CheeseCourseManual2012 0

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Cheese Making Technology

Art Hill, 2011

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HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL

This manual, updated July 2011, is intended to be used as a supplement to the lectures and
laboratories of Cheese Technology, a short course by the Department of Food Science,
University of Guelph. It is not designed to be a stand-alone reference, but many have found
previous editions useful as general reference to cheese science and technology. The online
version is posted for personal use only. If you refer to this document in any oral or written
materials please provide the authors name (Art Hill) and enough information to easily locate
the online document.

A list of recommended references for further reading is included in Chapter 2. When these
references are cited else where in the manual, they are identified by author and year. You
can then find the reference in the alphabetical list in Chapter 2. Other citations are noted in
parentheses or foot notes as appropriate.

This manual is not written in a formal style. Some stylistic devices conform to convention. In
other cases I have created my own conventions. The following are some of my quirks.
When referring to the milk of specific species, I have abandoned all attempts to
determine where to put the esses and apostrophes. So, sheeps, goats, cows,
reindeers and yaks milk are simplified to sheep, goat, cow, reindeer and yak milk.
Some sections are written in point form rather than prose.
The most important acronyms are defined on the following page. Others that are used
only in a particular section are defined where they first occur in the text.
Percentages mean percent by weight unless otherwise noted.

Read on ---- I hope you enjoy it and that you find useful information.

Professor Art Hill
Department of Food Science,
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1
Email: arhill@uoguelph.ca
Phone: 519-824-4120 x53875
Fax: 519-824-6631

ABBREVIATIONS

Acronym

Long Form Comment

CN

Casein number Weight % of casein in the total
(crude) protein of milk.

FDM

Fat in the dry matter 100 x Fat/(100 - moisture)

LAB

Lactic acid bacteria

MNFS

Moisture in the non-fat substance 100 x Moisture/(100 - fat)

NFS

Non-fat solids The trade also uses the acronym SNF
(Solids non-fat) .

NPN

Non-protein nitrogen Nitrogenous materials present in
milk that are often included in
estimates of total milk protein. Crude
protein means NPN is included in the
total; true protein means NPN is
excluded. If protein is not specified
as crude or true, assume it is crude.

NSLAB

Non-starter lactic acid bacteria

PF

Ratio of protein to fat in the milk PF is the principal determinant of the
FDM in the cheese.

pH

A measure of acidity Neutral = 7.0
Acid < 7.0
Alkaline > 7.0

SM

Salt as weight % of cheese
moisture
100 x Salt/moisture

TA

Titratable acidity Expressed as weight % of lactic acid.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEESE MAKING ........................................................................ 1

2. RECOMMENDED REFERENCES ................................................................................... 11

3. PROCESS AND QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES ................................................ 13
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Cheese Sampling .................................................................................................. 15
3.3 Total Solids .......................................................................................................... 16
3.4 Titratable Acidity ................................................................................................. 16
3.5 pH ........................................................................................................................ 18
3.6 Babcock Methods for Milk Fat ............................................................................ 20
3.7 Cheese Salt ........................................................................................................... 22
3.8 Culture Activity Test ........................................................................................... 22
3.9 Detection of Bacteriophage ................................................................................. 23
3.10 Inhibitory Substances ......................................................................................... 24
3.11 Rennet Activity .................................................................................................. 27
3.12 Yeasts and Moulds ............................................................................................. 27
3.13 Presumptive Coliforms ...................................................................................... 28
3.14 Staphylococci ................................................................................................... 28

4. RAW MILK QUALITY .................................................................................................... 31
4.1 The Principal Milk Components ......................................................................... 31
4.2 Factors affecting gross milk composition ............................................................. 32
4.3 Milk as a growth medium ..................................................................................... 33
4.4 Types of micro organisms and their activity in milk ............................................ 36
4.5 Pathogenic Bacteria ............................................................................................. 37
4.6 Antibiotics ............................................................................................................. 38
4.7 Mastitic Milk ......................................................................................................... 39
4.8 Raw Milk quality tests ......................................................................................... 40

5. TREATMENT OF MILK FOR CHEESE MAKING ......................................................... 45
5.1 Clarification .......................................................................................................... 45
5.2 Standardization of cheese milk composition ....................................................... 45
5.3 Heat treatments ..................................................................................................... 49
5.4 Homogenization .................................................................................................... 50
5.5 Additives to Cheese milk ...................................................................................... 50

6. STANDARDIZATION OF MILK FOR CHEESE MAKING ........................................... 53
6.1 PF, FDM and CN ................................................................................................ 53
6.2 Methods of Standardizing .................................................................................... 53

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6.3 Units ..................................................................................................................... 54
6.4 Calculations ........................................................................................................ 55
6.5 Addition Of Cream .............................................................................................. 59
6.6. General Guidelines for Standardization ............................................................... 59

7. CULTURES ........................................................................................................................ 64
7.1 General Functions of Cheese Cultures ................................................................. 64
7.2 General characteristics of lactic acid cultures ...................................................... 65
7.3 Classification of Lactic Acid Cultures .................................................................. 65
7. 4 Summary: technological properties of lactic acid cultures ................................. 67
7.5 Secondary Cultures .............................................................................................. 68
7.6 Culture Production, Distribution and Storage...................................................... 68
7.7 Bacteriophage (bacterial viruses).......................................................................... 69

8. COAGULATION ............................................................................................................... 73
8.1 Milk Structure ....................................................................................................... 73
8.2 Enzymatic Coagulation of Milk ........................................................................... 74
8.3 Acid coagulation .................................................................................................. 77
8.4 Heat-Acid coagulation .......................................................................................... 77

9. CHEESE MAKING STEP BY STEP ................................................................................. 80
9.1 Ripening the Milk ................................................................................................. 80
9.2 Setting the Vat ...................................................................................................... 80
9.3 Cutting The Curd .................................................................................................. 81
9.4 Cooking ................................................................................................................. 83
9.5 Draining ................................................................................................................ 83
9.6 Washing ................................................................................................................ 83
9.7 Curd Handling ....................................................................................................... 83
9.8 Pressing ................................................................................................................. 84
9.9 Salting ................................................................................................................... 84

10. RIPENING AND PACKAGING ...................................................................................... 88
10.1 Ripening processes: chemical and physical changes .......................................... 88
10.2 Principal Ripening Agents .................................................................................. 90
10.3 Cheese Composition for Optimal Curing ........................................................... 92
10.4 Temperature of Curing ........................................................................................ 93
10.5 Humidity of Curing ............................................................................................. 93
10.6 Ripening Treatments ........................................................................................... 94
10.7 Packaging ............................................................................................................ 94

11. PROCESS CONTROL ..................................................................................................... 96
11.1 The Objectives of Cheese Manufacturing .......................................................... 96
11.2 Moisture Control ................................................................................................. 96
11.3 pH Control ......................................................................................................... 97

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11.4 Mineral Control .................................................................................................. 97
11.5 Texture Control ................................................................................................... 98
11.6 Flavour Control .................................................................................................. 98

12. YIELD EFFICIENCY ................................................................................................... 101
12.1 Distribution of Components During Cheese Making ....................................... 101
12.2 Factors Affecting Yield .................................................................................... 101
12.3 Principles of Yield Optimization ..................................................................... 102
12.4 Yield Control .................................................................................................... 102
12.5 Recovery of Milk Components ......................................................................... 102
12.6 Yield Expression ............................................................................................... 103
12.7 Yield Prediction.... 103
12.8 Composition Control..104

13. DEFECTS AND GRADING .......................................................................................... 107
13.1 Defects .............................................................................................................. 107
13.2 Grading ............................................................................................................. 109

14. SANITATION .............................................................................................................. 113

15. SOFT-RIPENED CHEESE ........................................................................................... 114
A. Feta Cheese ......................................................................................................... 114
B. Camembert Cheese .............................................................................................. 116
C. Blue Cheese ......................................................................................................... 118

16. SEMI-HARD

CHEESE -- WASHED ............................................................................ 121
A. Brine Brick .......................................................................................................... 121
B. Colby ................................................................................................................... 123
C. Gouda .................................................................................................................. 125
D. Montasio (Fruilano) ............................................................................................ 126

17. FIRM TO HARD CHEESE: LOW TEMPERATURE: PROVOLONE, CHEDDAR128
A. Provolone ............................................................................................................ 128
B. Cheddar ............................................................................................................... 130
C. Romano ............................................................................................................... 132
D. Swiss Cheese ....................................................................................................... 133

18. HEAT-ACID PRECIPITATED CHEESE ..................................................................... 136
A. Ricotta Cheese .................................................................................................... 136
B. Queso Blanco (Frying Cheese) ............................................................................ 137
C. Paneer (contributed by Sunil Radhakrishnan) ..................................................... 138

19. FRESH CHEESE ........................................................................................................... 140
A. Cottage Cheese - Short Set (Emmons & Tuckey, 1967)..................................... 140

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B. Quark ................................................................................................................... 142
C. Cream Cheese ..................................................................................................... 142

20. PROCESS CHEESE ....................................................................................................... 145
20.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 145
20.2 Standards: Canadian Regulations ..................................................................... 145
20.3 Ingredients ........................................................................................................ 145
20.4 Process Systems ................................................................................................ 147
20.5 Microbiology .................................................................................................... 148
20.6 Calculations ...................................................................................................... 148
20.7 Procedure .......................................................................................................... 149

21. LOW FAT CHEESE ....................................................................................................... 152
21.1 Importance of Fat In Cheese ............................................................................. 152
21.2 Current Status of Low-fat Cheese ..................................................................... 152
21.3 Effects of Reduced-Fat On Cheese Composition ............................................. 152
21.4 Defects .............................................................................................................. 152
21.5 Low-fat Cheddar Make Schedule ..................................................................... 153

22. CHEESE MAKING FROM ULTRAFILTERED MILK ............................................. 155
22.1. Terms and Principles ..................................................................................... 155
22.2 Benefits of UF in the Dairy Industry ............................................................... 156
22.3 Properties of UF Milk Retentates .................................................................... 156
22.4 Development of UF Applications in the Cheese Industry ............................... 157

23. CHEESE SUBSTITUTES ............................................................................................. 159
23.1 Why: .................................................................................................................. 159
23.2 Threat or Opportunity ....................................................................................... 159
23.3 Varieties currently available in US ................................................................... 159
23.4 Types of Substitutes .......................................................................................... 159
23.5 Cheddar Cheese Substitute ............................................................................... 160

24. WHEY PROCESSING ................................................................................................. 161

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Flowchart of Cheese Making Process. ............................................................. 9

Figure 1.2. Effects of particular processing conditions on various cheese making
parameters. ......................................................................................................10

Figure 3.1. Culture Activity Test ...................................................................................... 30

Figure 4.1 Seasonal variation of fat, protein, lactose and protein:fat ratio in Ontario
producer milk .................................................................................................. 43

Figure 4.2. The concept of pH............................................................................................44

Figure 5.1 Membrane concentration/fractionation ........................................................... 52

Figure 5.2 Microfiltration Flowchart ............................................................................... 52

Figure 7.1 Natural Fermentation of Raw Milk ................................................................. 72

Figure 8.1 Structural elements of milk. After Walstra and Jenness, 1984. Dairy
Chemistry and Physics, Wiley & Sons, N.Y. ................................................... 78

Figure 10.1 Cheddar cheese composition curing. (A) New Zealand standards for
Premium and First Grade Cheddar cheese. (B) Typical ranges for high
quality Canadian Cheddar. Note: pH measured between 3 and 14 days after
manufacture. .................................................................................................... 95

Figure 24.1 Whey processing & utilization ..................................................................... 162

Appendix 1. Some Common Unit Conversions

Appendix 2. Measurement of titratable acidity

Appendix 3. Measurement of pH

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Some properties of cheese categorized according to type of coagulation and
procedures used for pH and moisture control. .................................................. 7

Table 1.2 Typical composition (% by weight) of some cheese varieties. ......................... 8

Table 4.1 Typical gross composition (kg/100kg) of cow, dairy sheep and goat milk
(Wong et al. 1988). ......................................................................................... 41

Table 4.2 The principal caseins and some properties of importance to
cheese making ................................................................................................. 41

Table 4.3 The principal whey proteins and some properties of importance to
cheese making ................................................................................................. 42

Table 4.4 Typical fat and protein contents (kg/100 kg) for the milk of several breeds of
dairy cows (from various sources). ................................................................. 42

Table 6.1 Some cheese varieties with some characteristics, composition and suggested
ratio of protein/fat in standardized milk. Fat and moisture levels for most
varieties correspond to definitions given in the Canada Agricultural Products
Act and Regulations, Section 28. .................................................................... 61

Table 7.1 Some lactic acid bacteria commonly used in cheese making. ....................... 71

Table 9.1 Record of Manufacture ................................................................................... 86

Table 9.2 Record of Quality Control .............................................................................. 87

Table 11.1 pH versus time profiles for several cheese varieties100

Table 12.1 Distribution of milk components during cheese making (% by weight) and
percent transfer from milk to cheese. ............................................................ 101

Table 12.2. Examples showing High, Medium and low levels of Cheddar moisture control
.105
Table 12.3. Variation of composition in 290 kg blocks of stirred curd Cheddar cheese..105

Table 13.2 Cheese Judging Score Card
...........................................................................112

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Table 20.1 Process cheese composition control: Example ............................................ 145

Table 20.2 Process cheese composition control ............................................................. 151

Table 22.1 Ultra filtration of whole milk: typical composition of concentrate and
permeate (polysulfone membrane, tubular configuration, operation at 50C
(Glover, 1985). .............................................................................................. 158

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1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEESE MAKING

This section is both introduction and overview. As we study particular aspects of cheese
making (the trees) you will find it useful to return here to refresh your view of the forest.

