1

Bronze Age writing on the Tin Road:

Meluhha (Aratta) - Assur Kanesh

S. Kalyanaraman, July 25, 2014

Deposits of tin were found east of Tabriz in Kardagh
mountains of northeastern Iran, in Uzbekistan and
Afghanistan.

Possible ancient copper and tin sources

Ancient tin mines, with evidence of exploitation by
contemporary Andronovo groups probably in the early-mid
2nd millenium, have been identified in the Zerafshan region,
to the north-east (Parzinger and Boroffka 2003); and
previous work suggested Afghanistan may have been a
major source of tin in antiquity (Cleuziou and Berthoud
1982).
http://www.archatlas.org/workshop09/works09-wilkinson.php

See map for the caption tin close to Aratta:
2



3
The road between Assur and Kanesh is presented in
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2013/12/tin-road-
between-ashur-kultepe-and.html

4


After Fig. 8.1 Map of the Near East in the time of the Old-
Assyrian colonies (Aubet, Maria Eugenia, 2013, Commerce
and colonization in the ancient near East, Cambridge
University Press, p.269)

Profitable tin trade from Meluhha (Aratta) to Assur onto
Kanesh, Anatolia

5
In a letter from the time of Samshi-Adad I, it is stated that
large quantities of tin could be got in Susarra in the plain of
Rania in Iran, an important commercial centre on the road
from Tabriz to Assur (Larsen, 1967: 4; 1976:87; 1987:50;
Leemans, 1968: 202-206)in the time of level Ib in Kanesh
(ca. 1800-1776 BCE), the export of tin to Kanesh was
interrupted, probably because of the closure of the Zagros
route when Susarra was destroyed and abandoned. (In the
fourteenth century BCE, in the Middle Assyrian period, King
Enlil-narari of Assur was still supplying tin to Babylon and we
know that Asurbanipal II (883-859 BCE) got tin from the
country of Nairi, which is usually located between lakes Van
and Urmia, to th north of Assyria. In the Sumerian myths
there are already allusions to the rich reserves of tin in that
Armenian region on the Turco-Iranian frontier to the
northeast of Iran (Leemans, 1968:209-211)The Kanesh
correspondene reveals a considerable volume of tin
despatched to Anatolia during the second period of the
karum. Veenhof has calculated that over a period of some
sixty year, a total of 27,000 minas that is some 450 talents
of tin, equivalent to 13.5 tons, was despatched to Kanesh;
this would be equivalent to some 80 tons during the whole of
the colonial period and to some 200 caravans carrying tin on
6
the backs of mules from Assur to Kanesh (Veenhof, 1972:
69-76 and 79-80; Larsen, 1976: 90). [Given that it takes 10
percent of tin and 90 percent of copper to produce bronze,
the total bronze production over the whole period in Anatolia
could amount to 800 tons.] However, a Old-Assyrian tablet
preserved in Berlin would double that quantity because it
mentions a load of 410 talents of tin transported in a single
caravan, the property of the merchant Imdilum (Larsen,
1982: 230). Such a large volume of metal suggests that a
fairly elaborate organization existed in the centres of origin.
In Assur, the trade was managed by merchants who
controlled only the last stage of the road from the Zagros,
but we do not know who transported it to Assur. In their
correspondence, the Assyrian traders never speak of a need
to go to the East to buy tin, they simply wait for it to arrive in
the city. Thus, Assur left the provision of commodities in
other hands, although it held on to the monopoly of their
distribution in Anatolia (Larsen, 1987: 52). In an agreement
signed between an Assyrian merchant in Kanesh and a
prince in the south of Anatolia (Kt n/k 794), there is a
protectionist clause aimed at preventing competition from the
Akkadian (Babylonian) traders in the tin trade. The clause
makes it obligatory for Babylonian competitors to be
7
extradited for execution (Veenhof, 2003: 86-87). The
Assyrian tin trade was indeed vital and also highly lucrative.
In Assur, one shekel of silver could buy twelve to fourteen
shekel of tin (12:1 14:1), whereas in Anatolia, one shekel
of silver was quoted at six to eight shekel of tin (6:1 and 8:1).
This price difference, combined with the high price of tin in
Anatolia double permitted profits of 100 per cent, which
could be invested in fitting out new caravans in Assur
(Michel, 1991: 261). Moreover, there is evidence that traders
decided on the composition of the caravan for Kanesh on the
basis of the prices of tin. Thus, in two letters, the purchase of
tin in Assur is temporarily postponed because of high prices
(Veenhof, 1988: 253): There is no tin, not even at a price of
13:1 for an adequate consignment (TC 2,7). Since tin is dear
(= scarce), I shall not send any (VAT 9218). In this context,
letter L29-579, sent by the merchant Imdilum to his agent
Assur-tab in Kanesh, is revealing (Veenhof, 1988: 262): Adu
is bringing you 2 talents and 2 minas of tin and 5 pieces of
good quality kutanu cloth with my seal. If a price of 6:1 for
my tin and 15 shekel a piece for my cloth is possible, then
sell them for cash, the tin and the cloths. If not, keep the tin
with its seal. At one time and another I have informed you
that the arrival of the tin is delayed but you write to me in
8
your leter: I have sold the tin at a price of 7:1. If the tin is
still available and you have not yet sold it, let me know, I do
not blame you. But if you have sold it, send me the silver
under seal and sell my cloth for at least 15 shekel a piece. It
is clear that the inadequate supply of tin in Assur caused a
6:1 price rise in Anatolia, which yielded considerable profit.
Lastly, in a letter from Kanesh (VAT 9220, n. 27) Assur is
informed of the departure of a consignment of thirty-three
minas of silver, destined for the metropolis, with the express
order to buy tin. The addressee in Assur is requested to
forward the silver so that he may acquire tin before the
arrival of the caravan so the carrier can load it immediately
back to Anatolia (Veenhof, 1988:255). (Aubet, Maria
Eugenia, 2013, Commerce and Colonization in the Ancient
Near East, Cambridge University Press, pp.292-293).

A leading merchant of Kanesh, Imdilum used a seal with
Meluhha hieroglyphs:


9
Seal of Imdilum, a leading merchant of Kanesh (from Ichisar,
Metin, 1981, Les Archives cappadociennes du marchand
Imdilum (Recherche sur les grandes civilisations) (French
Edition) by Metin Ichisar ,1981, Paris, Editions ADPF: fig. 2).
The firm had numerous collaborators, associates and
scribes and it is known that it bought huge quantities of tin
and textiles on Imdilums account. One case alludes to the
dispatch of a caravan consisting of seven mules carrying
eight talents and forty minas of tin for the two partners,
Imdilum and Pusu-kenOn two occasions, Imdilum sends a
talent of silver (30 kg) to Assur to buy tin, when we know of
Assyrian merchants who needed a whole lifetime to
accumulate one talent of silver! There is likewise a mention
of a load of fifty-seven talents of tin for Imdilum, bought in
Assur for four talents of silver and sold in the Anatolian
10
market for eight talents of silver. These are undoubtedly
huge sums, so we can consider Imdilum to be a genuine
millionaire in his day.(pp.353-355).


Assyrian traders wait for the valuable tin to arrive in Assur;
who brought it to Assur from further east, close to Aratta of
Meluhha?

The Meluhhans brought it to Assur. They were the Meluhha
Asur closely related to the traders in Assur. The seal on the
tin cargo was written with Meluhha hieroglyphs, read rebus.

