge port and open the gauge line if a gauge port has
not been provided.
Connect a refrigerant cylinder and the connection with a compound gauge to the
charging valve provided on compressor suction line. %urge the air from the lines
and tighten the connections.
Admit the refrigerant by slowly opening the refrigerant cylinder. The cylinder
should be !ept in upright position to prevent the refrigerant from entering the
compressor in liquid state.
$tart the compressor.
As the cylinder gets emptied, its pressure will drop to the same level as the
suction pressure. The remaining refrigerant can be drawn from the cylinder by
closing the suction shut off valve and pulling a vacuum on the cylinder with the
compressor running.
Chec! the quantity of refrigerant charge by noting the difference in the weight of
the cylinder and observing the pressure.
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$ater reatment
Algae4slime scale and corrosion on the water side of the heat transfer equipment retards
heat transfer causing general loss of efficiency and brea!downs.
2.ygen, Carbon &io.ide, $ulphur &io.ide absorbed from the air and dissolved in water
cause corrosion, reducing the capacity of lines, increasing frictional losses and pumping
cost. Hard water causes scaling problem. 8hen heated, the minerals are left behind,
which form a deposit on the heat e.changer surface. The heat transfer rating of the
scale is very much lower than metal. /etarded heat transfer results in increased
discharge pressure causing loss in capacity and increased power consumption.
$caling of condenser tubes in a re-circulated water system is unavoidable. &escaling
has to be carried out as a preventive maintenance once every 9( months or earlier
depending on the hardness of the water. &escaling can be carried out quite
conveniently by circulating mild inhibited acid solution with the help of a small pump
connected across the condenser inlet and the water valves are closed to confine the
circulation to the condenser only.
Chemical compounds are available, which suspend minerals of dissolved scale. Algae
attach themselves to the surfaces, and since they are living plants, they grow until they
clog the passages of the system. :acteria forms slime and close the system in much
the same way as algae. Algae4$lime is controlled by use of to.ic. A specialist should be
consulted to determine the algae4slime.
rou/le S#ooting
Any trouble should be diagnosed as accurately as possible before any repair is
attempted. &efinite symptoms will accompany a faulty operation in the system. The
following trouble shooting chart will help in fault location and prompt correction:
.ature of
rou/le
(ossi/le Causes Correcti&e Steps
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>ain switch open. Close switch.
)uses blown.
Chec! electrical circuit and motor
winding for short or ground. 3nvestigate
for possible overloading. /eplace fuse
after fault is corrected.
&efective contactor. /epair or replace.
$ystem shuts down
through safety devices.
&etermine type and cause of shut down
and correct it before resetting safety
switch.
Thermostat set too high. Chec! evaporator temperature. Fower
the thermostat setting, if possible without
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free?e-up.
Fiquid line solenoid valve
may not be opened.
/epair or replace.
>otor 0Alectrical1 trouble.
Chec! motor for open, short circuit, or
burnout.
Foose wiring.
Chec! all wire Bunctions. Tighten all
terminals4screws.
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3mproper isolation. Chec! isolator.
3mproper piping support. /elocate, add, or remove hangers.
3mproper clearances.
2verhaul compressor and replace
defective parts.
)looding of refrigerant into
cran! case.
Chec! rating and setting of e.pansion
valve.
:elts4coupling loose or
misaligned.
Tighten4/ealign.
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&ischarge shut-off
valve partially closed.
2pen valve.
Condenser water flow
insufficient or temperature
too high.
Chec! water shut-off valve. 3nvestigate
ways to increase water supply.
$ystem overcharged with
refrigerant.
/emove e.cess refrigerant.
)ouled condenser tubes. Clean.
on-condensibles in
system.
%urge the non-condensibles.
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Fow water temperature.
AdBust water shut-off valve to reduce
water quantity.
$uction shut-off valve
partially closed.
2pen valve.
3nsufficient refrigerant in
the system.
Chec! for lea!s, repair and add charge.
Fow suction pressure.
$ee corrective steps for low suction
pressure.
Compressor operating
unloaded.
$ee corrective steps for failure of
compressor to load.
Condenser too large.
Chec! condenser rating table against the
operation.
8orn out piston rings.
8orn out valve0s1.
2verhaul the compressor.
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A.cessive load. /educe load or add equipment.
A.pansion valve over-
feeding.
Chec! remote bulb. /egulate superheat.
Chec! valve operation. /epair or
replace, if necessary.
Compressor operating
unloaded.
$ee corrective steps for failure of
compressor to load.
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Chilled water pump not