The Basic Process (Figure 1.1)

Cheese making can be described as the process of removing water, lactose and some
minerals from milk to produce a concentrate of milk fat and protein. The essential ingredients
of cheese are milk, coagulating enzyme (rennet), bacterial cultures and salt. Rennet causes
the milk proteins to aggregate and ultimately transform fluid milk to a semi-firm gel. When
this gel is cut into small pieces (curds), the whey (mostly water and lactose) begins to
separate from the curds. Acid production by bacterial cultures is essential to aid expulsion of
whey from the curd and largely determines the final cheese moisture, flavour and texture. A
flow chart showing the general operations of cheese making is in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.2
illustrates, very diagrammatically and generally, some associations among some cheese
processing parameters and some cheese properties.

Cheese Families

The objectives of cheese making are: (1) To obtain the optimum cheese composition with
respect to moisture, acidity (pH), fat, protein and minerals (especially calcium); (2) Establish
the correct structure of the cheese at the microscopic level; and (3) Ripen to perfection.
Objectives (1) and (2) are achieved by varying initial make procedures and it is then possible
to achieve objective (3). Most of these variations in initial make procedures are different
means to control the rate and extent of acid development, and the rate and extent of moisture
release. Grouped according to texture and basic manufacturing procedures, seven cheese
families are described below and summarized in Table 1.1. This course is concerned mainly
with Families 4, 5, 6, and 7, but procedures for some acid coagulated fresh cheese (Family
1) and heat-acid precipitated cheese (Family 3) are included for your information. Table 1.2
contains composition data for some common cheese varieties.

Cheese families are described in this section under five headings, namely, varieties, type of
coagulation, pH or acidity control, moisture control and curing. Other technological
characteristics of cheese are listed at the end of this chapter.

Please note that while these categories are helpful to classify most cheese in technological
groups, the categories cannot be applied rigidly. For examples: (1) pasta filata varieties vary
widely in composition, manufacturing techniques and degree of ripening, so they dont fit
any category well; and (2) The manufacture of Cheshire types is similar to Cheddar up to the
point of draining, but after that their excessive acid development is similar to Feta.

Family 1. Predominantly Acid-coagulated Fresh Cheese

In North America, 'fresh cheese' normally refers to cheese produced by acid coagulation at
30 - 32C with little or no added rennet. Acid is normally produced via fermentation by lactic
cultures but some fresh cheese may also be produced by direct acidification with glucono-

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delta-lactone. Cheese made for fresh consumption is also made via rennet coagulation
(Family 2) and a procedure known as heat-acid precipitation (Family 3).

Varieties: Cottage, Quark and Cream

Coagulation: The distinguishing characteristic of these varieties is that coagulation is
achieved by acidification to pH 4.6 - 4.8, with little or no coagulating enzyme. Acidification
is normally by lactic acid producing cultures. Most other American and European cheese
varieties also use lactic acid producing cultures, but gelation is induced by a coagulating
enzyme at pH 6.5 - 6.7, before much acid development has taken place.

pH Control: Depending on variety there may be little or no effort to control or adjust pH.
Cottage cheese, after cutting at pH 4.6 - 4.8, is cooked to 52C, which is sufficient to
inactivate the culture and prevent further acid development. For some varieties, including
cottage, acidity is also reduced by washing the curd before salting.

Moisture Control: Curd moisture is reduced by syneresis during cooking but remains high,
60 - 70%, in the finished cheese.

Curing: Fresh cheese as the name implies is consumed fresh and has a shelf life of only 2 - 3
weeks.

Family 2. Predominantly Rennet-coagulated Fresh Cheese

In Latin American, Middle Eastern and some European countries, fresh rennet cheese is
produced with little or no culture. Without acid production by lactic acid bacteria, cheese pH
remains high and the resulting cheese does not melt when used in a stir fry or other cooked
recipes. For reasons of safety and quality, these varieties must be handled with extra attention
to sanitation and refrigeration.

Varieties: Queso Blanco, Queso Fresco, Italian fresh cheese, Halloumi

Coagulation: The distinguishing characteristic of rennet coagulated fresh cheese is that little
or no culture is used. Coagulation is, therefore, entirely by rennet at the natural pH of milk.

pH Control: The pH is determined by the amount of culture. If no culture is used, the pH
remains in the range of 6.5-6.7. In some Queso Blanco varieties a small amount of culture is
used to reduce the pH to about 5.8 which reduces the growth of both spoilage (increases
shelf life) and pathogenic (increases food safety) micro organisms. Further acidification is
inhibited by cooling and salting. Too much acidification below pH<5.8 will produce a
meltable cheese which is unsuitable for frying.

Moisture Control: Curd moisture may be reduced by syneresis during cooking and limited
acidification, but is still 50 - 70% in the finished cheese. Some varieties exhibit syneresis
after packaging.

Curing: Consumed fresh and has a shelf life of only 2 - 4 weeks.

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Family 3. Heat-Acid Precipitated Cheese

Varieties: Ricotta (Italy), Channa and Paneer (India)

Coagulation: Coagulation is accomplished by direct acidification of heated milk. High heat
treatment of milk (temperatures greater than 75C) causes denaturation of the whey proteins.
Subsequent acidification of the hot milk coagulates both casein and whey proteins so most of
the milk protein is recovered in the cheese.

pH Control: The final acidity (pH) is determined by the amount of acid added. Final pH is
normally in the range of 5.3 - 5.8. Any organic acid can be used, but acetic, lactic and citric
acids are most common.

Moisture control: Moisture can be reduced by holding the curd in the hot curd-whey mixture
after coagulation, and by draining and pressing procedures. Moisture is generally high (55 -
80%) due to the high water holding capacity of whey proteins. High concentrations of whey
proteins also decrease cheese meltability and account for the excellent cooking properties of
heat-acid precipitated cheese.

Curing: Heat-acid precipitated varieties are normally consumed fresh. Exceptions are some
aged heat-acid varieties such as Mizithra (Greek) a type of ricotta cheese which is cured,
dried, and consumed as a grating cheese. It is also possible in some cases to hot pack heat-
acid varieties to obtain extended shelf life.

Family 4. Soft-Ripened Cheese

Varieties: Feta, Camembert, Brie, Blue

Coagulation: Coagulation is primarily rennet (enzymatic) with three important differences
relative to cooked and pressed varieties (Families 5-7).

(1) The amount of lactic acid bacteria inoculum is relatively large and the ripening period
before renneting is extended. The result is that acidification has considerable
influence on the development of curd structure during setting and demineralization of
the curd is increased.

(2) Cutting is delayed (i.e., setting time increased) to further encourage acidification and
demineralization before cutting.

(3) Cutting is accomplished with large knives or the curd just broken up with paddles to
minimize moisture and fines losses before filling the forms.

pH Control: The curd is placed in the forms while still sweet and let stand in a warm room
for several hours. Acidification (i.e. conversion of lactose to lactic acid) continues until the
accumulation of lactic acid inhibits culture growth. Acid development is also influenced by

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the time and amount of salting. The pH is normally about 4.3 - 4.6 on the day following
manufacture and in the case of Feta remains low during curing. The pH of mould ripened
varieties increases during curing (i.e., acidity decreases), especially Camembert and Brie.

Moisture Control: Syneresis is induced by acid development after forming and by brine
salting. Moisture content is typically 45 - 60%.

Curing Time: 2 - 8 weeks.

Family 5. Semi-hard Washed Cheese

Varieties: This is the largest and most diverse group of cheese including Gouda, Edam,
Colby, Brick, Montasio, Oka, Muenster and many others.

pH Control: The distinguishing feature of these varieties is the practice of washing to
remove lactose. Part or all of the whey is removed and replaced with water to leach lactose
from the curd. The objective is to limit the amount of lactose to a level which permits
sufficient lactic acid development to produce a minimum pH of 5.0 - 5.2, but not enough to
ferment and produce cheese pH less than 5.0. Achievement of this minimum pH target is
assisted by the buffer capacity of the milk proteins, especially the caseins, which have a pH
buffer maximum near pH 5.2.

Moisture Control: The amount of syneresis is controlled mainly by the temperature and time
of cooking and by the temperature of the wash water. Higher temperatures during cooking or
washing cause the curd to contract and expel moisture. Also, important are the rate of acid
development and salting treatments. Washed curd varieties typically have moisture contents
of 40 - 50%. With few exceptions, such as part skim Mozzarella, production of a rennet
coagulated cheese with a moisture content of 40% or greater requires a washing treatment to
remove lactose and lactic acid.

Curing: 2 weeks - 9 months.

Family 6. Firm/hard Cheese: Low temperature

Firm/hard cheeses (Families 6 and 7) are characterized by lower moisture, with some
exceptions such as some Pasta Filata types. Lower moisture, generally less than 40%, permits
removal of sufficient lactose by syneresis to avoid the necessity of washing. Low moisture is
achieved by high temperature cooking (Family 7) or by controlled fermentation and curd
handling (Family 6).

Varieties: Cheddar types and some Pasta Filata types. Cheddar and Pasta Filata manufacture
are similar in the early stages. Pasta filata varieties are distinct in that they are worked and
stretched in hot water and brine salted. Cheddar types are salted before hooping and pressing.

pH Control: The distinguishing feature of these cheese is that acid development is largely
controlled by the amount of syneresis during curd ripening (Cheddaring). During curd
ripening the drained curd is allowed to mat forming slabs of curd, which are piled and turned

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while the culture continues to grow and produce acidity. During this process, lactose is
reduced via conversion to lactic acid and by acid induced syneresis. The process of
Cheddaring is also applied in the manufacture of many pasta filata (stretched cheese)
varieties, so I prefer to describe it generally as curd ripening. In recent times, curd
ripening techniques have been modified in various ways to facilitate automation.

The objective is to obtain a minimum pH of 5.0 - 5.3 within 1 - 3 days after manufacture.
This is similar to the minimum pH target for semi-hard washed cheese varieties. Lactose
content is substantially reduced by fermentation with associated moisture loss during curd
ripening, salting, and pressing in the case of Cheddar.

Moisture Control: Moisture is controlled by cooking temperature and time, stirring out after
draining, curd ripening, amount of culture, and salting treatments. Typical moisture content
is 35 - 39% for Cheddar types and up to 52% for Pasta Filata types.

Curing: 1 - 36 months.

Family 7. Hard Cheese: High Temperature

Varieties: Romano, Parmesan, Swiss

pH Control: Type of culture, time-temperature profile during pressing until cooling, lactose
removed by syneresis. There is little acid development before draining.

Moisture Control: Rapid syneresis induced by high renneting temperature and high cooking
temperature.

Curing: 1 - 36 months.