Some examples of tablets impressed with a seal on the tin
cargo:
Karum could be from a substrate language: e.g. [
krakuna ] m ( P A factor, agent, or business-man.) A clerk,
scribe, writer. 0 A term of ironical
commendation for a clerk. [ kru ] m (S) An artificer or
artisan. 2 A common term for the twelve q. v.
Also m pl q. v. in . (Marathi)
11
The streams of water flowing the naked, bearded person are
the signature tune of the times in Ancient Near East. This
glyptic or overflowing pot held by Gudea, appears on
hundreds of cylinder seals and friezes of many sites.
Overflowing water from a pot is a recurrent motif in Sumer-
Elam-Mesopotamian contact areas a motif demonstrated
to be of semantic significance in the context of lapidary-
metallurgy life activity of the artisans.
The rebus readings are:
[ kamu ] knamu. [Skt.] n. Water.
(Telugu) kah -- : (b) water -- channel : Pa. ka
irrigation channel , Shum. x. (CDIAL 14349). ka
flowing water Rebus: k metalware, tools, pots and
pans. lokha (overflowing pot) metal tools, pots and pans,
metalware lokh overflowing pot Rebus: tools, iron,
ironware (Gujarati) Rebus: lokha Iron tools, vessels,
12
or articles in general. lo pot to overflow. Gu<loRa>(D) {}
``^flowing strongly''.
koam Flowing, pouring;
.
(. . 43, 130) koam < gha.
Cattle- shed (Tamil)
koam flowing, pouring (Tamil). Ma. kouka to shoot out,
empty a sack. ? Te. koukonipvu to be carried along by
stream or air current.(DEDR 2065).



13

Impressions of seals on tablets from Kanesh (After Larsen,
Mogens Trolle and Moller Eva, Five old Assyrian texts, in: D.
Charpin - Joanns F. (ed.), Marchands, Diplomates et
Empereurs. tudes sur la civilization Msopotamienne
offertes Paul Garelli (ditions research sur les
Civilisations), Paris, 1991, pp. 214-245: figs. 5,6 and 10.)
Karum meant literally quay or port for river trading or
transport activities.

Sources:

Cleuziou and Berthoud

Cleuziou, S., The early Bronze Age of the Oman Peninsula.
From Chronology to the Dialectics of Tribe and State
14
formation, in S. Cleuziou, M. Tosi and J. Zarins (Eds.),
Essays on the late Prehistory of the Arabian Peninsula,
Rome 2000, 181-227.

Cleuziou, S. and T. Berthous, Early tin in the Near East. A
Reassessment in the Light of New Evidence from Western
Afghanistan, 25.1 (1982), 14-19.

Larsen

Larsen, MT, ed. (1979), Power and Propaganda: a
symposium on Ancient Empires, Copenhagen
Larsen, MT (1996), The Conquest of Assyria:
Excavations in an Antique Land 1840-1860.
London/New York
Larsen, MT (2008), The old Assyrian Merchant
Colonies, in Aruz et al., eds., Beyond Babylon: Art,
trade, and diplomacy in the Second Millennium BC.
New Haven and London. 70-81.

Leemans

15
Leemans, WF (1960), Foreign trade in the Old
Babylonian Period as Revealed by Texts from Southern
Mesopotamia. Leiden.

Veenhof
Altassyrische Tontafeln aus Kultepe Berlin : Mann (1992)
Geschichte des Alten Orients bis zur Zeit Alexanders des
Grossen Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (2001)
The Old Assyrian list of year eponyms from Karum Kanish
and its chronological implications Ankara : Turkish
Historical Society (2003)
Artisans and traders who traversed the Tin Road created
Meluhha writing of the Bronze Age using a cipher:
hieroglyphs based on rebus readings of Meluhha language.

Meluhha language was called mleccha in ancient Sanskrit
texts which note that mleccha words were either incorrect
pronunciations or grammatical variants. Mleccha was
intelligible to a Sanskrit speaker as evident from the Meluhha
conversation between Yudhishthira and Vidura/Kanaka
reported in the Mahabharata. Mleccha (Meluhha) was lingua
franca -- the spoken version of the language since many
16
groups and regions were identified as Meluhha people or
Meluhha regions; Sanskrit was the literary, grammatically
correct version of the language in vogue in Bronze Age. It is
possible to reconstruct many Meluhha glosses from the
tadbhava (cognate glosses) and tatsama (phonetic variants
of glosses) detailed in Prakrit/Pali lexicons and in texts such
as Denmaml of Hemacandra
1
many glosses of such
Prakrits or De words are relatable to Sanskrit.

Some glosses are retained as received memories of the
Bronze Age and recorded in many language lexicons of over
25 present-day languages of Indian sprachbund (speech
union).

Studies in Proto-IE and IE linguistics have noted Sanskrit as
an IE family of languages. It is not easy to trace the direction
of borrowings between Sanskrit and other IE languages.
Glosses of many Indo-European and Proto-IE languages are
cognate with Meluhha glosses.

1
Hemacandra; Richard Pischel; Paravastu Venkata
Ramanujaswamy, The Denmaml, Bombay Bhandarkar
Oriental Research Inst.1989.

17

Some examples may be cited: 1.ayas metal; in Old Indian
ayas denoted copper, iron. Latin aes bronze, copper, OHG
er ore, Goth aiz money, metal, coin, Av. ayah- metal
(probably bronze). 2. amsu Soma (Old Indian), amzu iron
(Tocharian)

The presence of Meluhha speakers is attested along
archaeological sites of the Persian Gulf and in ancient Near
East, along the Tin Road of the Bronze Age by the evidence
of Meluhha hieroglyphs related mainly to trade transactions
of tin and other bronze age cire perdue bronze artifacts
comparable to those discovered in Nahal Mishmar.

Artisans who had practiced the cire perdue or lost-wax
casting techniques in bronze or brass were called dhokra
kamar (Meluhha language). This word denoting the cire
perdue artisans is depicted as a hieroglyph on two seals with
Meluhha writing: one tablet written on two sides of Dholavira
and one seal of Mohenjo-daro.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2014/01/meluhha-
hieroglyphs-1-dhokra-lost-wax.html
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Dholavira molded terracotta tablet with Meluhha hieroglyphs
written on two
sides. http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/01/meluhha-
metallurgical-roots-and-spread.html?q=dhokraMeluhha:
spread of lost-wax casting in the Fertile Crescent. Smithy is
the temple. Veneration of ancestors.


Mohenodaro seal. Pict-103 Horned (female with breasts
hanging down?) person with a tail and bovine legs standing
near a tree fisting a horned tiger rearing on its hindlegs.
19

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/04/philosophy-of-
symbolic-forms-in-meluhha.html In this link, discovery of two
seals/tablets is reported: one seal from Mohenjo-daro and a
tablet from Dholavira. Both report on the profession of the
smelter-metallurgist involved in the cire perdue
technology.The professional is dhokra rendered rebus in
Meluhha hieroglyphs -- perhaps by the ancestors of assur of
present-day India, since they continue the smelting and
casting traditions venerated by Tukulti-Ninurta I at an altar to
the fire-god, karandi. The safflower which adorns Ashur
artifacts is karadi.