operating.
Chec! and start the pump.
Fac! of refrigerant gas. Chec! for lea!s. /epair and add charge.
Avaporator dirty or iced
up.
Clean or defrost.
Clogged liquid line
filter4drier
/eplace cartridge0s1.
Clogged suction gas
strainers.
Clean strainers.
A.pansion valve
malfunctioning.
Chec! and reset for proper superheat.
/epair or replace, if necessary.
Condensing temperature
too low.
Chec! means for regulating condensing
temperature.
Compressor will not
unload.
$ee corrective steps for failure of
compressor to unload.
Avaporator fan not
operating.
Chec! and start fan. 3f interloc!ed,
chec! the circuit.
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$olenoid valve in the oil
line stuc! closed, not
relieving oil pressure on
the unloader
mechanism.
/epair or replace the valve after ruling
out physical bloc! due to foreign matter.
)aulty unloader
mechanism.
/epair or replace after ruling out other
possibilities.
&efective automatic
control.
Chec! setting and verify operation.
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l
o
a
d
3nadequate oil
pressure.
/ule out a clogged oil strainer and foam
in the oil, failing which chec! the oil, relief
valve, and, as a last resort, verify the oil
pump and moving parts clearance after
disassembly.
$olenoid valve in the oil
line not opening or letting
oil flow.
Chec! whether solenoid coil is getting
energised properly and plunger lifting.
)aulty unloader
mechanism.
/epair or replace ruling out other
possibilities.
&efective automatic
control.
Chec! setting and verify operation.
(erformance 1easurement
3n order to assess the performance of an air-conditioning plant regularly, we should
measure the refrigerating capacity 0tonnage1 delivered by the plant at regular intervals.
As per A3/ >anual, the tonnage is to be measured every ' days. Theoretically, the
tonnage can be measured by performing measurement on any of the following:
The cooled medium 0Air1
The refrigerant 05as1
The intermediary medium 08ater1
Alectrical parameters
However, practically, it is more convenient and accurate to adopt the first option out of all
the above. This method is called air-flow method and will be e.plained herein.
:efore e.plaining the procedure for the measurement of tonnage, it will be appropriate to
understand the following terms:
Dry 2ul/ emperature: 3t is the temperature of air as measured by an ordinary mercury
thermometer. 3t is e.pressed in degrees )ahrenheit.
$et 2ul/ emperature: 3t is the temperature of air as measured by an ordinary mercury
thermometer whose bulb is covered by a wet cloth so that water from the cloth can
easily evaporate all around. 3t is e.pressed in degrees )ahrenheit.
3n practice, both dry and wet bulb temperatures are measured by one composite
instrument called $#irling #ygrometer or Sling psyc#rometer3 which is nothing but a
combination of dry bulb thermometer and wet bulb thermometer mounted on a common
rotatable spindle.
Relati&e -umidity: This is the amount of moisture in the air e.pressed as a percentage
of the ma.imum amount of moisture that the air can hold. A related term is 0rains of
moisture3 which indicates the absolute content of moisture in the air. 02ne pound =
',--- grains1
$T30T1 %ublication 151 --(43C0514(--+
Induction Course (General)
Specific +olume: This is the volume occupied by one unit of mass of air and is the
reciprocal of density. 3t is e.pressed in terms of cubic feet per pound.
%nt#alpy: This refers to the total heat content in the air and the moisture in the air. 3n
air-conditioning calculations, we are only concerned with the difference in the heat
content between two different conditions of air, but not the absolute heat content. 3t is
e.pressed in terms of :T; per pound.
All the above parameters are inter-related to each other. )or e.ample, if the dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures are fairly close to each other, it means that the air is highly
saturated 0leaving little scope for evaporation of the water around the wet bulb1 and
hence the relative humidity is high. )urther, as the dry bulb temperature is increased,
the volume of the air increases 0for the same mass1 and, hence, the specific volume
goes up. Also, if the dry bulb temperature goes up, it leads to a higher enthalpy value.
)ortunately, we have a wonderful graphical aid to compute any of these parameters if
Bust any two parameters are !nown. This is called (syc#rometric C#art. This chart
summari?es the properties of air. A psychrometric chart is shown in )ig. (.
To start with, the various components of the psychrometric chart should be understood.
All vertical lines in the chart represent constant dry bulb temperature. The readings of
dry bulb temperature are indicated in the hori?ontal a.is 0increasing from left to right1.
The lines having gentle slope represent constant wet bulb temperature. They also
represent constant enthalpy. The values of wet bulb temperature are indicated along the
outermost curve, while the values of enthalpy are indicated in a scale by proBecting the
lines beyond the outermost curve in different bloc!s.
)ig. (: %sychrometric Chart
$T30T1 %ublication 152 --(43C0514(--+
Air-conditioning