Other Technological Criteria

The cheese families described above provide a useful coat rack to help organize cheese
according to the initial manufacturing procedures that determine cheese composition and its
primary microstructure. The following is a more comprehensive summary of technological
parameters that determine cheese characteristics.
Species: cow, goat, sheep, buffalo, yak, other
Milk standardization
Fat and protein contents
Whey and milk blends
Coagulation
Predominantly rennet gels
Predominantly acid gels
Heat-acid precipitates
Moisture control
Cooking temperature and time
Mesophilic versus thermophilic cultures
Amount and acidifying properties of the culture

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Curd ripening
Heat treatment of the milk
Type of pH control
Direct acidification versus fermentation
Amount and type of culture
Lactose removal:
Washing (American, Dutch)
High temperature syneresis (Swiss, Hard Italian)
High acid syneresis (Feta, Cheshire)
Curd ripening (Cheddar, Pasta Filata)
Extent of acid development
Low acid (minimum pH > 5.8), Latin American fresh cheese
Medium acid (minimum pH 4.9 - 5.5), most European varieties
High acid (minimum pH < 4.9), Fresh cheese, soft ripened cheese
Salting procedures
Vat salting before forming
Surface salting after forming
Immersion in salt brine
Type and duration of ripening
Fresh versus ripened
Interior, including blue veined cheese
Interior and surface ripened
Bacterial/yeast smears
White surface mould
Mixed rinds
Type of rind
Rindlesswaxed, film wrapped, painted
Dry rind (cured at 85% relative humidity)
Surface ripened (cured at 90-95% relative humidity)
Texture and body
Openings: mechanical, small holes, large holes
Firmness
Melting properties
No melt: softening without flow (frying cheese)
Stretching: Low melt and stretchable (Mozzarella)
Fondue: Medium melt, medium elasticity (Raclette)
High melt: flows readily with little stretchabiltiy (aged Cheddar)

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Table 1.1. Some properties of cheese categorized according to type of coagulation and procedures used for pH and moisture control
1
. Adapted from
Hill (2007). Plus signs in column three indicate relative amounts.
Varieties Coagulation
Moisture in non-fat-
substance pH at 4 7 days
Ca mM/kg
SNF Curing Time

Acid Coagulated

Cottage, quark, cream
cheese

Acid coagulation at pH 4.64.8

72-80%, aw .980.995
Controlled by cooking and
washing treatments

4.34.8
Inhibition of culture by low pH,
high temperature cooking or
cooling, and/or washing

50350

Consumed fresh, short
shelf life
Heat-acid
Coagulated
Indian Paneer and
Channa, Ricotta,
Requeson. Useful as
cooking cheese
Heat denatured whey proteins are
co-precipitated with caseins by
acid. Whey proteins inhibit
melting
7584% Increases with
whey protein content,
decreases with cooking after
acidification
5.05.8; Amount of acidulant
added. 3-6% lactose in cheese
due to absence of fermentation
Normally consumed
fresh, limited shelf life
unless hot packed,
pickled, or packed in
sugar syrup
Unripened:
rennet
coagulated
Some Latin American,
middle eastern and
European varieties.
Useful as cooking cheese
Rennet++, Little or no culture,
cutting near endogenous pH
6080% Controlled by
cooking, stirring out and
draining conditions.
Syneresis often occurs in the
package
5.86.6; Little or no culture.
High pH prevents melting
Consumed fresh. High
pH limits shelf life
Soft Ripened:
High Acid
Feta, Camembert, Blue Rennet+++, culture+++; ripening
time+++, cutting at pH < 6.5
6070%, aw .96-.99
Syneresis induced by acid
development and by salting
4.54.8. Controlled by acid
inhibition of culture, salting and
cooling.
400600 28 weeks
Semi-hard
Cheese: Washed
Gouda, Edam, Colby,
Havarti, Montasio and
many others
Rennet++, culture-+, ripening
time++, Cutting at pH < 6.6
5565%, aw .95.97
Controlled by cooking,
temperature of wash water,
rate of acid development,
curd handling, salting
treatments
5.05.2 Controlled by washing
to remove lactose and other
treatments such cooking,
culture selection and salting.
500700 2 weeks9 months
Hard Cheese:
Low
Temperature
Cheddar, Provolone Rennet++, culture++, ripening
time++, cutting at pH < 6.6
5260%, aw .94.96
Controlled by cooking, curd
handling, rate of acid
development and salting
Rate of acid development and
moisture control determines
residual lactose; draining pH is
critical
500700 124+ months
Hard Cheese:
High
Temperature
Swiss types, Italian types
such as parmesan
Rennet+, culture+, ripening+
(little or none for Swiss), cutting
at pH near 6.6
3952%
Controlled mainly by high
temperature cooking
(5255C)
Acidity and moisture determine
residual lactose; draining pH is
critical
600800 124+ months

8
Table 1.2. Typical composition (% by weight) of some cheese varieties. Adapted from Hill (2007).
Type Cheese Moisture Pro-tein Fat
Total
CHO FDM Ash Ca P Salt
Retail
pH
Acid
Coagulated
Cottage
Creamed cottage
Quark
Cream
Neufchatel
79.8
79.0
72.0
53.7
62.2
17.3
12.5
18.0
7.5
10.0
0.42
4.5
8.0
34.9
23.4
1.8
2.7
3.0
2.7
2.9
2.1
21.4
28.5
75.4
62.0
0.7
1.4

1.2
1.5
0.03
0.06
0.30
0.08
0.07
0.10
0.13
0.35
0.10
0.13
nil
1.0

0.73
0.75
5.0
5.0
4.5
4.6
4.6
Heat-Acid
Coagulated
Chhana
Frying cheese
Ricotta-3% fat milk
Ricotone-from whey &
milk
53.0
55.0
72.2

82.5
17.0
19.7
11.2

11.3
25.0
20.4
12.7

0.5
2.0
3.0
3.0

1.5
53.2
44.8
45.7

2.9

3.0
<0.5

<0.5

5.4
5.9

5.8
Fresh
Rennet
Coagulated
Queso Blanco
Queso de Freir
Italian fresh cheese
52.0
52.4
49.0
23.0
23.0
28.0
20.0
19.5
16.0
42.0
41.0
31.4
2.5
3.0
nil
5.8
5.8
6.5
Soft
Ripened
Camembert
Feta
Blue
Gorgonzola
51.8
55.2
42.0
36.0
19.8
14.2
21.0
26.0
24.3
21.3
29.0
32.0
0.5

2.3
50.3
47.5
50.0
50.0
3.7
5.2
5.1
5.0
0.39
0.49
0.53
0.35
0.34
0.39
2.1

3.5
6.9
4.4
6.5
Semi-hard
Washed
Colby
Gouda
Edam
Fontina
Havarti-Danish
Munster
40.0
41.5
41.4
42.8
43.5
41.8
25.0
25.0
25.0
24.2
24.7
23.4
31.0
27.4
27.8
25.5
26.5
30.0
2.0
2.2
1.4

1.1
51.7
46.9
47.6
44.6
46.9
51.6
3.4
3.9
4.2
3.3
2.8
3.7
0.68
0.70
0.73

0.72
0.46
0.55
0.54

0.47
0.65
0.82
0.96
1.2
2.2
1.8
5.3
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.9
6.2
Hard
Cheese
Low-
Temp.
Cheddar
Manchego-Spain
Provolone
Mozzarella
36.7
37.9
40.9
54.1
24.9
28.1
25.6
19.4
33.1
26.9
26.6
21.6
1.3

2.1
2.2
52.4
45.2
45.1
47.1
3.9
3.6
4.7
2.6
0.72

0.76
0.52
0.51

0.50
0.37
1.8
1.5
2.2
1.0
5.5
5.8
5.4
5.3
Hard
Cheese
High-
Temp.
Parmesan
Romano
Swiss
Keflatyri-Greece
29.2
30.9
37.2
34.2
35.7
31.8
28.4
24.8
25.8
26.9
27.4
28.3
3.2
3.6
3.4
36.5
39.0
43.7
6.0
6.7
3.5
4.7
1.18
1.06
0.96
0.69
0.76
0.60
3.0
3.0
1.2
5.4
5.4
5.6
5.2

9

Milk Analysis
Fat and protein
Inhibitors
Somatic cells
Total bacterial count
Thermoduric bacteria
Coliform bacteria
Figure 1.1. Flowchart of Cheese Making Processes. Adapted from Hill (2007).
Milk Preparation
Milk Treatments
Standardize microflora
Cold storage
Microfiltration
Bactofugation
Heat treatment
Standardize composition
Cream separation
Add skim milk,
condensed skim, milk
protein concentrates,
caseins etc.
Ultrafilter
Blend with whey
(ricotta)
Homogenize
Milk Additives
CaCl
2
Nitrates
Colors or de-colorants
Ripening enzymes
Lysozyme
Inoculation
Primary lactic cultures
Secondary cultures: Lactic
culture adjuncts, moulds, smear
cocktails etc.
Coagulation:
gelation or
precipitation
Chymosin (Calf rennet)
Microbial enzymes
Recombinant chymosin
Acidification of warm milk, direct
or fermentation
Direct acidification of hot milk
Milk Receiving
Cutting or Breaking
Cooking and other
curd in whey
treatments
Mesophilic cook up to 39
Thermophilic cook up to 55C
Wash with cold or warm water
Press under the whey, Swiss
and Dutch types
Draining and post
draining curd
treatments
Dip curd and whey into forms
Collect and form floating curd
(ricotta)
Curd ripening and milling
(Cheddar, Pasta filata)
Vat salting (Cheddar, American)
Hot water stretching and forming
(Pasta filata).
Forming in hoops and pressing
Surface or brine salting
Ripening
Dry rinds: oil, salt, brush, hang;
8-15C, 85% RH
Surface ripened: inoculate, wash
and turn regularly; 12-15C, 95%
RH
Rindless: wax, film wrap, 5-13C
Retail Packaging
Whey
Creaming by
centrifugatio
n
Defatted Whey
Whey
Cream
Concentratio
n and drying
Ultrafiltration
and drying
Whey
Powder
Whey
Protein
Concentrate
Permeate

10
Variable
Draining
pH
Minimum
pH
Ca Syneresis MNFS Rennet
Retention
Milk protein/fat UE UE UE

UE
Pasteurization intensity
CaCl
2
: amount added

Starter: amount added

Pre-ripening time
1

Rennet: amount added UE UE

Renneting temperature NE UE UE

UE
Curd size NE UE UE

Stirring intensity UE UE

UE
Cooking intensity UE
Time until draining
2
NE
Wash water amount NA

Wash water temp. NA UE

Time until salting
3
NA NE UE
Salt: amount added NA

UE
Pressure in the moulds NA UE UE

Figure 1.2. Effects of particular processing conditions, assuming other factors do not
change, on pH at draining, minimum pH occurring in the cheese during early stages of
curing, calcium retained in the cheese, the rate of syneresis, the moisture in the non-fat
substance (MNFS) and the amount of calf rennet activity retained in the cheese. The figure
is only intended to show trends that apply to most rennet coagulated cheese within normal
ranges of moisture content and percent fat in the dry matter. U = Unknown effect, but likely
small. NE = no effect. NA = not applicable. Adapted from Hill (2007).
1
Time between adding culture and adding rennet
2
Total time between cutting and draining
3
Total time between draining and salting; applicable to vat salted varieties

11
2. RECOMMENDED REFERENCES

Alfa-Laval. Dairy Handbook. Alfa-Laval, Food Engineering AB. P.O. Box 65, S-221 00
Lund, Sweden. [Well illustrated text. Excellent introduction to dairy technology].
American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for the examination of dairy
products. 1015 Eighteenth St. NW, Washington, D.C.
Battistotti, B., Bottazzi, V., Piccinardi, A. and Volpato, G. 1983. Cheese: A guide to the
world of cheese and Cheese making. Facts on File Publications, New York, NY.
Berger, W., Klostermeyer, H., Merkenich, K. and Uhlmann, G. 2002. Processed Cheese
Manufacture, A JOHA guide. BK Ladenburg, Ladenburg..
Carroll, R. and Carroll, R. 1982. Cheese making made easy. Storey Communications Inc.,
Ponnal, Vermont [Well illustrated manual for small and home cheese making
operations].
Chandan, R. 1997. Dairy Based Ingredients. Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, Minnesota.
Davis, J.G. 1965. Cheese. American Elsevier Publ. Co., New York.
Eck, A. and Gillis, J.-C., 2000. Cheesemaking from Science to Quality Assurance, Lavoisier
Publishing, Paris.
Fox, P.F., Guinee, T.P., Cogan, T.M., McSweeney, P.L.H. 2004. Cheese chemistry, physics,
and microbiology. Third Edition. Volumes 1 and 2. Elsevier Academic Press, Sandiego,
CA.
Hill, A.R. 2007. Physical factors affecting cheese flavour. In, Improving the flavour of
cheese. B. Weimer, Editor, Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, England; pp. 252
278.
International Dairy Federation Special Issue N
o
9301. Factors Affecting Yield of Cheese.
Kammerlehner, J. 2009. Cheese Technology. Publishing House Josef Kammerlehner D-
85354 Freising, Germany.
Kosikowski, F.V. and Mistry, V.V. 1997. Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods, 3rd Edition,
F.V. Kosikowski and Associates, Brooktondale, NY.
Law, B. 1999. Technology of cheese making. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, UK.
Lawrence, R.C., Heap, H.A. and Gilles, J. 1984. A controlled approach to cheese
technology. J. Dairy Sci. 67: 1632-1645.
Lelivre, J., Freese, O.J. and Gilles, J. 1983. Prediction of Cheddar cheese yield. N.Z.J.
Dairy Sci. Technol. 18: 169-172.
Masui, K.. and Yamada, T. 1966. French Cheeses: The Visual Guide to More than 350
Cheeses From Every Region of France. DK Publishing, New York.
Morris, Margaret P., 2003. The Cheesemakers Manual. Glengarry Cheesemaking & Dairy
Supply, Winchester, ON, Canada [especially useful for small scale cheese makingt].