Start with the decrepit, hunched up old woman depicted and
use rebus readings in Meluhha cipher:

Hieroglyph: Ku. okro, okhro old man ; B. okr old,
decrepit , Or. okar; H. okr decrepit ;
G.ok m. penis , okr m. old man , M. okr m. -- Kho.
(Lor.) duk hunched up, hump of camel ;
K.ku humpbacked perh. < *kka -- 2. Or.
dhokaa decrepit, hanging down (of breasts) .(CDIAL 5567)
Rebus: dhokra cire perdue casting metalsmith.
20

Glyph: Br. kn on all fours, bent double. (DEDR 204a)
Rebus: kunda turner kundr turner (A.); kdr, kdri (B.);
kundru (Or.); kundau to turn on a lathe, to carve, to chase;
kundau dhiri = a hewn stone; kundau murhut = a graven
image (Santali) kunda a turners lathe (Skt.)(CDIAL 3295)

Tiger has head turned backwards.
krammara. adv. or Same as
(Telugu). krm back(Kho.)(CDIAL 3145)
Rebus: karmra smith, artisan (Skt.) kamar smith
(Santali) The hieroglyph of an old female with breasts
hanging down and ligatured to the buttock of a bovine is also
deployed on a Mohenjo-daro seal together with the
hieroglyph: tiger has head turned backwards. Thus, on the
Mohenjo-daro seal, the hieroglyphs read rebus: dhokra
kamar.

See: Philosophy of symbolic forms in Meluhha cipher - A
new book by S. Kalyanaraman

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2014/04/meluhha-
metallurgy-to-bronze-age.html?q=dhokra
21
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2014/07/variations-in-
indus-script-mihika-basu.html

Coiners mint

The following are examples of Meluhha writing on copper
plates (obverse and reverse):


Text of inscription on B19 copper plate with that on C6
copper plate.

Obverse has two allographs: 1. Archer; 2. Ligatured crab
leaf hieroglyph.

22
Meluhha provides the glosses for the rebus readings of
these allograph hieroglyphs:

Obverse 1:
kamhiyo = archer; kmahum = a bow; kma, kmaum =
a chip of bamboo (G.) kmahiyo a bowman; an archer
(Skt.lex.) Rebus: kammai a coiner (Ka.); kampaam
coinage, coin, mint (Tamil) kammaa = mint, gold furnace
(Telugu)

Obverse 2:

kamaDha crab; Rebus: kammaa = mint, gold furnace
(Telugu)

ato = claws of crab (Santali) Rebus: dhtu mineral ore.

kamaDha = ficus religiosa (Skt.); kamar.kom ficus (Santali)
rebus: kamaa = portable furnace for melting precious metals
(Te.); kampaam = mint (Ta.) Vikalpa: Fig leaf loa; rebus:
loh (copper) metal. loha-kra metalsmith (Sanskrit).

23
Thus, the message conveyed by the pictorial hieroglyphs
and ligatured sign hieroglyphs is IDENTICAL: coiners mint.





Copper plate showing hare fronting a bush.

Other hare hieroglyphs on tablets of Harappa:

24







25
kulai, 'hare' (Santali), Meluhha Rebus:kolhe smelter. kolhe,
the koles, are an aboriginal tribe of iron smelters speaking a
language akin to that of Santals (Santali) kla m. name of a
tribe Hariv. Pk. kla m.; B.kol name of a Mu tribe
(CDIAL 3532). A Bengali lexeme confirms this:
1
[ kla
1
]
an aboriginal tribe of India; a member of this tribe. (Bengali)
That in an early form of Indian linguistic area, kol means
man gets substantiated by a Nahali and Assamese glosses:
kola woman. See also: Wpah. Kha.kui, cur. ku,
cam. k boy , Sant. Muari koa boy , kui girl ,
Ho koa, kui, Krk kn, knj). Prob. separate from
RV. kt -- girl H. W. Bailey TPS 1955, 65; K. kr f.
young girl , kash.k, ram. kuh; L. ku m. bridegroom
, ku f. girl, virgin, bride , aw. ku f. woman ; P. ku f.
girl, daughter , (CDIAL 3295). or [ krak or
y ] aRelating to the country - --a tribe of Brhmans
(Marathi).

Same hare hieroglyph occurs on cylinder seal of ancient
Near East:
26


Cylinder seal and impression Syria (ca. 1720
1650 B.C.E) Hematite 21 x 10 mm Seal no.
937 http://www.themorgan.org/collections/collectionsList.asp
?id=Seals



27









28







29

On these copper plates of Mohenjo-daro, the pictorial motif
hieroglyphs are read rebus:

pattar trough rebus: pattar guild.

sangada 'lathe', 'portable furnace' G. sgh m. lathe
; sg m. frame of a building , f. lathe (CDIAL
12859) Rebus:
sangataras. lit. to collect stones, stone-cutter,
mason. []
. (Dasa,
Syamasundara. Hindi sabdasagara. Navina samskarana.
30
2nd ed. Kasi : Nagari Pracarini Sabha, 1965-1975.)
, , mason.

Ku. balad m. ox , gng. bald, N. (Tarai) barad, id.
Rebus: L. bhra to spread or bring out from a kiln ;
M. bhr, bh to make strong by charms (weapons,
rice, water), enchant, fascinate (CDIAL 9463) Ash. bar
blacksmith, artisan (CDIAL 9464). Baran, bharat mixed
alloys (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi) bharana id.
(Bengali) bharan or toul was created by adding some brass
or zinc into pure bronze. bharata = casting metals in moulds
(Bengali)

[ kh ] f An outspread shovelform sack (as formed
temporarily out of a , to hold or fend off grain, chaff
&c.) (Marathi) koiyum 'rings on neck' (Gujarati)
kondh heifer. ku horn (Kannada. Tulu.
Tamil) [kha] m A young bull, a bullcalf. (Marathi)
Rebus: kdr 'turner' (Bengali); kd to turn in a lathe
(Bengali). knda engraver, lapidary setting or infixing
gems (Marathi) kd lathe-turner. kdr turner,
brass worker. knda engraver, lapidary setting or
infixing gems (Marathi) kdr, kdri (B.); kundru
31
(Or.) [kaa] f A fold or pen. (Marathi) [kha]
Alloyed--a metal (Marathi).

kul 'tiger' (Santali); klu id. (Te.) klupuli = Bengal tiger
(Te.)Pk. kolhuya -- , kulha -- m. jackal < *khu -- ;
H.kolh, l m. jackal , adj. crafty ; G. kohl, l n. jackal
, M. kolh, l m. kr crying BhP., m. jackal RV. =
kru -- m. P. [kru] Pa. kohu -- , uka -- and kotthu -- ,
uka -- m. jackal , Pk. kohu -- m.; Si. koa jackal , koiya
leopard GS 42 (CDIAL 3615). [ klh ] [ klh ]
A jackal (Marathi) kol tiger, jackal (Konkani.) Rebus: kol
iron (Tamil.) Rebus: kol furnace, forge (Kuwi) kol alloy of
five metals, pacaloha (Tamil) kolhe smelters (See rebus
readings of hare hieroglyph).

ga4 m. rhinoceros lex., aka -- m. lex. 2. *ga- yaa --
. [Prob. of same non -- Aryan origin as khag --1:
cf. gatsha -- m. lex. as a Sanskritized form Mu. PMWS
138]1. Pa. gaaka -- m., Pk. gaaya -- m., A. gr,
Or. ga. 2. K. g m., S. geo m. (lw. with g -- ),
P. ga m., f., N. gao, H. ga m., G. g m., f.,
M. g m.Addenda: gaa -- 4. 2. *gayaa --
: WPah.kg. ge mirg m. rhinoceros , Md. gen
32
H. (CDIAL 4000). k-mirukam , n.
[M. kmgam.] Rebus: ka tools, pots and pans and
metal-ware (Gujarati) Rebus: kha tools, pots and pans
and metal-ware (Marathi)


ibha elephant; (Sanskrit) Rebus: ib iron (Santali); ibbo
merchant (Desi)


Seal H-166 a & b

The hieroglyphs are:
1. Peacock with its tail down
2. snakes above the wings
3. three mountain peaks below the wings
33
4. fire-altar shaped like +

kaa 'furnace, fire-altar' (Santali)

maraka peacock (Santali) mora peacock; mor peafowl
(Hindi); rebus: morakkhaka loha, a kind of copper, grouped
with piscaloha (Pali). [Perhaps an intimation of the color of
the metal produced which shines like a peacock blue
feather.] moraka "a kind of steel" (Sanskrit)

See bronze peacocks in Vatican:
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2013/11/pine-cone-
vatican-and-peacocks-samarra.html

Allograph: [ ngamu ] ngamu. [Skt. from a hill.]