The hori?ontal lines indicate constant grains of moisture. The actual values are shown
on the G-a.is both in grains of moisture per pound of dry air and pounds of moisture per
pound of dry air increasing upwards.
The parabolic curves represent constant relative humidity. The values are mar!ed on
the curves themselves and are in steps of 9-H. The steeper lines indicate constant
specific volume. Ialues are indicated by proBecting the lines below the <-a.is. All these
are e.plained in )ig. 6 below and can also be noticed from the main psychrometric chart.

(- 9-@

*@
(-
Constant &ry-:ulb Temperature Fines Constant 8et-:ulb Temperature Fines

,*
'

9--H /H
*-H
/H
(-H /H
Constant Heat Content 0Anthalpy1 Fines Constant /elative Humidity Fines
9(.@ 96.- 96.@ 9,.-

9*-
-
Constant $pecific Iolume Fines Constant 5rains 2f >oisture Fines
)ig. 6: %arts of %sychrometric Chart
$T30T1 %ublication 153 --(43C0514(--+
Induction Course (General)
Thus, if any two independent parameters are !nown, we can mar! a point on the chart
representing the state of the air corresponding to those parameters. 02f course,
frequently, we may need to interpolate between the lines and ma!e Budicious selection of
the point1. 2nce a point is plotted, we can Budge the values of all other parameters from
the chart.
ow, using the chart, try to find out all the properties of air, given the following
parameters:
9. &.:. Temp C-7 ) and 8.:. Temp '-7 ).
(. &.:. Temp C-7 ) and /.H. @-H.
6. 8.:. Temp '-7 ) and /.H. 9--H.
,. &.:. Temp C-7 ) and 9-- grains of water vapour per lb.
@. &.:. Temp *-7 ) and Total Heat 6, :T;4lb.
+. &.:. Temp C-7 ) and 8.:. Temp 9--7 ).
8hat was the result for the last plot, and whyJ ow that we are in a position to find out
the heat content 0or enthalpy1 using the psychrometric chart, we can proceed with the
actual tonnage calculation.
%lease recall that the actual cooling of the air ta!es place in the evaporator of the plant,
through which the return air is passed by the blower of the Air Handling ;nit. Hence, if
we measure the dry and wet bulb temperatures on either sides of the evaporator coil, we
shall be in a position to find out the heat lost to the refrigerant from the air. The only
additional quantity required to calculate the tonnage is the quantity of air passing through
the evaporator. This can be obtained by measuring the velocity of air with the help of a
vane anemometer and then multiplying it with the cross sectional area.
)or e.ample, let us say that the measured velocity is +-- feet per minute in the return
duct and the dimensions of the return duct are @ feet by ( feet, then the volume of the air
is +-- < @ < ( = +--- cubic feet per minute. $ince the total heat content, enthalpy, is
e.pressed in terms of :T;4lb, we have to !now the mass of the air. However, since
specific volume can be found out from the psychrometric chart 0cft per lb1, we can !now
the mass of air from the volume flow rate obtained earlier by dividing it by the specific
volume.
)or e.ample, if the specific volume in the above e.ample is noted as 9,.- cft4lb, then the
quantity of air is +---49, or ,(*.+ lb per minute. ow, if the enthalpy difference noted
across the evaporator is, say, 9@ :T;4lb, then the heat lost is 9@ < ,(*.+ = +,(C :T;
per minute. Again, recall that one ton of refrigeration is equivalent to (-- :T; per
minute. Hence, the above results lead to a tonnage of 6(.9,@ T/.
3n summary, the formula for tonnage calculation can be stated as follows:
Fet H9 be the enthalpy at the inlet of the evaporator and H( be the enthalpy at the outlet
in :T;4lb. Fet A be the cross sectional area at the evaporator input in sqft. Fet I be the
velocity of air measured at the inlet in ft4minute and let $ be the specific volume as noted
from the psychrometric for the inlet air in cft4lb.
$T30T1 %ublication 154 --(43C0514(--+
Air-conditioning
3f the values were in >E$ system 0enthalpy in !ilocalories per !g, A in sqm, I in meters
per minute and $ in cubic meters per !g1, then the formula is:
ow, can you calculate the tonnage for the following observationsJ
3ncoming air dry bulb temp is *@7 ) and wet bulb temp is '@7 ). 2utlet air dry bulb temp
is ''7 ) and wet bulb temp is +@7 ). Ielocity of incoming air is @-- feet per minute and
the cross sectional dimensions are ,# and 6#.
8hile measuring tonnage, the following precautions should be ta!en:
Aach plant is to be tested separately. 3f, however, the load is such that normally
more than one plant is to be run, then another set of test should be performed with
the required number of plants.
As far as possible, the test should be performed during a time when the wet bulb
temperature of the outside air is between +@7 ) and +C7 ), optimum being +'7 ).
$tart the plants and pumps at least one hour before the measurements.
)ilters must be cleaned before the measurements.
Afforts should be made to adBust the load on the plant under test to ma!e it
appro.imately equal to the rated capacity by noting the suction and discharge
pressure readings. 3f the load is too low, the percentage of fresh air inta!e may be
increased even to 9--H, if necessary. 3f it is too high, fresh air inta!e may be cut
below normal or the supply and e.haust of a few rooms may be bloc!ed temporarily.
/eadings should be ta!en only after steady state is reached.
Care should be ta!en while measuring the air velocity. A number of readings should be
ta!en to find the most representative value.
$T30T1 %ublication 155 --(43C0514(--+
(--
1 H H 0
.
$
I . A
tonnage , Then
( 9

=
@-
1 H H 0
.
$
I . A
Tonnage
( 9