12
Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, P.O. Box
540, Benjamin Franklin Station, Washington, D.C.
Pfizer Cheese Monographs. 1963. C. Pfizer and Co., New York [These monographs are well
dated, but are still useful, especially Volumes 3 and 5.
1. Italian Cheese Varieties
2. American Cheese Varieties
3. Cottage Cheese and Other Cultured Milk Products
4. Ripened Semi-soft Cheeses
5. Swiss Cheese Varieties
6. Lactic Starter Culture Technology
Price, W.V. and Bush, M.G. 1974. The process cheese industry in the United States: A
review. I. Industrial growth and problems. J. Milk and Food Technology 37: 135-152.
II. Research and Development. Ibid 37: 179-198.
Robinson, R.K., Editor. 1990. Dairy Microbiology, Volumes 1 and 2. Elsevier Applied
Science, NY.
Scott, R., Robinson, R.K. and Wilbey, R.A. 1998. Cheese making Practice. 3rd Edition.
Applied Science. Publ. Ltd., London.
Gunasekaran, S., and Ak. M.M. 2003. Cheese rheology and texture. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL.
Troller, J.A. 1993. Sanitation in Food Processing. 2nd Edition. Academic Press. New
York.
Walstra, P., Geurts, T.J., Noomen, A., Jellema, A. and van Boekel, M.A.. 1999. Dairy
Technology. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York, NY.
Weimer, B.C. Editor. 2007. Improving the flavour of cheese. CRC Press, New York.
Wong, N.P., Jenness, R., Keeney, M. and Marth, E.H. 1988. Fundamentals of Dairy
Chemistry. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY.

Web Sites

Agriculture Canada, http://res.agr.ca/CDRN/home.html
American Cheese Society http://www.cheesesociety.org/index.cfm
Centre For Dairy Research, Madison, WI. http://www.cdr.wisc.edu/
Cheese basics, http://www.efr.hw.ac.uk/SDA/cheese2.htm
Canadian Dairy Commission, http://www.milkingredients.ca/dcp/index_e.asp
Danlac Forum, http://www.danlac.com/forum/
Food Science University of Guelph: http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/cheese/welcom.htm
Glengarry Cheese Supplies, http://glengarrycheesemaking.on.ca/
Ontario Cheese Society http://www.ontariocheese.org/index.php
Specialist Cheese Makers Association http://www.specialistcheesemakers.co.uk/
Vermont Institute for Artisan Cheese http://www.uvm.edu/~viac/

13
3. PROCESS AND QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES

3.1. Introduction

Chemical and microbiological analyses of cheese milk, finished cheese and cheese whey are
required to maintain efficient operations and to ensure food safety and quality. This chapter
describes some analytical procedures relevant to cheese making operations, but it is not
intended to be a comprehensive process and quality control manual. The following general
comments are intended to orient the reader to the general types of analyses required in cheese
operations. Subsequent chapters will identify process and quality control requirements in the
context of each step in the cheese making process.

Milk Analysis

Milk composition analyses should include both fat and protein, determined by infrared milk
analysers. Note that casein content rather than total protein content is the critical parameter
with respect to cheese yield. Cheese makers are, therefore, advised to regularly monitor the
relative amounts of casein, whey proteins and non-protein nitrogen in their milk. Monthly or
bimonthly analysis of protein distribution by Rowland fractionation is sufficient to monitor
seasonal trends. Alternatively, an indication of casein and whey protein distribution can be
obtained by comparing protein concentration in cheese whey to the protein concentration in
the initial milk. This has the advantage that infra red milk analysers can be calibrated to
measure protein in cheese whey. See Chapters 6 and 12 for details on standardization of milk
composition and the importance of casein to cheese yield.

Quality measurements of cheese milk should include total counts (and/or psychrotrophic
counts), tests for inhibitors and somatic cell counts. Depending on the types of controls in
place at the producer level, cheese makers may need to monitor bacteria counts, inhibitors
and somatic cell counts of individual producer milks.

Cheese Analysis

Cheese composition analyses should include fat (by Babcock, Mojonnier, or near infra red
procedures), moisture, salt and pH. Cheese pH should be measured at the time of
manufacture, 4 - 7 days after manufacture and periodically during curing. Other composition
parameters should be determined several days after manufacture to permit time for
equilibration of soluble components. Salt in particular, requires time to become evenly
distributed throughout the cheese and in the case of brine or surface ripened cheese, uniform
salt distribution may never be achieved. For Cheddar cheese and other vat salted cheese,
representative samples for accurate determination of salt content can be usually be obtained
as early as seven days after manufacture.

With respect to process and quality control, the pH profile during manufacture and curing
is vital. pH profile is a term I use to describe the set of pH values at critical process control
points in the cheese making process. Other critical process control parameters are the ratio of
salt to moisture (SM), the moisture in the non-fat substance (MNFS), and the fat in the dry
matter (FDM). These ratios are normally reported as percentages and calculated as follows.

14
Note that percent total solids is 100 minus percent cheese moisture

Routine cheese microbial analyses should include yeasts and moulds, total coliforms and
staphylococci. For raw milk cheese, all vats must be tested for the presence of Salmonella,
Staphylococci, Listeria and enteropathogenic E. coli. Cheese made from heat treated but not
pasteurized milk must also be considered higher risk and should be monitored on a regular
basis for the presence of common pathogens. Microbial analyses should be performed at the
time of manufacture and after curing. Cheese whey should be monitored for the presence of
bacteriophage specific for the culture currently in use.

Analytical Quality Control

A simple but vital truism is that inaccurate analytical results are of less value than no
analytical results. Important causes of low yield efficiency and poor process control are
insufficient and inaccurate chemical and microbial analyses. Effective control of quality and
plant efficiency requires effective quality control of analytical procedures. Smaller cheese
manufacturers generally find its more economical and reliable to have most analyses
performed by an outside laboratory. But, whether the analyses are performed in house or by
an outside laboratory, be certain that your laboratory services are accurate and reliable. In
Canada, dairy laboratory reliability can be assured by certification with the Canadian
Laboratory Accreditation Programme (LAP), Ottawa, (613) 247-1395. The LAP is able to
provide ongoing certification for both milk analysis (composition and quality) and cheese
composition analysis. I strongly recommend that cheese makers use LAP certified
testing, whether lab services are provided from inside or outside the company (yes, I
know the manager of the LAP program, and no, he doesnt pay me to recommend it).

Some analytical procedures are detailed in subsequent sections. The reader is also referred
to:
1. Standard Methods for the examination of dairy products. American Public Health
Association, 1015 Eighteenth St. NW, Washington, D.C.
2. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists,
P.O. Box 540, Benjamin Franklin Station, Washington, D.C.

3.2. Cheese Sampling

solids total cheese %
100 x fat cheese %
= FDM
fat cheese % - 100
100 x moisture cheese %
= MNFS
moisture cheese %
100 x salt cheese %
= S/M

15
Chemical Analysis

Depending on the size and shape, firm to hard cheese should be sampled using a cheese trier
(at least 100 g sample) or by taking a sector sample. Soft cheese can be blended for sampling
or sector sampled depending on its texture. Cheese samples are stored in opaque air tight
containers and fragmented using a grater or other device before analysis. It is important to
grind and mix the sample well before sub-sampling for analysis.

If the analytical procedure requires less than a 1 gm sample it is desirable to prepare a liquid
cheese homogenate and a sub-sample from the homogenate. An homogenate suitable for
most purposes can be prepared as follows.
Weigh 40 g cheese into a blender container
Add about 100 g of 7% sodium citrate solution
Blend until homogenous using a high speed blender.
Rinse blender shaft into container and make up to final weight of about 200g.

Note that cheese is notorious for inhomogeneous composition. Brine salted cheese have
pronounced salt and moisture gradients, namely, higher salt and lower moisture near the
surface. Large blocks or wheels of pressed cheese will have moisture and pH gradients,
namely, increasing moisture and decreasing pH towards the interior. In addition to moisture
and salt gradients, surface ripened cheese also has pH gradients, namely, pH increases at the
surface during curing. These difficulties greatly complicate the matter of obtaining accurate
composition and mass balance (yield) data. A useful approach to improve yield control of
large blocks is to set aside small blocks (eg., 20 kg blocks of Cheddar) for early composition
and quality testing, and subsequently, conduct representative sampling of the large blocks
(eg., 240 kg blocks of Cheddar) during the cut/wrap process.

Microbial Analysis

Obtain samples as described above for chemical analysis. Triers or knives used for sampling
must be flame or alcohol sterilized. Samples should be stored in sterile bags such as Whirl
Pack bags, stored at 0-4C and analysed within 24 hours.

Equipment
Balance, 1,000 g capacity
Blender
Blender container autoclaved or sanitized with 200 ppm chlorine solution for 5 min.

Procedure
1. Break the cheese into small pieces while still in the bag. Use a pestle or similar
device if necessary.
2. Heat dilution blanks of sterile aqueous 2% sodium citrate to 40C. Transfer 30 g of
cheese to sterile blender container, add 270 ml diluent and mix for 2 min. at speed
sufficient to emulsify the cheese properly. If temperature exceeds 40C during
blending, use a shorter mixing time or decrease initial temperature of citrate solution.
This 1:10 dilution should be plated or further diluted immediately.

16
3. Further dilutions can be prepared as required. Pipette 11 ml of the 10
-1
dilution of the
homogenate, avoiding foam, into 99 ml dilution blank (0.1% peptone) or 10 ml into
90 ml dilution blank. Shake this and all subsequent dilutions vigorously 25 times in a
one foot arc. Prepare 10
-1
, 10
-2
, and 10
-3
dilutions.

3.3. Total Solids

Oven Method

1. Pre-dry aluminum dishes (105C, 1 h) and weigh to the nearest 0.1 mg on an
analytical balance.
2. Weigh quickly 3-5 g of fragmented cheese into the aluminum dish. The weight of
sample is the total weight minus the weight of the dish from Step 1.
3. Dry to constant weight (about 16 h) at 105C. To check for constant weight: weigh at
least two samples, return both samples to the oven for an additional 20 minutes, and
re-weigh. The difference between the weights before and after the additional drying
period should be less than 1 mg.
4. Cool in desiccator and determine total dry weight. Sample dry weight is the total dry
weight less the weight of the dish determined in Step 1.
5. Report total solids and moisture contents on weight percent basis as follows:

Note: Several rapid moisture tests based on infrared or microwave drying are available.
Check with your laboratory equipment supplier.

Application notes

Accurate cheese moisture analysis is critical to composition and yield control. Rapid
moisture tests (e.g., microwave moisture oven) can be used to obtain early feed back (e.g.,
cheese moisture immediately after pressing) information to help with process control.

3.4. Titratable Acidity

Principle

See discussion of pH and acidity in Section 3.5.

Apparatus and Reagents

1. An acidimeter equipped with a burette graduated in units of 0.1 ml up to 10 ml, and
some means of filling the same without undue exposure of the solution to the carbon
dioxide of the atmosphere.
Solids Total % - 100 = Moisture % (b)
wetweight
dryweight
= Solids Total % (a)

17
2. N/10 sodium hydroxide solution.
3. A dropping bottle containing a 1% alcoholic phenolphthalein solution.
4. White cup, glass stirring rod, 17.6 ml pipette (or 8.8 or 9.0 ml pipette)
5. For cream, Torsion balance and 9 g weight.

Method

1. Mix sample thoroughly by pouring it from one container to another. The temperature
of the sample should be near 20C.
2. Pipette 17.6 ml of milk or cream into a white cup. Note: 8.8 ml pipettes may also be
used but are no longer as readily available as 17.6 ml pipettes. Readily available 9 ml
pipettes may also be used.
3. Add six drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to milk, or 10 drops if the
product is cream.
4. Titrate the sample with the N/10 sodium hydroxide solution (0.1 Normal NaOH)
while stirring the sample with the glass rod. Look for the appearance of a faint pink
colour, which signals the endpoint. Add another drop or half a drop of NaOH if the
pink colour does not persist for 30 s.
5. Record the number of ml of NaOH used to reach the endpoint. This value is called
the 'titre'. Titratable acidity reported as percent lactic acid is dependent on the volume
of sample.
For the 8.8 ml pipette, % Lactic acid = titre
For the 17.6 ml pipette, % Lactic acid = 0.5 x titre
For the 9.0 ml pipette, % Lactic acid = 0.98 x titre.
Note that there is practically no lactic acid in fresh milk, but it is a North American
convention to report TA in terms of % lactic acid.

Application notes

As described in the next section, both titratable acidity (TA) and pH are measures of acidity.
For most process control purposes, pH is a more useful measurement. Many cheese makers,
however, still use TA to monitor initial acid development (that is to check for culture
activity) during the first hour after adding the culture. For this purpose, TA is a more reliable
indicator because relative to pH measurement, it is more sensitive to small changes in milk
acidity.

When using TA to monitor initial culture activity, note that:

You are looking for a measurable increase in TA to confirm that the culture is active.
For example, if the initial TA taken immediately after the culture was added is
0.180% lactic acid, and the TA after one hour of ripening is 0.190 % lactic acid, the
change in TA is 0.010%.
Different people will interpret the coloured endpoint differently, so it is important
that the same person takes both the initial and final TA measurements.
The principal divisions on most acidimeters are units of 0.1% lactic acid with
subdivisions corresponding to 0.01% lactic acid. It is possible to interpolate between
the subdivisions to obtain readings to the third decimal place. In practice, for most

18
analysts, the sensitivity is about 0.005% lactic acid. That means it is possible to
reliably measure a change in TA of 0.005% lactic acid. So if the TA increase is
greater than 0.005% you can conclude that the culture is active. In most cases TA
increases in the range of 0.005% to 0.010% are obtained after 30 - 60 minutes of
ripening (that is, 30 - 60 minutes after adding the lactic cultures).
If you are using a bulk culture, it is critical to take the initial TA reading after the
culture is added, because the culture is acidic and will increase the initial reading.