Hieroglyph: ng1 m. snake Br. 2. elephant BhP. [As
ele- phant shortened form of *nga -- hasta -- EWA ii 150
with lit. or extracted from nga -- danta -- elephant tusk,
ivory < snake -- shaped tusk ]. 1. Pa. nga -- m. snake ,
NiDoc. na F. W. Thomas AO xii 40, Pk. ya -- m., Gy.
as. n JGLS new ser. ii 259; Or. naa euphem. term for
snake ; Si. nay, n, nay snake . -- With early nasalization
34
*nga -- : Bshk. ng snake . -- Kt. Pr. no, Kal. nho
name of a god < nga -- or Pers. nahang NTS xv 283. 2.
Pa. nga -- m. elephant , Pk. ya -- m., Si. n. iunka --
.(CDIAL 7039). [ ngamu ] ngamu. [Skt. from a
hill.] n. Lit: That which pertains to a mountain. A
serpent, . Particularly, a cobra. An elephant,
. a female supernatural being, a
goddess, . nkulu. n. The celestials,
the gods. R. v. 35. 176. nk-suu. n. A name of
Indra. nkar, n. < nka. Celestials; .
(. 62).(Tamil) ,
, or ngu. n. A
cobra. .(Telugu)
nkam, n. < nga. 1. Cobra. See .
(. 25, 195). 2. Serpent;
. (.) (. .
37).Rebus: nkam , n. < nga. A prepared arsenic;
; Black lead; . (Tamil) nga2 n.
lead Bhpr. [Cf. raga -- 3] Sh. na m. lead (< *nga --
?), K. ng m. (< *ngga -- ?).(CDIAL 7040). [
ngasindhramu ] nga-sindhramu. [Skt.] n. A red calx of
lead. (Telugu) cf. anakku 'tin' (Akkadian), an alloying ore to
create tin-bronzes.
35

Stamp seal with unicorn and ritual offering stand, ca. 2000-
1900 B.C.; Harappan. Indus Valley, Harappa, 8796-01.
Indus inscription. Steatite; L. 5.2 cm (2 in.); W. 5.2 cm (2 in.).
Harappa Museum, Harappa H99-4064. Courtesy of the
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Ministry of
Minorities, Culture, Sports, Tourism, and Youth Affairs,
Government of Pakistan.
Photograph www.metmuseum.org
36

m 278
m
127B From r. to l. comb, bird in brackets, rim-of-jar
37

m 1319
38

Copper tablet m 516 B ranku antelope Rebus: ranku tin
(Santali)
Vikalpa: tagara 'antelope'; rebus 1: tagara 'tin'; rebus
2: tamkru, damgar 'merchant' (Akkadian)

ka 'one-eyed' Rebus: kaahra -- m. helmsman, sailor.
kannr 'coppersmiths'.
39


m1341
40
First sign: Numeral six as hieroglyph: ra six, rings of
hair Rebus: ra 'brass'.
Second sign: double-quote hieroglyph: sal 'splinter'; rebus:
sal 'workshop' (Santali) Vikalpa: aar splinter (Ma.); aaruni
to crack (Tu.) aduru native metal (Ka.)

Third sign from the sign as liquid measure hieroglyph: ranku
liquid measure Rebus: ranku tin (Santali)

m 314
Sign pictographs as hieroglyphs read rebus:

m 314 Top line, first sign hieroglyph: Rebus reading of wheel
with six spokes:
41

A view of the fire-altar pedestal of Tukulti-Ninurta I, Ishtar
temple, Assur. Shows the king standing flanked by two
standard-bearers; the standard has a spoked-wheel
hieroglyph on the top of the staffs and also on the volutes of
the altar frieze.The mediation with deities by king is adopted
by Assurnasirpal II.

The two standards (staffs) are topped by a spoked
wheel. ra 'spokes' Rebus: ra 'bronze'.

The two standards (staffs) are topped by a spoked
wheel. ra 'spokes' Rebus: ra 'bronze'. cf. erka = ekke
(Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal
(Kannada) Glyph: erakanave of wheel Rebus: eraka
42
copper; cf. erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka)
copper (metal); crystal (Kannada)

Another side of Tukulti-Ninurta fire-altar.

[kara] A clump, chump, or block of wood. 4 The
stock or fixed portion of the staff of the large leaf-covered
summerhead or umbrella. [ kar ] m C A cylindrical
piece as sawn or chopped off the trunk or a bough of a tree;
a clump, chump, or block.

Rebus: fire-god: @B27990. #16671. Remo
<karandi>E155 {N} ``^fire-^god''.(Munda)

[ kara ] f (See ) Safflower: also its seed.
43

Rebus: karaa 'hard alloy' of arka 'copper'.

m314 Last line, fourth glyph: person holding bow and arrow:
kamaTha bow + meD body Rebus: kammaTa mint, coiner

ayo, hako 'fish'; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya =
iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.)

kundau, kundhi corner (Santali) kua corner
(S.): kho square (Santali) *khua2 corner . 2. *kua --
2. [Cf. *khca -- ] 1. Phal. khun corner ; H. kh m.
corner, direction ( P. kh f. corner, side ); G. kh f.
angle . <-> X ka -- : G. khu f., kh m. corner . 2.
S. kua f. corner ; P. k f. corner, side ( H.).(CDIAL
3898).

kundau, kundhi corner (Santali) kua corner
(S.): kho square (Santali) *khua2 corner . 2. *kua --
2. [Cf. *khca -- ] 1. Phal. khun corner ; H. kh m.
corner, direction ( P. kh f. corner, side ); G. kh f.
angle . <-> X ka -- : G. khu f., kh m. corner . 2.
44
S. kua f. corner ; P. k f. corner, side ( H.).(CDIAL
3898).