3.5. pH

Concepts of Acidity and pH

All aqueous systems (including the water in you and in cheese) obey the following
relationship between the concentration of hydrogen ions (H
+
) and hydroxyl ions (OH
-
). Note,
the square brackets indicate concentration in moles per litre. A mole is 6 x 10
23
molecules,
that is, the numeral six with 23 zeros after it.

[H
+
] x [OH
-
] = 10
-14

Because the actual concentrations in moles per litre are small, it is customary to express the
values as exponents. For example, if we know that the concentration of hydrogen ions [H
+
] in
a sample of milk is 0.000001 moles/L which is equivalent to 10
-6
moles/L, we can calculate
the concentration of hydroxyl ions as 10
-14
/10
-6
= 10
-8
moles/L which is the same as
0.00000001 moles/L.

If [H
+
] = [OH
-
] the solution is neutral with respect to acidity.
If [H
+
] > [OH
-
] the solution is acidic.
If [H
+
] < [OH
-
] the solution is basic or alkaline.
Chemicals which contribute H
+
or absorb OH
-
are acids, while bases contribute OH
-

or absorb H
+
.

The concept of pH evolved as a short hand method to express acidity. We have already seen
that a hydrogen ion concentration of 0.000001 moles/L can be expressed as [1 x10
-6
], an
expression which defines both the unit of measurement (the square bracket means
concentration in moles/L) and the numerical value. The concept of pH is a further
abbreviation which expresses the concentration of hydrogen ions as the negative log of the
hydrogen ion concentration in units of moles/L. This sounds complex but is quite easy to
apply. For example, the log
10
of hydrogen ion concentration of [10
-6
] is equal to -6. The final
step is to take the negative of the log (-1 x -6 = 6). So, 0.0000001 moles/L = [10
-6
] moles/L
= pH 6. From the relationship expressed in Equation 3, if the concentration of either OH
-
or
H
+
is known, it is always possible to calculate the concentration of the other. So, if the pH of
a solution is 6, the pOH is 14 - 6 = 8. Because this relationship is understood (well, OK, at
least understood by the chemists!), the convention is to only report pH. Note, that because
the negative sign was dropped for convenience, decreasing pH values mean increasing
acidity, or increasing concentration of H
+
ions. So, although both TA and pH are
measures of acidity, pH decreases with increasing acidity.

All of this can be summarized by a description of the pH scale. The pH scale for most

19
practical purposes is from 1 to 14, although pH less than one is theoretically and practically
possible.
pH 7.0 is neutral acidity [H
+
] = [OH
-
]
pH < 7.0 = acid condition [H
+
] > [OH
-
]
pH > 7.0 = alkaline or basic condition [H
+
] < [OH
-
]

pH Versus Titratable Acidity

TA and pH are both measures of acidity but, for most purposes, pH is a better process control
tool because the pH probe measures only those H
+
that are free in solution and not associated
with salts or proteins. This is important because it is the free H
+
that modify protein
functionality and contribute sour taste. The pH, rather than titratable acidity, is also the best
indicator of the preservation and safety effects of acidity. It must be emphasized, that the
most important factor available to the cheese maker to control spoilage and pathogenic
organisms is pH. Also, the pH history of the milk and cheese or whey is important trouble
shooting information. Cheese moisture, mineral content, texture and flavour development
are all influenced directly by the activity of free hydrogen ions (i.e. pH).

Titratable acidity (TA) measures all titratable H
+
up to the phenolphthalein end point (pH
8.5) and, therefore, it varies with changes in milk composition and properties. During cheese
manufacture, the pH gives a true indication of acid development during the entire process, so
the optimum pH at each step is independent of other variables such as milk protein content.
However, the optimum TA at each step in cheese making will vary with initial milk
composition, milk heat treatments, and the procedure used to standardize milk composition.

An illustration of the difference between TA and pH is the effect of cutting. Up to the time of
cutting, TA of the milk increases with the development of acidity by the culture. After
cutting, the TA of the whey is much lower. This does not mean that acid development
stopped. It simply means that titratable H
+
associated with the milk proteins are no longer
present in the whey. This leads to the concept of buffer capacity, which is an important
principle in cheese making. The effect of protein removal on the TA of whey is related to the
ability of protein to buffer the milk against changes in pH. That same buffer property is the
reason it helps to take acidic medication, like aspirin, with milk.

Buffer capacity can be described as the ability of an aqueous system, such as milk, to resist
changes in pH with addition of acids (added H
+
) or bases (added OH
-
). Specifically, buffer
capacity is the amount of acid or base required to induce a unit change in pH. For example, a
small addition of acid to distilled water will cause a large reduction in pH. The same amount
of acid would have a small effect on the pH of milk, because milk proteins and salts
neutralize the acidity.

The two most important buffer components of milk are caseins (buffer maximum near pH 4.6
- 5.2) and phosphate (buffer maximum near pH 7.0). The casein buffer maximum near pH 5.0
is extremely important to cheese manufacture because the optimum pH for most cheese is in
the range of 5.0 - 5.2. As the pH of cheese is reduced towards pH 5.0 by lactic acid
fermentation, the buffer capacity is increasing (i.e., each incremental decrease in pH requires
more lactic acid). The effect is to give the cheese maker considerable room for variation in

20
the rate and amount of acid production. Without milk's built in buffers it would be difficult
to produce cheese in the optimum pH range.

Another way to illustrate the difference between TA and pH is to consider typical ranges of
pH and TA for normal milk. TA is a measure of the total buffer capacity of milk for the pH
range between the pH of milk and the phenolphthalein end point (about pH 8.5). The pH of
milk at 25C normally varies within a relatively narrow range of 6.6 to 6.8. The normal
range for titratable acidity of herd milks is 0.12 - 0.20% lactic acid.

pH Measurement

The pH of cheese milk, whey, and soft cheese can be measured directly. Firm and hard
cheese must be fragmented before analysis. Always measure cheese pH in duplicate and use
care in handling the electrode. Place the fragmented cheese in a 30 ml vial or small beaker
and gently push the electrode into the cheese....too much haste is likely to break the electrode
on the bottom of the beaker. To ensure good contact, press the cheese around the electrode
with your fingers. There is no need to rinse the electrode between cheese samples.
However, if the electrode is stored in buffer it should be rinsed with distilled water before
measuring cheese pH. Always store the electrode in pH 4 buffer or as directed by the
manufacturer. Do not rub the electrode. The electrode should be washed with detergent and
rinsed with acetone occasionally to remove fat and protein deposits.

3.6. Babcock Methods for Milk Fat

Apparatus and Materials

1. Babcock centrifuge.
2. Water bath at 55C.
3. Torsion balance, 9 and 18 g weights.
4. Babcock shaker.
5. Glassware: 8% milk bottles, 50% cream bottles, 50% Paley bottles, 17.5 ml cylinders,
17.6 ml pipette.
6. Reagents: - Babcock sulphuric acid (Sp. Gr. 1.82-1.83), N-butyl alcohol, glymol

Milk

1. Temper sample to 20C and mix by pouring gently from original container to a
beaker of similar capacity 4-5 times.
2. Transfer 17.6 ml (18.0g) of milk to 8% bottle with 17.6 ml pipette. Allow pipette to
drain then blow out the remaining drop into the bottle.
3. Add 17.5 ml sulphuric acid (Sp. Gr. 1.82-1.83) in at least three increments using
special cylinder. Rotate bottle between thumb and fingers while adding acid to wash
milk from neck. Mix thoroughly 2 min. after each addition of acid by moving the
bulb of the bottle in rapid circular motion. Final colour of mixture should be
chocolate brown.
4. Centrifuge 5 min.

21
5. Add distilled water at 60C to bring contents to within one-quarter inch of base of
neck. Do not mix.
7. Add water at 60C to float fat into neck of bottle. Top meniscus should be about
even with the top of the graduated portion. Do not mix.
9. Temper bottles in water bath at 55C for 5 min.
10. Measure length of fat column with dividers from top of upper meniscus to bottom of
lower meniscus. Place one divider point at zero mark and read percentage fat by
weight directly where other point touches the scale.

Cream and Cheese

1. Temper cream sample to 20C and mix. Grind cheese to small particles.
2. Weigh 9 g of cream into 50% cream bottle and add 9 ml of distilled water at 20C.
Weigh 9 g of cheese into a 50% Paley bottle and add 10 ml of distilled water at 60C.
3. Add 17.5 ml sulphuric acid in at least three increments. Mix until colour is uniform
chocolate brown and all cheese particles are dissolved.
5. Add distilled water at 60C to bring contents to within one-quarter inch of base of
neck. Do not mix.
7. Add water at 60C to float fat into neck of bottle. Do not mix.
9. Temper bottles in water bat at 55C, for 5 min.
10. Place 4-5 drops glymol on the fat column letting these run down the side of the neck.
Measure the length of the fat column from the demarcation between fat and glymol
to the bottom of the lower meniscus.
11. Report fat in percent by weight.

Skim milk, Buttermilk, Whey

1. Temper sample to 20C and mix gently.
2. Transfer 2 ml N-butyl alcohol and then a 9 ml sample to an 18 g double neck bottle.
Mix thoroughly with a circular motion.
3. Add 9 ml of Babcock sulphuric acid for skim milk or buttermilk, 7 ml for whey.
4. Centrifuge 6 min. Place bottles in the centrifuge cup with the small neck facing the
outside.
5. Add water at 60C to bring contents 1 cm from the base of the neck. Do not mix.
Centrifuge 2 min.
6. Temper bottles in water bath at 55C for 5 min.
7. Place a finger over the large neck and press down until the lower meniscus of fat in
the small neck corresponds to a major division.

22
3.7 Cheese Salt

Cheese salt determination is traditionally done using the Volhard procedure (Official
Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, P.O. Box 540,
Benjamin Franklin Station, Washington, D.C.). Other methods which have proven to give
accurate results are:
Automatic Chloride Titraters operate on the principle of coulometric silver ion
generation to titrate chloride ions in the sample. When all chloride ions are titrated
free silver ions cause a conductivity change which signals the end of titration.
Quantab Chloride Titrater depends on the reaction of chloride ions with silver
dichromate, which is brown, to form silver chloride chromate ion and silver chloride
which is white. The reaction takes place on a calibrated strip which permits direct
estimation of chloride content.

3.8. Culture Activity Test (see also Figure 1.1 at the end of Section 3)

Purpose

This simple test is useful to ensure that cheese cultures have adequate activity before
inoculating the cheese vat. For most cheese a general rule of thumb is that the activity and
amount of inoculum should be sufficient to produce a titratable acidity of about 0.34% lactic
acid, in 10% reconstituted skim milk, after 4 h of incubation at 37C. The test is also useful
to compare types of cultures prepared under different conditions. For these purposes a pH
versus time chart is quite useful (See Figure 3.1). A further application is to check sensitivity
of the culture to bacteriophage in the plant (See Section 3.9 and Figure 3.1).

Procedure

1. Mix 10 g of low-heat, antibiotic-free skim-milk powder in 90 ml of distilled water in
a 100 ml Erlenmeyer flask.
2. Sterilize at 15 lb pressure (1.05 kPa.) for 10 min.
3. Cool to 37C.
4. Inoculate with 3.0 ml starter or other amount as appropriate. Rinse pipette twice by
drawing the sterile milk into it.
5. Incubate at 37C for at least 4 h. Longer if desired for pH versus time profile.
6. Check pH at 30 min. intervals.
7. Titrate 17.6 ml with N/10 sodium hydroxide (NaOH) using 1 ml phenolphthalein.
Divide the required ml of NaOH by 2 to obtain titratable acidity in units of percent
lactic acid.
8. Record starter activity as follows:
Active, over 0.34%
Slow 0.26 to 0.30%

23
3.9. Detection of Bacteriophage (see also Figure 1.1 at the end of Section 3)

The following tests are based on the principle that bacteriophage specific to the culture in use
will be present in high numbers in the cheese whey. Therefore, by monitoring whey for the
presence of phage "a dead vat" on subsequent days can be avoided.

Culture Activity Test

The culture activity test described above can be used to detect the presence of phage in
cheese whey. Prepare 300 ml of reconstituted skim milk and place 99 ml in each of three
beakers. Add 1 ml of whey to Beaker 1 (100 x dilution), then transfer 1 ml from Beaker 1 to
Beaker 2 (10,000 x dilution) and finally, transfer 1 ml from Beaker 3 to Beaker 4 to make a 1
million times dilution. Add culture and monitor pH as described in section 3.8.

Bromocresol Purple (BCP) Phage Inhibition Test

This test is quite simple to perform, and produces more accurate results than the culture
activity test.
1. Prepare Materials
- BCP stock solution (1 g/100 ml water)
- Test tubes containing 9.9 ml sterile BCP-milk (5 ml BCP stock solution/litre
milk)
- 30-320 water bath or heating block
- 1 ml graduated pipettes
- Membrane filter (0.45 u) -- optional
- Disposable syringe -- optional
- Clinical centrifuge -- optional
- Whey sample for phage testing
- Freshly grown culture, frozen syringe, or frozen can of each strain
2. Add Whey to BCP Milk and Make Dilutions
Transfer 0.1 ml of fresh (or filter-sterilized) whey to the first dilution tube (10
-2
) and
mix well. Transfer 0.1 ml from the first to the second dilution tube and mix well.
Repeat process for the third dilution tube. (If unfiltered whey is used, a control tube
containing BCP milk and whey only, must be prepared. This control tube tests for the
presence of active culture in the whey that could mask phage inhibition of a strain.)
Whey samples should be refrigerated immediately after collection and held cold until
tested for phage.
3. Add Culture to Control and Whey Dilution Tubes
Cheese culture (0.2 ml) is added to whey dilution tubes and to a control tube for each
strain. If you are using direct-to-the-vat culture, dilute 1 ml of culture in 9 ml of milk
and then add 0.2 ml of the mixture to the dilution tubes. The control tube contains
only BCP milk and culture---NO whey. The control tube serves to show starter strain
inhibition by colour comparison with the other tubes.
4. Incubate Tubes and Interpret Results. Incubate both control and dilution tubes for 6
hours at 30-32C. Compare the colour of the whey dilution tubes to that of the
control tube. Ignore coagulation. An uninhibited culture will produce sufficient acid
to turn the BCP dye from blue to yellow. Strains should be removed from the culture

24
blend when full inhibition persists at the 10
-6
dilution level. The following system
should be used to record phage inhibition:
0 = No inhibition at any dilution
1 = Partial inhibition at 10
-2
dilution
2 = Full inhibition at 10
-2
dilution
-4
dilution
-4
dilution
-6
dilution
-6
dilution

3.10. Inhibitory Substances
1

Regulations

Most jurisdictions have regulations concerning the testing methods and limits of certain
antibiotics in raw milk. The Milk Act of Ontario, Regulation 761, Section 52, Subsection,
states:
"The milk of every producer shall be tested at least once a month for the presence
of an inhibitor by an official method."

An official method is described in a separate inhibitor policy document which states:
The minimum sensitivity of an official method to test for the presence of an inhibitor
under section 52 of Regulation 761 shall be:
a) 0.01 international units of penicillin per millilitre of milk by the Standard Disc
Assay (Bacillus stearothermophilus) procedure.
b) 10 parts per billion sulfamethazine by the High Performance Liquid
Chromatography (modified Smedley and Weber) procedure.

A concentration of 0.01 international units of penicillin per millilitre of milk is equivalent to
6 parts per billion (ppb). Note: 1 ppb is equivalent to a single penny in $10 million or one
second in 32 years.

Detection Methods

It is beyond the scope of this manual to discuss any specific methods in detail. What follows
are brief descriptions of five types of inhibitor tests that are currently used in the dairy
industry. For each category one or more brand name tests are listed to indicate possible
choices. For cheese manufactures seeking assistance with inhibitor testing, many private labs
provide suitable services. Note, (1) none of the methods, especially rapid methods are able to
detect all of the antibiotics that are used in dairy production and (2) Both false negative and
false positive results occur. So, if you are using rapid tests in your operation it is important
that the results are confirmed. In Ontario, a wide range of expertise and methodologies are

1
This section is adapted from two reports prepared by: Mark Mitchell (1995), Ontario Ministry of
Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Guelph, Ontario

25
available from Laboratory Services Division, University of Guelph.

Growth Inhibition Assays

Examples: Delvotest P, Delvotest SP, BR test, BR-AS test, Charm Farm, and the Disk
Assay

This test format involves a standard culture of a test organism in an agar growth media,
usually Bacillus stearothermophilus, which is inoculated with a milk sample and incubated
for periods of up to several hours. If the milk contains one or more inhibitory substances, the
growth of the organism will be reduced or eliminated. The presence of an inhibitory
substance is indicated by zones of inhibition or a change in colour of the media (pH and
redox indicators).

The major disadvantages of these tests are that they are not very specific for identification
purposes, have limited sensitivities to many antibiotics and take a long time before results are
available. Growth inhibition tests are only able to classify residues into either the -lactam
(penicillin like antibiotics) or other than -lactam antibiotic families. A further concern is
that growth inhibition tests are subject to the effects of natural inhibitors such as lysozyme,
lactoferrin, and defensins, which can be found in high levels in mastitic milk and may give
false positive test results, particularly when used at the cow level. These effects can be
minimized by heating individual cow samples at 82C for 2-3 minutes in a microwave oven
or water bath before testing to destroy natural inhibitors and allow antibiotics, which are
more heat stable, to remain.

The advantages of these tests are that they are cheap, easy to perform and have a very broad
detection range.

Enzymatic Colorimetric Assays

Example: Penzyme Test for -lactams

The Penzyme test is based on the inactivation of an enzyme by -lactam antibiotics. The
enzyme (DD-carboxypeptidase or penicillin binding protein) is present in all bacteria and is
involved in the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. -lactam antibiotics will bind specifically
with this enzyme and block its activity, thus preventing the formation of the bacterial cell
wall. This enzyme has been freeze dried and placed in sealed vials to which the milk sample
is added. After addition of 0.2 ml (200 L) of milk sample to the vial the sample is incubated
for 5 minutes at 47C. During this time any -lactams present in the milk bind to the enzyme
and inactivate a certain amount depending on the concentration present.

Reagent tablets specific for the enzyme (D-alanine peptide and D-amino acid oxidase) are
then added to the milk sample and the sample is incubated at 47C for 15 minutes. During
incubation any remaining active enzyme will react with the reagent added. The end product
of the substrate and enzyme reaction (pyruvic acid and hydrogen peroxide) is measured by a
redox colour indicator and the final colour is compared to a colour chart provided with the

26
kit.
An orange colour (reduced) indicates a negative test result.
A yellow colour (oxidized) indicates a positive test result.

Microbial Receptor Assays:

Example: Charm II

This test uses bacterial cells (Bacillus stearothermophilus), which contain natural receptor
sites on or within the cells for antibiotics, and radio labelled (C
14
or H
3
) antibiotics. Milk
sample is added to a freeze dried pellet of bacterial cells (binding reagent) in a test tube and
the sample is mixed and incubated. During incubation any antibiotic present in the milk will
bind to its specific receptor site. Radio labelled antibiotic (tracer reagent) is then added and
the sample is mixed and incubated. Unbound receptor sites on the bacterial cell will be bound
by the radio labelled antibiotic. The sample is then centrifuged to collect the bacterial cells
in the bottom of the test tube and the supernatant and butterfat is discarded. The bacterial
cells are then re-suspended and mixed in scintillation fluid. Binding is measured with a
scintillation counter and compared to a positive and negative control. The more antibiotic
present in the sample the lower the scintillation counts determined by the equipment. Charm
currently has test kits in this format for -lactams, macrolides, aminoglycosides and
sulfonamides.

Immunoassay

Unlike other residue testing methods immunoassays are fast, sensitive, inexpensive,
reproducible, reliable and simple to perform. The technique depends upon the measurement
of the highly specific binding between antibodies (Ab) and antigens (Ag). Antigens are
substances which are foreign to the body (e.g. bacteria, viruses, toxins, pollens, drugs,
hormones and pesticides) and that, when introduced into the body, give rise to the production
of antibodies. Antibodies are proteins produced in the body by white blood cells
(lymphocytes) as a result of exposure to antigens (destroy invading pathogens). The extreme
sensitivity of the immunoassay is due to the development of certain labelling techniques for
molecules (conjugates), enabling the measurement of very small masses (picogram or parts
per trillion) of substances.

Immunoassays are classified according to the label which is attached to either the antigen
(the analyte being measured) or the antibody. The label may be a radioactive atom as in radio
immunoassays (RIA), or an enzyme as in enzyme immunoassays (EIA or ELISA (Enzyme-
linked immunosorbant assay)) or a fluorescent substance as in fluorescence immunoassays
(FIA).

There are 3 major types of immunoassays used commonly for the detection of antibiotics in
milk:
1) Enzyme-Linked Immunoassay (e.g. LacTek tests, SNAP for Tetracyclines, Single
Step Block for SMZ)
2) Enzyme-Linked Receptor Binding Assay (e.g. SNAP for -lactams, Delvo-X-Press)
3) Radio immunoassay (CHARM II for tetracyclines and chloramphenicol)

27

3.11. Rennet Activity

Coagulation Time versus Setting Time

Rennet is generally described in the industry as single, double or triple strength. Single
strength is considered to be that concentration where 200 ml is sufficient to set 1,000 kg of
milk in 30 - 40 min at 30 - 32C. Setting time is the point where the curd will break cleanly
and exude clear whey. Coagulation time is the point where flecks of curd first appear on a
spatula or slide dipped into the milk. Coagulation time is about half of setting time, so
typically, coagulation using single strength rennet requires 15-20 minutes followed by setting
at 30-40 minutes. The following simple test can be used to check coagulation time, which
can be measured much more accurately than setting time. The test uses skim milk because
the presence of fat globules makes it difficult to see the first sign of coagulation.

Measurement of Coagulation Time

1. Prepare 200 ml samples of 10% reconstituted low heat skim milk powder in 250 ml
beakers. Add 0.02% calcium chloride dihydrate (40 mg per 200 ml).
2. Temper to 32C in a water bath.
3. Add 1.0 ml of 5% single strength rennet solution to each sample.
4. Determine the clotting time by repeatedly dipping a clean spatula or glass slide into
the milk. When coagulation has occurred flecks of curd will appear in the milk film
on the slide.

Relative Milk-Clotting Activity Test

A more rigorous test of coagulant activity is the "Relative Milk-Clotting Activity Test"
(RMCAT) which measures the activity of rennet and other coagulants in "International Milk-
Clotting Units" (IMCU). The method is described in International Dairy Federation standard
157:1992.

3.12. Yeasts and Moulds

Selective media for yeasts and moulds include acidified media and antibiotic media. The
method described below uses acidified potato dextrose agar.

Equipment and Material
Potato dextrose agar
Equipment for plating
Tartaric acid solution (10 aqueous)
Incubator set at 22-25C

Procedure

28

1. Prepare cheese homogenates and serial dilutions as described in Section A.
2. Predetermine the quantity of sterile 10% tartaric acid solution necessary to obtain a
pH of 3.5 + 0.1. Put a portion of the medium in a small beaker and titrate to pH 3.5 at
45C. Check the accuracy of the titration by allowing the agar to cool to incubation
temperature, place electrodes directly into the solidified medium, and read the pH. It
should be 3.5 + 0.1. Calculate the amount of sterile 10% tartaric acid solution
necessary for the volume of tempered agar to be used for pouring plates.
3. Place 5 ml of the 0.1 dilution and 1 ml of additional dilutions as required into each of
duplicate Petri dishes.
4. Add the tartaric acid solution to the tempered agar immediately before pouring 15 -
20 ml into each of the plates containing the sample dilutions.
5. Mix well and let solidify before inverting the plates. Incubate at 22 - 25C.
6. Count the plates at 3 and 5 days of incubation. Yeast cells will appear as cream
coloured shiny colonies.

3.13. Presumptive Coliforms

1. Prepare cheese homogenates and serial dilutions as described in Section A.
2. Place 5 ml of the 0.1 dilution (= 0.5 g of original sample or dilution) and 1 ml of
additional dilutions as required into each of duplicate Petri dishes and add molten
VRB agar. (Note: Do not sterilize VRB agar.) When solidified, pour over layer (5
ml VRB).
3. Incubate at 35C + 1C for 18 - 24 hrs.
4. Count the dark red colonies, at least 0.5 mm in diameter, and record results as
coliforms per g of sample.

Samples of cottage cheese and other acid milk products should be plated within 24 h after
manufacture because coliform counts decline under acid conditions. Coliforms also decrease
in number during aging of ripened cheese varieties.

It must be emphasized that this method provides a presumptive count only. If presumptive
counts are consistently high, colonies should be confirmed (see Standard Methods). The
Canadian Food And Drug Act and Regulations permit 500 coliforms/g of cheese made
from pasteurized milk and 5,000 coliforms/g of cheese made from un-pasteurized milk.
Permitted counts of Eshericia coli are 100 and 500/g, respectively.

3.14. Staphylococci

Procedure A

The method described here enumerates total Staphylococci by surface plating on Baird-
Parker media. A coagulase test can be used to determine if individual colonies are S. aureus.
The Canadian Food And Drug Act and Regulations permit up to 100 coagulase
positive S. aureus in pasteurized milk cheese and up to 1,000/g in cheese made from
unpasteurized milk.