Rebus: konda pit festival, See detailed lexical entry:

Rebus vikalpa: Rebus: kunda1 m. a turner's lathe lex. [Cf.
*cunda -- 1] N. kdnu to shape smoothly, smoothe, carve,
hew , kduw smoothly shaped ; A. kund lathe
, kundiba to turn and smooth in a lathe , kundow
smoothed and rounded ; B. kd lathe , kd, kd to turn
in a lathe ; Or. knda lathe , kdib, kd to turn (
Drav. Kur. kd lathe ); Bi.kund brassfounder's lathe ;
H. kunn to shape on a lathe , kuniy m. turner
, kunw m. (CDIAL 3295). kundakara m. turner W. [Cf.
*cundakra -- : kunda -- 1, kar -- 1] A. kundr, B. kdr, ri,
Or. kundru; H. kder m. one who works a lathe, one who
scrapes , r f., kdern to scrape, plane, round on a lathe
45
.(CDIAL 3297). Ta. kuntaam interspace for setting gems in
a jewel; fine gold (< Te.). Ka. kundaa setting a precious
stone in fine gold; fine gold; kundana fine
gold.Tu. kundaa pure gold. Te. kundanamu fine gold used
in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious
stones with fine gold. (DEDR 1725).

baa = a kind of iron (G .) baa = rimless pot (Kannada)
S. bahu m. large pot in which grain is parched, large
cooking fire, bah f. distilling furnace; L. bhah m. grain
parcher's oven, bhah f. kiln, distillery, aw. bhah; P.
bhah m., h f. furnace, bhah m. kiln; S. bhah ke
distil (spirits). (CDIAL 9656)

[ mkha ] . Add:--3 Sprout or shoot. (Marathi) Kuwi (Su.)
mogla shoot of bamboo; (P.) moko sprout (DEDR
4997) Tu. mugiyuni to close, contract, shut up; muguru
sprout, shoot, bud; tender, delicate; muguruni, mukuruni to
bud, sprout; mugg, mogg flower-bud, germ; (BRR;
Bhattacharya, non-brahmin informant) mukk bud. Kor. (O.)
mke flower-bud. (DEDR 4893)
Rebus: mh (copper) ingot (Santali) mh = the quantity of
iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the
46
Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-
cornered piece a little pointed at each end (Santali)

Vikalpa: pajhar. = to sprout from a root (Santali) Rebus:
pasra smithy (Santali)

[ kae ] kae. [Tel.] n. A head or ear of millet or
maize. (Telugu) k stack of stalks of
large millet(Maithili) k 2 m. a section, part in general;
a cluster, bundle, multitude (iv. 32). k 1 m.
the stalk or stem of a reed, grass, or the like, straw. In the
compound with dan 5 (p. 221a, l. 13) the word is
spelt k. Rebus : khna tools, pots and pans, metal-
ware. Rebus 2: ka 'fire-altar' (Santali)

kha field, division (Skt.) Rebus 1: Ga. (Oll.) kan, (S.)
kanu (pl. kankil) stone (ore). Rebus 2: ka 'fire-altar'
(Santali) Thus, the two divided squares connote furnace for
stone (ore).

kd bunch of twigs (Sanskrit) Rebus: kui=
smelter furnace (Santali)

47
umgara mountain (Pkt.)(CDIAL 5423). Rebus: damgar
merchant. Phonetic variant: ang = small country boat,
dug-out canoe (Or.); g trough, canoe, ladle (H.)(CDIAL
5568). Rebus: nro term of contempt for a
blacksmith (N.); angar (H.) (CDIAL 5524)

Meluhha hieroglyph1: Ku.balad m. ox , gng. bald , N.
(Tarai) barad, id.

Meluhha hieroglyph, allograph 2: bharaDo spine (Gujarati);
spine, backbone (Punjabi); baraDo thADavo lit. to strike on
the backbone or back (Gujarati). baraDo -barad BHANGI
NAKHI- Brocken) - means KED/KAMAR Backbone
specifically of LUMBAR REGION (Kutchi. Gujarati).
Rebus: L. bhra to spread or bring out from a kiln ;
M. bhr, bh to make strong by charms (weapons,
rice, water), enchant, fascinate (CDIAL 9463) Ash. bar
blacksmith, artisan (CDIAL 9464). Baran, bharat mixed
alloys (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi) bharana id.
(Bengali) bharan or toul was created by adding some brass
or zinc into pure bronze. bharata = casting metals in moulds
(Bengali)

48
Meluhha hieroglyph: 'rim-of-jar': Phonetic forms: kan-
ka (Santali) karika (Sanskrit) Rebus: kar, supercargo for a
boat shipment. karka account (scribe). kra the
supercargo of a ship (Marathi) [ karadhra ] m S (A
holder of the ear.) A helmsman or steersman
[dakuakara] m An hereditary officer of a
Mahl. He frames the general account from the accounts of
the several Khots and Kulkarns of the villages within the
Mahl; the district-accountant.

Stamp seal with a boat scene. Steatite. L. 2 cm. Gulf regio,
Failaka, F6 758. Early Dilmun, ca. 2000-1800 BCE. Ntional
Council for Culture, Arts and Letters, Kuwait National
Museum, 1129 ADY. The subject is a nude male figure
standing in the middle of a flat-bottomed boat, facing right.
The man's arms are bent at the elbow, perpendicular to his
49
torso. Beside him are two jars stand on the deck of the boat,
each containing a long pole to which is attached a hatched
square that perhaps represents a banner. Six square stamp
seals from Failaka have been published...It is unlikely that
the hatched squares represent sails, since the poles to
which they are attached emerge from vases. The two
diagonal lines on the body of the boat may represent the
reed bundles from which these craft were buit. See Kjaerum
1983, seal nos. 192, 234, 254, 266, 335, 367.
Source: Source: Joan Aruz et al., 2003, Art of the First cities:
the third millennium BCE from the Mediterranean to the
Indus, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art (Pages 320,
322). See also:
http://ancientworldonline.blogspot.in/2012/10/kuwaiti-slovak-
archaeological-mission.html

What is shown like the phase of a moon may not denote a
moon but the shape of a bun-ingot. abu an iron spoon
(Santali) Rebus: ab, himba, hompo lump (ingot?).
50
Alternative reading: mh 'ingot'. Read together with the polar
star, the rebus reading is: me mh 'iron ingot'.
[meha polar star (Marathi). me iron (Ho.Mu.)] The
antelope + divided square is read rebus: eraka
tagara ka 'tin furnace' (merchant, damgar). The upraised
arm indicates eraka 'copper': eraka upraised arm
(Telugu); eraka copper (Telugu) Thus, the seal denotes a
merchant dealing in iron, tin and copper ingots.

tamar-ci, n. < +. 1. See , 2. 2. Bits of a
brace; . tamar , n. [M. tamar.] 1.
Hole, as in a plank, commonly bored or cut;
. (.
. 61). 2. Gimlet, spring awl, boring
instrument; . Ta. tamar hole in a plank,
commonly bored or cut; gimlet, spring awl, boring
instrument; tavar (-v-, -nt-) to bore a hole; n. hole in a
board. Ma. tamar hole made by a gimlet; a borer, gimlet,
drill. ? Ko. tav- (tavd-) to butt with both horns,
gore. Tu. tamir gimlet. Te. tamire, (VPK) tagire the pin in
the middle of a yoke. (DEDR 3078) r f.
shoemaker's awl RV. Pa. Pk. r -- f. awl ; Ash. ar
needle ; K. r f. shoemaker's awl , S. ra f., L. r f.;
51
P. r f. awl, point of a goad ; N. ro awl ; A. l sharp
point, spur ; B. r awl , Or. ra, ri, Bi. r, ara, aru,
(Patna) arau spike at the end of a driving stick , Mth. aru,
(SETirhut) r cobbler's awl ; H. r f. awl, goad , r f. awl
, ara goad , r m. shoemaker's awl or knife ; G. M. r f.
pointed iron spike ; M. r, ar cobbler's awl
.Addenda: r -- : S.kcch. r f. pointed iron spike.(CDIAL
1313) Rebus: A brazier coppersmith (Sanskrit)

ayo fish(Mu.); ayas iron (Skt.) Rebus: ayas metal

Ta. ka eye, aperture, orifice, star of a peacock's tail. (DEDR
1159a) Rebus brazier, bell-metal worker: ka
, n. < . [M. kannn.] Brazier, bell-metal worker, one of
the divisions of the Kamma caste; .
(.)

[ gd ] m A circular brand or mark made by actual
cautery (Marathi) [ g ] m A roundish stone or pebble.
2 A marble (of stone, lac, wood &c.) 2 A marble. 3 A large
lifting stone. Used in trials of strength among the Athlet. 4
A stone in temples described at length under 5 fig. A
term for a round, fleshy, well-filled body. 6 A lump of silver:
52
as obtained by melting down lace or fringe. or [
gu or g ] a () Spherical or spheroidal, pebble-
form. (Marathi) Allographs: Ta. ku (in cpds. ku-) horn,
tusk, branch of tree, cluster, bunch, coil of hair, line,
diagram, bank of stream or pool (DEDR 2200)
Ko. koi fowl. Tu. kri, (B-K) also) ki id.
Te. ki id. Nk. (Ch.) gogoi, gogoi cock (<
Go.). Go. (Tr.) ggi, (Ph.)gugo, (Y.) ghogi, (Mu. Ma. S.
Ko.) gogo id. (Voc. 1184).
Cf. Apabhraa (Jasaharacariu) koi- id., fowl. (DEDR
2248). Rebus: kho alloy (Marathi). [ kha ] f A mass of
metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or
wedge (Marathi). P. kho m. alloy M.kho alloyed, (CDIAL
3931) Rebus: kho alloy (Marathi). [ kha ] f A mass
of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an
ingot or wedge (Marathi). P. kho m. alloy
M.kho alloyed, (CDIAL 3931)

ato claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs; aom, iom to
seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions; akop
= to pinch, nip (only of crabs) (Santali) Rebus: dhtu
mineral (Vedic); dhatu a mineral, metal (Santali)

53
X as Hieroglyph: du cross(Telugu) Rebus: dhatu mineral
(Santali). Vikalpa: ba road (Telugu). Rebus: bhaa
furnace (Santali)

Allographs:
1. aru m. sun lex. Kho. yor Morgenstierne NTS ii 276
with ? <-> Whence y -- ? (CDIAL 612)
2. aru(m), eru(m), harum "branch, frond " of date palm
(Akkadian) Akkadian aru/eru may be equivalent of the
Hebrew 'rh 'eagle'. The concise dictionary of Akkadian
(Jeremy A. Black, 2000) notes: eru, aru, also ru 'eagle'. aru
'granary, storehouse' OA, jB lex. aru(m) 'warrior'.

Rebus: eraka, era, er-a = syn. erka, copper, weapons
(Ka.) eruvai copper (Ta.); ere dark red (Ka.)(DEDR
446). eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.) Tu. eraka
molten, cast (as metal); eraguni to melt (DEDR 866)

ga 'four'. ka 'bit'. Rebus: ka 'fire-altar'.

kha field, division (Skt.) Rebus: Ga. (Oll.) kan, (S.)
kanu (pl. kankil) stone (DEDR 1298). (Marathi) is
metal, nodule, stone, lump. kai stone (Kannada) with
54
Tadbhava khau. khau, ka stone/nodule (metal). Rebus:
khaaran, kharun pit furnace (Santali) ka furnace
(Skt.) f. a blacksmith's smelting furnace (Grierson
Kashmiri lex.) [khaa] A piece, bit, fragment,
portion.(Marathi) Rebus 2: kandi (pl. -l) beads, necklace
(Pa.); kanti (pl. -l) bead, (pl.) necklace; kandit. bead
(Ga.)(DEDR 1215).

kolmo 'three'. Rebus: kolami 'smithy, forge'.

kolmo paddy plant (Santali); kolom = cutting, graft; to graft,
engraft, prune; kolma hoo = a variety of the paddy plant
(Desi)(Santali.) kolom three (Mu.) Rebus: kolami furnace,
smithy (Telugu)

satthiya svastika glyph; rebus: satthiya pewter.

meha polar star (Marathi). me iron (Ho.Mu.)
Allograph: meh ram.

Ka. (Hav.) aaru twig; (Bark.) ar small and thin branch of a
tree; (Gowda) ari small branches. Tu. aaru twig.(DEDR
67) Rebus: aduru gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru =
55
ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a
furnace (Ka. Siddhnti Subrahmaya astris new
interpretation of the Amarakoa, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana
Press, 1872, p.330).


Text 4304 First three glyphs from left: 1. kui water-carrier
(Te.); rebus:kuhi 'smelter furnace' (Munda). 2. kolom (rice
plant). Rebus: kolami smithy, forge, smelter,furnace.
3. ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin' (Santali)

Next three glyphs from left: 4. kanka 'rim of jar'
rebus: khanaka 'miner' (Skt.) 5. Ligure to rim of
jar: [kh] m a jag, notch, or indentation (as upon
the edge of a tool or weapon); rebus: khmetal
tools, pots and pans. 6. koi flag (Ta.)(DEDR
56
2049). Rebus: ko workshop (Kuwi)


A person carrying a sickle-shaped weapon and a wheel on
his bands faces a woman with disheveled hair and upraised
arm. kuhru armourer (Sanskrit) salae sapae = untangled,
combed out, hair hanging loose (Santali.lex.)
Rebus: sal workshop (Santali) The glyptic composition is
decoded as kuhru sal armourer
workshop. eaka 'upraised arm' (Tamil). Rebus: eraka =
copper (Kannada) Thus, the entire composition of these
glyphic elements relate to an armourers copper workshop.
Vikalpa: A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl
or snarl (Marathi). Rebus: m 'iron' (Munda)

57

Harappa tablet h180 (section). One glyph composition
enlarged to show the crocodile ligature close to pudendum
muliebre of the female with thighs apart and shown lying
upside down.

The glyph showing the image of a crocodile issuing forth
from a female with thighs drawn apart is one side of a tablet
h180. Same text is repeated on both sides.

kuhi pudendum muliebre (Mu.) khou m. vulva (CDIAL
3947). Rebus: kuhi smelter furnace (Mu.)kh m.
pit, kh f. small pit (Kashmiri. CDIAL 3947).

Crocodile issuing forth from the womb: kar 'crocodile'
(Telugu) khr 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) dula 'pair'
rebus: dul 'cast (metal)' (Santali). Pair of tigers: kola 'tiger'
rebus:

58
Crocodile issuing forth from the womb: kar 'crocodile'
(Telugu) khr 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) Pair of tigers: dula 'pair'
rebus: dul 'cast (metal)' (Santali). kola 'tiger' rebus: kol
'working in iron' (Tamil) kolhe smelters (Santali) The pair of
tigers connote dul 'cast (metal)' Thus together the pair of
tigers as hieroglyphs connote: dul cast kol iron from kolhe
smelters.

Sensitivity of Indus Script to Site and Type of Object

Nisha Yadav
An important new article by pioneering research Nisha
Yadav on "Sensitivity of Indus Script to Site and Type of
59
Object". from Scripta, Volume 5 (October 2013), pp. 67 to
103. It compares the occurrence of seals in Mohenjo-daro,
Harappa, Lothal, Kalibangan, Chanhudaro. The article is full
of well-constructed analysis and interesting facts, a new lens
through which to look at writing in ancient Indus times.
Mohenjo-daro alone accounts for more than half of all seals
found, and Harappa about a third, and both seem to have
been part of an axis of writing styles.
Nisha Yadav_Scripta 2013.pdf
http://a.harappa.com/sites/g/files/g65461/f/201311/Nisha%2
0Yadav_Scripta%202013.pdf

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/12/tin-road-from-
meluhha-to-ancient-near.html
Tin Road from Meluhha to ancient Near East which explains
the presence of pure tin ingots from Meluhha in a shipwreck
at Haifa (Levant or Fertile Crescent).