29

Equipment and Materials
Plating equipment
Glass spreaders (hockey stick-shaped glass rods)
Incubator set at 37C
Baird-Parker Agar

Procedure

1. Pour plates of B.P. agar (15 ml/plate) and dry surfaces (using sterile laminar airflow
cabinet -- 2 hrs).
2. Pipette 0.1 ml of homogenate and of subsequent dilutions onto surface of agar and
spread evenly with a sterile bent glass rod until surface appears dry. Prepare
duplicate plates. Use 10
-1
, 1-
-2
, and 1-
-3
dilutions.
3. Incubate at 37C for 48 hrs.
4. Count the number of colonies in each of the following groups:
(i) convex, shiny, black, with or without narrow gray-white margin, surrounded by
clear zone extending into opaque medium.
(ii) convex, shiny, black, with or without narrow gray-white margin, surrounded by
clear zone extending into the opaque medium with an inner opaque zone.
(iii) convex, shiny, black, with or without narrow gray-white margin, >1 mm in
diameter.

Procedure B

Pipette 1 ml or 0.1 ml of homogenate and of subsequent dilutions into Petri dishes.
Add approximately 10 ml Baird-Parker medium. Mix well. Let stand on bench.
When solidified, invert and put in incubator at 37C (for 48 hours).
Read the same as Procedure A.
Note: Add 5 ml of well mixed Ey Tellurite, enrichment, at 5C to Baird-Parker agar prior to
pouring plates.

30
Figure 3.1. Culture Activity Test: example

Conditions

Culture: Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis
Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris
Temperature 37C
Inoculum 2% mother culture prepared with 10% reconstituted skim milk powder.
Test media 1 10% skim milk powder, low heat, antibiotic free.
Test media 2 Same as one with 1% cheese whey.
Results

Titratable acidity after 4 hours:
Treatment 1 0.34%
Treatment 2 0.25%
pH versus time
Time

0

1 2 3 4 5 6

7

8 9
Skim powder 6.62 6.59 6.5 6.4 6.15 5.74 5.39 5.08 4.92 4.87
Skim with whey 6.61 6.57 6.5 6.42 6.35 6.31 6.3 6.3 6.29 6.29
Interpretation

1. Test media 1 shows normal growth. 0.34% acidity after 4 h with a 2% inoculum is adequate for most types
of cheese. pH versus time plot is typical, reaching pH 5.2 between 6 and 7 hours.
2. Test media 2 shows inadequate acid development indicating the probable presence of bacteriophage in
the cheese plant.

4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
0 2 4 6 8 10
Ti me (h)
p
H
Skim powder
Skim with whey

31
4. RAW MILK QUALITY

4.1. The Principal Milk Components

Cheese can be made from the milk of many mammals including goats, sheep, buffalos,
reindeer, camels, llamas, zebras and yaks. The milk of ruminants is the best milk for cheese
making because it contains high levels of casein, a protein required to form an adequate
coagulum for cheese making. Our consideration of milk composition will include only a
summary of the proximate analyses of the most common dairy species and a few relevant,
with respect to cheese making, comments about each component.

Proximate Analysis

Gross composition of food (also referred to as proximate analysis) includes the total amounts
of fats, proteins, carbohydrates, ash (mainly minerals such as calcium) and moisture or total
solids. Typical composition values for cow, sheep and goat milk are listed in Table 4.1.
Further discussion refers only to cow milk unless otherwise stated.

Milk fat

Fat content ranges from 2.0 to 7.0 kg/hl. An approximate average for regions where Holstein
Friesian cattle predominate is about 3.9 kg/hl. With respect to cheese manufacture and
quality the following properties are important.
Milk fat is the most diverse of all natural fats. We routinely quantify over 100
fatty acids ranging from four carbons to 22 carbons in length. Many more
have been identified.
Traditional nutritional concerns that may or may not be justified are: (1)
About 70% of milk fatty acids are saturated; and (2) Milk fat contains
cholesterol.
Positive nutritional factors are butyric acid (anticarcinogenic), saturated but
mid to short length fatty acids (antihypertensive), and rumenic acid
(anticarcinogenic).
The unique flavour of dairy fat is due to short chain fatty acids, especially
butyric acid.
The two major spoilage reactions in milk fat are: (1) break down of the
triglyceride fat structure releasing fatty acids such as butyric to create a rancid
flavour; and (2) Oxidation of unsaturated fats creating an oxidized flavour
(flat, cardboard flavour).
The melting properties of butter fat are significant to cheese texture.

Milk Proteins

Total (crude) milk protein ranges from about 2.5 to 5.5 kg/hl. The average for regions in
which Holstein Friesians predominate is about 3.3 kg/hl. There are two major groups of
proteins, the caseins (about 2.6 kg/hl), which are recovered in rennet coagulated cheeses, and
the whey proteins (about 0.7 kg/hl), which, for most types of cheese, are lost in the whey
during cheese making. Caseins are not water soluble, so the cow packages them in water

32
dispersible particles called micelles, which along with caseins include most of the milk
calcium, magnesium, phosphate and citrate (more about casein micelles in Chapter 8). Unlike
whey proteins, which are very sensitive to heat, caseins are little affected by heating except
that they interact with heat denatured whey proteins. Table 4.2 lists the principal caseins and
some properties which are most relevant to cheese making. Similarly, Table 4.3 lists some
properties of the principal whey proteins.

4.2. Factors affecting gross milk composition

Species (see also Table 1)

Cheese making principles are similar for milk of all species with some modifications
required to account for high solids of some species such as buffalo and sheep. Cow milk and
goat milk have similar cheese making properties except that:
Goat milk cheese tends to ripen by lipolysis (fat breakdown) more than cow
milk cheese.
Goat milk has smaller fat globules, which allow higher fat recovery and
possibly a smoother texture.
Cow milk generally has better gelation properties than goat milk, at least
partly because the milk of most goat breeds is low in
S1
-casein. The practical
effect is that goat milk is more suitable than cow milk for some varieties, such
as Feta, but less suitable for other varieties such as Cheddar, which is strongly
dependent on break down of
S1
-casein by rennet for typical flavour
development.

Genetics

Through out the modern history of dairying, farmers have selectively bred dairy cattle to
increase production or fat content or both. Recently, genetic selection has focussed on other
milk properties such as increasing the proportion of milk protein to fat. Three genetic effects
are most relevant to cheese making.

(1) Relative proportions of fat and protein (PF ratio)

Fat content and protein content generally increase or decrease in parallel, but fat varies more
with feed and season then protein. The same is true for breed (genetic) effects, such that
genetic selection has produced the following practical effects in modern dairying.
Higher fat breeds have lower protein/fat ratio. For example, a typical
protein/fat ratio in Jersey milk is 0.7 relative to 0.84 in Holstein milk (Table
4.4).
Genetic selection over the last 100 years has produced considerable within
breed improvement with respect to both milk production and increased protein
and fat content. The result is greatly increased per cow production of milk
protein and fat. However, once again, because fat responds more to genetic
selection than protein, the result in many areas has been a gradual decrease in
the average PF ratio. For example in Ontario, the PF ratio decreased from
about 0.88 in 1970 to 0.85 in 1995 (estimated from data provided by

33
Laboratory Services Division, University of Guelph).

(2) Relative proportions of fat and protein to other solids

With respect to other solids, mineral content (mainly Ca, Mg, and P) generally varies in
proportion to protein content and lactose content is relatively stable. So, because lactose is
largely a wasted component, increasing protein and fat by feed or genetic selection has
economic advantages in terms of feed conversion, milk transportation costs, and waste
handling.

Stage of lactation

Fat content tends to increase during lactation as milk production decreases. The result is that
the relative proportion of protein to fat (protein/fat ratio or PF) is highest at the peak of
lactation (about 60 days of lactation) and lowest at the end of lactation. Protein distribution
also changes during lactation with resulting effects on cheese ripening and flavour. In
particular, the proportion of
s1
-caseins decreases during lactation while the proportion of -
casein increases.

Feed

Depending on the relative demand for butter fat versus milk non-fat solids, there may be
incentive to change the relative proportions of milk protein and fat. The only short term
means to do this is by changing the diet. Generally less roughage and more high energy feeds
will encourage lower fat content with little decrease in protein content to provide a higher PF
ratio.

Season

Seasonal variation in milk composition is most important to cheese yield efficiency and
composition control. Some important seasonal effects are listed below and illustrated in
Figure 4.1. These observations are based on Ontario data.
Fat content reaches a minimum in August and a maximum in October.
Protein content changes roughly in parallel with fat content, but the seasonal
variations are smaller, causing high protein fat ratios (PF) during the summer
and low PF ratios in the winter.
Casein number (casein as a percentage of total protein) is relatively constant
over the seasons; that is, casein varies seasonally but mostly in proportion to
total protein. Having said that, there is small positive association between
total protein and casein number; that is, higher protein milk contains a higher
proportion of casein. So, breeding of feeding for higher protein content has a
double benefit for the cheese maker.

4.3. Milk as a growth medium

34
Cheese making depends on the growth of bacteria to produce acidity, flavour compounds,
and ripening enzymes. It is, therefore, important to understand the characteristics of milk as a
growth medium.

General Nutrients

Milk is a good source of all principal nutrients, including carbon, nitrogen and macro-
minerals. Many micronutrients such as vitamins and micro-minerals are also available.
However, milk is unique with respect to its sugar.

Milk Sugar

Carbohydrates, especially simple sugars such as sucrose (table sugar), can be utilized as
sources of energy more quickly than fats and proteins. However, the energy currency of the
cell is glucose (also called dextrose) so, to use available carbohydrates, microorganisms must
be able to convert them to glucose.

The only sugar naturally present in milk is lactose. Most microorganisms lack the enzyme
lactase, which is required to break lactose into its two component sugars, namely, glucose
and galactose. Lactic acid bacteria, which do have lactase, readily break down lactose and
use glucose as an energy source. Further, some lactic acid bacteria are able to convert
galactose to glucose. Lactic acid bacteria, therefore, have a competitive advantage in milk;
that is, they are able to out grow bacteria that are unable to obtain glucose from lactose.

Acidity (pH)

Acidity as measured by pH is one of the most critical parameters with respect to both food
safety and both process and quality control of fermented foods such as cheese. The concepts
of acidity and pH are explained in Sections 3.5. The titratable acidity of milk typically varies
from 0.12 to 0.20% lactic acid depending on composition, especially protein content. The pH
of milk is near the physiological pH of 6.8, which, considering the following points, means
that milk is a good growth medium with respect to acidity (pH). See Figure 4.2.
Most organisms grow best at pH near physiological pH of 6.8. As explained in
Section 3.5, titratable acidity (TA) is not a good predictor of acid effects on
microbial growth and chemical properties such as protein functionality.
The major groups of microorganisms important to food preservation are in
order of increasing acid tolerance: bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
Natural fermentation of warm raw milk by lactic acid bacteria reduces milk
pH to less than 5.0, which prevents the growth of pathogenic bacteria and
most spoilage bacteria. Note, however, that some pathogenic bacteria such as
Listeria monocytogenes and E. Coli 0157: H7 are able to survive pH < 5.0,
not grow but survive.

Moisture

Milk has a high moisture content (typically 87% for cows milk) and with respect to
available moisture, is an excellent growth medium. But, it must be understood that with

35
respect to microbial growth, the critical parameter is water activity not moisture content.
Water activity (a
w
) is an index of the availability of water for microbial growth. It is the
availability of water in the food reported as a fraction of the availability of water from pure
water. In other words, the a
w
of water is 1 and the a
w
of other substances is reported as
decimal fractions of 1. Water activity is reduced by dissolved substances, varying directly
with the number rather than the weight of dissolved molecules. For this reason, relative to
large molecules such as proteins, small molecules such as sugar and salt have a large effect
on water activity. For example, jams are preserved by their high sugar content.

Microorganisms vary greatly in their ability to survive and/or grow at reduced water activity.
However, acknowledging that exceptions exist, the minimum water activity for growth of the
principal groups of micro organisms are as follows:
Most bacteria: 0.90 - 0.91
Most yeast: 0.87 - 0.94
Most moulds: 0.70 - 0.80

Compare these values with typical a
w
values for milk, cheese and a few other foods:
Milk, fresh fruits and vegetables, fresh meats 60 - 98% moisture, a
w
0.97 - 1.00
Most baked products, some cheese, some cured meats, 20-60% moisture, a
w
0.88 -
0.96.
Dehydrated foods such as breakfast cereals. Less than 5% moisture, a
w
0.20 - 0.30

Typical a
w
values for some cheese at the marketing stage are given below (Eck and Gillis,
2000). See also typical a
w
values for cheese families in Table 1.1.
Cottage 0.988
Brie 0.980
Munster 0.977
Saint-Paulin 0.968
Edam 0.960
Cheddar 0.950
Parmesan 0.917

Availability of oxygen

With respect to oxygen requirements, microorganisms may be:
Aerobic: must have oxygen to grow
Anaerobic: can only grow in the absence of oxygen
Microaerophilic: require small amounts of oxygen
Facultative anaerobes: able to grow with or with out oxygen.

Moulds require oxygen, so they can be eliminated by vacuum or gas flush packaging. Most
yeast are aerobic (require oxygen), but some can grow anaerobically (in the absence of
oxygen). Bacteria may fall into any of these categories, but lactic acid bacteria are
microaerophilic or facultative anaerobes.

Milk will acquire some dissolved oxygen during milking, storage and handling, but it is used
up quickly by bacterial growth.