The route: via Elam, Susa, Persian Gulf, Ashur to Kanesh/Nesh
(Kultepe, Anatolia or modern Turkey), close to Mitanni with
evidence of Indo-Aryan superstrate which evidences the
presence of Meluhha, Indian sprachbund.
Bronze Age of tin-bronzes defined.
60

Breath-taking splendour of the Bronze Age tin-bronzes from
Meluhha documented in over c. 20,000 Cappadocia/Kultepe
tablets and c. 7,000 Indus script artifacts and c. 2000 Persian
Gulf seals.

Meluhha hieroglyphs and Meluhha professions of Bronze Age.

Pictorial gallery of Munda/Ashur at work for placer-mining of
tin/cassiterite ores
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/12/assur-daiva-
samudra-manthan-meluhha.html


Seal showing a Meluhha merchant.

Akkadian cylinder seal of scribe, Su-ilisu,
61
Meluhha interpreter, i.e., translator of the Meluhhan
language. The person carrying an antelope on his left hand
is a Meluhha merchant.
Meluhha hieroglyph: agara antelope; takar, n.
[T. tagaru, K. tagar.] sheep; ram. Rebus: tagara
tin. damgar, tamkru merchant.


62
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/12/ashur-
temple-golden-tablet-of-ishtar.html

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2013/12/ashur-temple-
golden-tablet-of-ishtar.html Ashur temple. Golden tablet of
Ishtar temple in Ashur (1243-1207 BCE). Meluhha
hieroglyphs on Ashur altar, Dholavira gateway

Stone-smithy guild on a Meluhha standard


63

Harappa Tablet. Pict-91 (Mahadevan) m0490At m0490B
Mohenjodaro Tablet showing Meluhha combined standard of
three standards carried in a procession, comparable to
Tablet m0491.
64

Raised hand hieroglyph on Pict-91 Harappa tablet: er-aka
upraised hand (Tamil) Rebus: eraka copper.

m0491 Tablet. Line drawing (right). This tablet showing three
hieroglyphs may be called the Meluhha standard.Combined
reading for the joined or ligatured glyphs

Rebus reading is: dhatu kd sangaa mineral, turner,
stone-smithy guild.

Dawn of the bronze age is best exemplified by this Mohenjo-
daro tablet which shows a procession of three hieroglyphs
carried on the shoulders of three persons. The hieroglyphs
are: 1. Scarf carried on a pole (dhatu Rebus: mineral ore); 2.
A young bull carried on a stand kd Rebus: turner; 3.
Portable standard device (Top part: lathe-gimlet; Bottom
part: portable furnace sg Rebus: stone-
cutter sangatar ). sangho (Gujarati) cutting
stone, gilding (Gujarati); sangsru karau = to stone
(Sindhi) sanghiyo, a worker on a lathe (Gujarati)
sangataras. lit. to collect stones, stone-cutter,
mason. []
65
. (Dasa,
Syamasundara. Hindi sabdasagara. Navina samskarana.
2nd ed. Kasi : Nagari Pracarini Sabha, 1965-1975.)
, , mason.

The procession is a celebration of the graduation of a stone-
cutter as a metal-turner in a smithy/forge. A sangatar
stone-cutter or lapidary of neolithic/chalolithic age had
graduated into a metal turners workshop (ko), working with
metallic minerals (dhatu) of the bronze age.

Three professions are described by four standards; three of
these standards are three hieroglyphs: scarf, young bull,
standard device dhatu kdsg Rebus words denote:
mineral worker; metals turner-joiner (forge); worker on a
lathe associates (guild).

On this tablet, the standard which is also a hieroglyph on the
very front is not clear. It is surmised that this standard, the
first hieroglyph of four hieroglyphs carried on the procession
may be comparable to the standard shown on Tukulti-
Ninurta I altar discovered in the Ashur temple.

66
This fourth standard could be compared with this
hieroglyph of the Tukulti-Ninurta altar:
A spoked wheel is shown atop on the standard and
the hieroglyph is also reinforced by depicting the hieroglyph
on the top of the standard-bearer's head. This Meluhha
hieroglyph is read rebus: eraka'knave of wheel'
Rebus: 'moltencast copper'; ra 'spokes' Rebus: ra 'brass'.

Thus, the fourth profession is depicted as the smith working
with metal alloys.

Thus, together the four professions depicted on the
Mohenjodaro-standard showing four hieroglyphs in
procession are read rebus:

Hieroglyph: dhatu 'scarf' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral'

Hieroglyph: kd 'young bull calf' Rebus: kd 'turner-joiner'
(forge), worker on a lathe
67

Hieroglyph: sg 'lathe (gimlet), portable furnace'
Rebus: sg 'metalsmith associates (guild)'

Hieroglyph eraka ra 'knave of wheel', 'spokes of wheel'
Rebus: eraka ra 'copper alloy brass'

Thus Rebus readings of the four hieroglyphs denote:
mineral worker; metals turner-joiner (forge); worker on a
lathe associates (guild), copper alloy brass.

dhatu kd sg eraka ra

Safflower hieroglyph adorns one side of Tukulti-Ninurta I
altar: [ kara ] f (See ) Safflower: also its
seed. Rebus: karaa 'hard alloy' of arka 'copper'. Rebus: fire-
god: @B27990. #16671. Remo <karandi>E155 {N} ``^fire-
^god''.(Munda).

Rebus Meluhha reading of safflower kara as fire-
god karandi renders the hieroglyph sacred and could well
have denoted sacredness of the effulgent sun divinity.
68


69

A bracelet with the face of a bull. angar 'bull' Rebus: angar
blacksmith (Hindi)

From the stone reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II. Wrist with a
safflower bracelet: safflower kara as fire-god karandi
Hands carry metal weapons.
70

From the stone reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II. Daggers tucked in
belt. The handle of a dagger has the safflower
71
hieroglyph.

From the stone reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II. Ear-ring with an
arrowhead pendant. uu arrowhead, Rebus: uu boat.

Indian-standard coinage of Menanderr I with an eight-spoked
wheel and a palm of victory on the reverse (British Museum).
The 'palm' evokes the spike shown on Tukulti-Ninurta fire-
72
altar frieze (which is a rebus) of his ancestor's worship of
fire-god karaa, 'fire-god' (Remo spoken by Bonda people
of Odisha).

We are fortunate indeed that the rebus memories are
retained in spoken languages of Ancient Near East from
ca.5th millennium BCE, dawn of bronze-age, as shown by
examples of hieroglyhs and related glosses from
Indian sprachbund.
The safflower hieroglyph shown on Tukulti-Ninurta altar is
also found on flower ornament of jewellery :

Kunal, silver ornaments. Safflower-shaped hieroglyph is
shown on the top left. safflower kara as fire-god karandi
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The Sumerian Princess

Pu'abi or Shab'ad "The Sumerian princess" : Jewelry and
headdress of gold and imported precious stones such as
carnelian and lapis lazuli from India and Afghanistan. From
the Royal Cemetery of Ur. Early Dynastic, ca. 2400 BC. The
National Museum of Iraq Baghdad

Head-dress found in the tomb of Puabi: safflower kara as
fire-god karandi
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Uruk seal impression showing safflower hieroglyph:
safflower kara as fire-god karandi
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A goat standing on its hind legs eating the leaves of a tree.
safflower kara as fire-god karandi

The statuette is composed of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, copper,
shell, red limestone and bitumen. Notice the shape of the
"flowers" or "rosettes" and that they each have eight points.
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The two terracotta toys show sindhur (red vermilion powder)
at the central parting of the hair of these women statuettes.
The same practice is followed even today by Bodo and
Ashur married women.

Iron lump. Discovered at Tell Atchana/Alalakh (Low Bronze
Age context)
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Scheme of long distance trade -- Middle Bronze Age 2000-
1600 BCE (Larsen 1987, figure 5.2)
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Ancient near Eastern cylinder seal, Marcopoli Collection
(Beatrice Teissier, 1985, Univ. of California Press).

Meluhha hieroglyphs:Ta. karam monkey. Ir. ka (small)
monkey; kag monkey. Ko. ko small
monkey. To. kw monkey. Ka. kaga monkey,
ape. Ko. ko monkey. Tu. koaji, koaja,
koag baboon. (DEDR 2196). kuhru = a monkey
(Sanskrit) Rebus: kuhru armourer or weapons
maker(metal-worker), also an inscriber or
writer. Rebus: ko = the place where artisans work
(Gujarati)

tagara ram Rebus: tagaram tin. aryeh lion Rebus: ra
brass. Antelope has head turned
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backwards. krammara. adv.
Again. or Same
as . krm back(Kho.) karmra smith, artisan
(Skt.) kamar smith (Santali)

Saar. 6580:05. Dia 2.4 ht 1.0. Male figure. A horned animal
with ruffed neck looks back. To the left the man holds a
seated monkey-like creature, jar motif

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Pale-grey steatite. Dia 1.9 ht 0.85. Horned animal with ruffed
neck faces palm-frond. On left, a monkey-like creature.
Saar. 1042:23. Upper right quadrant of a circular seal
impression, a seated monkey-like creature on the right,
facing left towards a short-horned animal. Below them is the
head and neck of a possible bull.

Mohenjo-daro tablet with graphics of animals including
monkey m0439t
82



Clay find with impression of a cylinder seal and containing a
tablet from Kanesh and a bulla from Acemhoyuk with
impression of a seal (from Ozguc, 1969: 253). The circular
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seal impression shows a pair of seated monkeys and a fish.
Meluhha rebus readings: ayo 'fish' Rebus: ayas 'metal
(alloy)'. kuhru = a monkey (Sanskrit) Rebus: kuhru
armourer or weapons maker(metal-worker), also an
inscriber or writer.

In the time of King Ziri-Lin of Mari (ca. 1780-1760BCE), the
chief centres for the transit of tin to the West were the cities
of Sippar, Eshnunna and Susa. Before that, however, the
city of Assur was responsible for the supply of metal to the
regions in the West and south. In the days of Hammurabi,
the Babylonin merchants were still going north to buy tin. It is
known that there were rich deposits of tin in the Kardagh
Mountains in northeastern Iran, east of Tabriz, and also in
Uzbekistan and Afghanistan. In a letter from the time of
Samshi-Adad I, it is stated that large quantities of tin could
be got in Susarra in the plain of Rania in Iran, an important
commercial centre on the road from Tabriz to AssurWe
only know that in the time of level Ib in Kanesh (ca. 1800-
1776BCE), the export of tin to Kanesh was interrupted,
probably because of the closure of the Zagros route when
Susarra was destroyed and abandoned. The Kanesh
correspondence reveals a considerable volume of tin
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dispatched to Anatolia during the second period of
the karum. Veenhof has calculated that over a period of
some sixty years, a total of 27,000 minas that is some 450
talents of tin, equivalent to 13.5 tons, was dispatched to
Kanesh; this would be equivalent to some 80 tons during the
whole of the colonial period and to some 200 caravans
carrying tin on the backs of mules from Assur to Kanesh.
However, a Old-Assyrian tablet preserved in Berlin would
double that quantity because it mentions a lod of 410 talents
of tin transported in a single caravan, the property of the
merchant Imdilum. (Aubet, Maria Eugenia, 2013,
Commerce and colonization in the ancient near East,
Cambridge University Press, p.292).

Meluhha colonies in Ancient Near East

...the point of intersection between the two great trading
networks of Mesopotamia and the Indus, along which the
lapis lazuli and the chlorite vessels passed and which no
doubt operated through various intermediary centres like
Aratta and Tepe Yahya. This would explain the appearance
at the same dates in central Asia of a host of fortified centres
engaged in lapis lazuli and turquoise production, as in
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Dashly, where a palace showing traces of metal production
and of contacts with Harappa and Mesopotamia through Iran
was discovered. Leaving aside Tepe Yahya, Susa, the Indus
and the Persian Gulf, it is certain that all this wealth flowed
into Sumer and, in particular, to the city of Ur. The
prosperous urban centre of Shar-i-Sokhta (or Shahr-Sokteh)
sitting on the caravan route between Elam and Sumer bears
witness to a high degree of specialisation in the working of
semi-precious stones. The craftsmen of the place imported
the stone raw lapis lazuli, turquoise and cornelian and
worked and polished it for export. Some Sumerian texts
allude to the acquisition of lapis lazuli and gold in Meluhha
(the Indus valley), which suggests simultaneous use of the
sea route through the Persian Gulf. Many of these trans-
regional routes must have been very ancient and left traces
in the collective memory of Sumer and Akkad in the form of
heroic myths with couriers who come and go and carry lapis
lazuli and silver from the mountains. In another Sumerian
myth about Enki and Ninhursag, the country of Dilmun (the
modern island of Bahrein) figures as the main transit point
for merchandise from the Gulf and as a clear alternative to
the overland route through Yahya and Susa. Dilmun-style
seals have been discovered in Tepe Yahya, as have weights
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from the Indus in Bahrein. The Sumerian texts are
unanimous in stressing timber as one of the principal
commodities from Meluhha/Harappa and they allude to the
existence of a colony of merchants from Meluhha in the
territory of Lagash. In Qalaat al Bahrein, a fortified town on
the north coast of Bahrein with temples and a surrounding
necropolis with tumuli, evidence of contacts with the Indus is
seen in the presence of seals, systems of weights and
pottery from Meluhha, with signs of the presence of a
community of merchants from the Indus in Dilmun.
Elsewhere, on the fortified site of Al-Maysar, local production
of copper is combined with a local chlorite vessel industry
and the importing of Mohenjo Daro-style seals. In exchange,
Dilmun imported Mesopotamian cereals and
textiles...karum at Kanesh in Cappadocia. The long stay of
these colonists and merchants in Anatolia stimulated great
creativity in the business sphere, in the drawing up of
contracts and mercantile protocols...the Assyrian karu in
Anatolia formed part of the provinces of the Assyrian empire,
and in Landsbergers opinion, they had functioned as
colonies of merchants dependent on Assur. (Aubet, Maria
Eugenia, 2013, Commerce and colonization in the ancient
near East, Cambridge University Press, p.191, 266, 268).
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Harappa Potsherd. Rebus reading: tagaraka 'tabernae
montant' fragrant tulip (Sanskrit) Rebus: tagaram 'tin (metal)'
(Malayalam.

Tin ingots with Meluhha hieroglyphs (Indus writing)
discovered in a shipwreck at Haifa. Rebus reading: ranku
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'liquid measure'; 'antelope' Rebus: ranku 'tin (cassiterite)
ore'.
X glyph which is common to epigraphs on both the tin ingots
may refer to kulhi the village street (Santali) Rebus: kol
alloy metal of five minerals (Tamil) See:
http://www.newsnfo.co.uk/pages/Sarasvati%20hieroglyphs.p
df Glyphs on tin ingots compared with Sarasvati or Meluhha
hieroglyphs.