36

4.4. Types of micro organisms and their activity in milk

The numbered list below identifies seven types of bacteria according to how they change the
properties of milk. Often these changes are negative (spoilage), but, as we will see in later
sections, many of these bacteria are important to the development of cheese flavour. Before
proceeding to the list, please note the following definitions:
Psychrotrophic refers to micro organisms that are able to grow at temperatures
less than 7C. Cold milk storage and transport selects for psychrotrophic
bacteria which are often proteolytic and lipolytic. Common psychrotrophic
bacteria in milk are species of Micrococci, Bacilli, Staphyloccoci,
Lactobacilli, Pseudomonas, and coliforms. Pseudomonas species are the
most common and typically have the most impact on quality. At temperatures
of 2 - 4C, bacterial growth in milk is mainly due to strains of Pseudomonas
flourescens. Little growth occurs at temperature less than 2C.
Spore forming bacteria are able to exist in a highly stable form called spores.
In the spore state, these bacteria are able to withstand greater extremes of
acidity, temperature and desiccation.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate the rates of biochemical
reactions. Bacterial enzymes are most significant to milk spoilage and cheese
ripening, but it is important to distinguish between an enzyme and its bacterial
source. For example, many psychrotrophic bacteria produce heat stable
enzymes that remain active after the bacteria are killed by pasteurization.

Keeping the above definitions in mind, note the following types of micro organisms, grouped
according to their impact on milk quality.

(1) Lactic acid bacteria which ferment lactose to lactic acid and other end products.
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) important to cheese making will be described further in
Chapter 7. For now:
As noted earlier, LAB are able to readily metabolize lactose, so they have
some competitive advantage over other micro organisms.
Notwithstanding, their ability to metabolize lactose, LAB prefer temperatures
greater than 30C, so, depending on initial relative counts, psychrotrophic
bacteria including some coliform and pseudomonas bacteria are able to
outgrow LAB at room temperature.

(2) Proteolytic bacteria that degrade protein and cause bitterness and putrefaction. Most
important in cheese milk are species of:
Pseudomonas which are psychrotrophic and produce heat stable lipases.
Bacillus which form heat stable spores and survive pasteurization

(3) Lipolytic bacteria that degrade fats and produce lipolytic rancidity. Again, the most
common example in milk is the genus Pseudomonas. Several psychrotrophic species
of Pseudomonas produce heat stable lipases as well as proteases.

37
(4) Gas producing micro organisms that cause cheese openness, floating curd in cottage
cheese, and gassy milk.
Yeasts are always present in milk and are common contaminants during the
cheese making process. They may cause yeast slits in cheese and contribute
to ripening of surface ripened cheese.
Coliform bacteria are always present in milk, but their numbers can be
minimized by good sanitation. Also, coliform bacteria compete poorly with
lactic acid bacteria, so their numbers rapidly decrease in the presence of a
growing lactic acid culture.
Clostridium tyrobutyricum is a thermoduric (survives pasteurization) spore
forming organism of legendary fame among cheese makers. C. tyrobutyricum
causes gas formation (carbon dioxide) during the later stages of ripening of
Swiss and Dutch type cheeses. The resulting craters and cracks in the cheese
are called late gas defect. European cheese makers frequently check raw
milk for thermoduric and/or spore forming bacteria. Five hundred spores per
litre of milk are sufficient to cause late gas defect.
Propioni bacterium produces the desirable gas formation in Swiss type
cheese.
Some lactic cultures, called heterofermentative, also produce carbon dioxide.
See Chapter 7.

(5) Ropy bacteria cause stringy milk due to excretion of gummy polysaccharides.
Usually ropy bacteria such as Alcaligenes viscolactis are undesirable. However, in
some fermented dairy products, ropy lactic acid bacteria such as certain subspecies of
Lactococcus lactis are used to develop texture.

(6) Sweet curdling bacteria produce rennet-like enzymes which may coagulate milk.
Common examples are the psychrotrophic spore formers Bacillus subtilis and
Bacillus cereus.

(7) Numerous off flavours have been associated with specific milk contaminates. Some
examples are:
Malty: S. lactis var maltigenes
Bitter: see (2) Proteolytic bacteria
Rancid: see (3) Lipolytic bacteria
Unclean: coliform bacteria
Fishy: Pseudomonas
Fruity: Pseudomonas

4.5. Pathogenic Bacteria

This short course makes no attempt to provide comprehensive training on food safety with
respect to cheese manufacture. However, some food safety principles will be discussed in the
context of other topics, for example, acid control and food plant sanitation. Here, we mention
only some characteristics of a few pathogens which are particularly significant to cheese
making. We begin with definitions to distinguish between food infection and food
intoxication.

38

Food infections are caused by organisms that grow in the gastro intestinal track. Illness
occurs after ingestion of an infectious dose, which depends on many factors including the
health status of the person.

Food intoxication results from toxins produced by bacteria. Toxins may be present within the
bacteria (endotoxin) or excreted outside the bacteria (exotoxin). The organism need not be
alive or even present to cause illness. A good example, is Staphylococcus aureus. Like all
the other pathogenic bacteria listed below, Staphylococcus aureus is destroyed by
pasteurization but its exotoxin survives pasteurization.

Pathogens: common before 1940
Corynebacterium diptheriae: causes diptheria
Brucella abortus: causes brucellosis in cows and undulant fever in people.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis: causes TB in people.
Coxiella burneti: causes Q fever in people.

Pathogens which emerged during 1940 - 1970
Staphylococcus aureus: food intoxication caused by heat stable enterotoxins
of which enterotoxin A is the most common.
Salmonella species: Salmonellosis is an infection caused by many species and
strains of species of Salmonella. Salmonellosis is of great concern to the
dairy industry, especially the cheese and milk powder sectors. Infectious
doses can be extremely low, perhaps as low as a single organism.
Enteropathogenic E. coli bacteria produce enterotoxins, some of which are
heat stable. Of numerous species and strains, the most famous is E. coli 0157
H7, which occurs frequently in raw milk. E. coli 0157 H7 is of particular
concern because it is quite acid tolerant and is able to grow at refrigeration
temperatures.

Recent Pathogens
Yersina enterocolitica is a psychrotrophic infectious agent.
Campylobacter jejuni, is an infectious agent which has passed Salmonella as
the leading cause of diarrhoea all over the world.
Listeria monocytogenes is a psychrotrophic infectious agent that requires
special caution because it is acid tolerant and more heat stable than most
pathogens, although it does not survive proper pasteurisation.
Bacillus cereus is mainly important as spoilage agent. However, some strains
are mildly pathogenic. This is problematic because Bacillus cereus forms heat
stable spores which survive pasteurization and are able to grow at
refrigeration temperatures.

4.6. Antibiotics

Lactic cultures are very sensitive to antibiotics. In most jurisdictions increasing penalties
have greatly reduced antibiotic residues in milk. Nevertheless, antibiotic testing of all cheese
milk is still recommended. See rapid screening tests in Section 3.10.

39

4.7. Mastitic Milk

Mastitis is an infection of the udder which negatively impacts milk quality. Pooling milk
dilutes the effect of single infected cows and herds but in most jurisdictions the cumulative
effect of mastitis, especially sub-clinical mastitis, is significant. Olson as cited in Eck and
Gillis (2000) estimates a cheese yield loss of 1% if 10% of the milk is from cows with sub-
clinical mastitis. Further, as noted below, the quality effects of mastitic milk are probably of
more economic importance than the yield effects.

Causative organisms include human pathogens such as E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus.
Nonbacterial infections such as prototheca infection also cause high SCC. Ontario producer
milk data suggests that prototheca is a common mastitic agent and frequently contributes to
high SCC and bacterial counts.

Typical Ranges of Somatic Cells

Somatic cells include any type of 'body' cell in the milk, such as skin cells (epithelial) from
the cows udders and leucocytes of several types. Leucocytes are white blood cells which are
part of the cows immune response to infection in the udder. So they are used as an index of
mastitis or udder infection. Several observations are relevant:
The milk of healthy cows should contain less than 100,000 somatic cells per
ml of milk. Higher counts indicate subclinical mastitis (infection in the
udder).
Clinical mastitis is associated with counts greater than 1,000,0000/ml
Producer milks in Ontario average about 200,000 cells/ml but counts less than
100,000 can be achieved with good herd management

Critical Ranges With Respect to Milk Quality

There is evidence that counts as low as 100,000 cells/ml affect cheese yield (Barbano et al,
1991, J. Dairy Sci. 74:369) and the quality of other dairy products such as ultra-high
temperature milk. SCC in the range of 250,000 - 500,000 are associated with altered milk
composition and decreased cheese yield. When counts exceed 1,000,000 cells/ml, altered
milk composition and reduced cheese yield, are obvious.

Composition Effects

Gross composition effects of udder infection are not significant for SCC less than about
250,000/ml. Above that level the following trends are observed:
Little change in fat content
Increased mineral content, particularly more cloride.
Decreased lactose content which balances the osmotic effects of increased
mineral content.
Protein effects:
Less casein
More whey proteins, especially immunoglobulins

40
More nonprotein nitrogen
Increased pH (up to 7.5 whereas 6.7 is normal)

Bacteriological Properties:

High SCC are normally associated with shedding of pathogenic (to humans) bacteria in the
milk including E. coli, S. aureus and others. Basically, whatever organism is causing the
udder infection, including the algae, prototheca, will be present in the milk. Further, growth
factors present in high SCC milk encourage growth of both E. coli and S. aureus (Amer. J.
Vet. Res. 45:2504). The growth rates of some lactic cultures are also affected; Streptococcus
thermophilis grows faster and Lactobacillus acidophilus is inhibited.

Significance to Cheese Milk

Cheese yield is affected in several ways:
Mastitic milk contains more plasmin, a heat stable milk protease which
degrades protein and causes more protein to be lost in the whey.
Reduced casein directly reduces cheese yield.
Poor curd formation (longer flocculation time, slower rate of curd firming,
and reduced maximum firmness) contributes to yield loss as fines.

Perhaps more important than yield are the effects of sub-clinical mastitis on cheese quality
(J. Dairy Res. 53:645). Modest levels of SCC cause several quality problems:
Decreased curd strength due to high whey proteins, low caseins, high pH and
altered calcium-phosphate-caseinate balance.
Higher moisture cheese due to impaired curd syneresis.
Soft, less elastic, sticky and grainy cheese texture.
Increased flavour intensity, usually with off flavours

Significance to Fluid Milk

Very high counts (>2 million) will cause milk to taste salty and result in many quality
problems. Lower counts, even as low as 300,000 can increase development of bitter flavour
due to increased levels of plasmin. This is a particular problem with ultra-high-temperature
processed milk because the enzyme is heat stable and the storage time is long enough to
permit significant protein degradation.

4.8. Raw Milk quality tests

The following list is a summary of the most important raw milk quality tests. Procedures for
some milk quality tests are described in Chapter 3.

(1) Organoleptic
(2) Total plate counts: good < 3,000/ml; maximum raw milk 100,000
(3) Coliforms: good < 10/ml; concern > 25; max 100
(4) Psychrotrophic bacteria (grow at T < 7C): good < 1,000
(5) Somatic cell counts: good <100,000; concern >300,000;

41
(6) Rapid test for inhibitors
(7) Disk assay (official test for inhibitors)
(8) Added water: maximum freezing point -0.505C (-525H)
(9) Composition: fat, protein, lactose, total solids, and casein if possible

Table 4.1. Typical gross composition (kg/100kg) of cow, dairy sheep and goat milk (Wong et
al. 1988).

Cow Dairy Sheep Water Buffalo

Goat

Fat

3.9 7.2 7.4

4.5

Total Protein
Casein
Whey

3.3
2.6
0.7
4.6
3.9
0.7
3.8
3.2
0.6

3.2
2.6
0.6

Lactose

4.6 4.8 4.8

4.3

Ash

0.7 0.9 0.8

0.8

Total solids

12.5 17.5 16.83

12.8

Table 4.2. The principal caseins and some properties of importance to cheese making

Name

Symbol Percent
of casein
Properties

Alpha-S1 casein

S1

33 Binds calcium strongly
Sensitive to break down by rennet
Resists the natural milk protease, plasmin

Alpha-S2 casein

S2

11 Binds calcium strongly

Beta-casein

33 Partially soluble in cold milk
Broken down by plasmin but not rennet

Kappa-casein

11 Stabilizes casein particles against
coagulation
Bonds with whey proteins during heating

42

Table 4.3 The principal whey proteins and some properties of importance to cheese
making

Name

% of Whey
Protein
Properties

Beta-
lactoglobulin

40 Readily reacts with -casein at temperatures greater
than 65C and interferes with rennet coagulation
Principal component of ricotta cheese

Alpha-
lactalbumin

15 Principal protein of breast milk
Used to prepare infant formula

Immuno-
globulins

6 Higher in colostrum

Other heat
sensitive
proteins

4.0 Mainly includes bovine serum albumin.

Heat stable
proteins

14 Cannot be recovered by heat-acid precipitation as in
ricotta cheese manufacture.

Non-protein
nitrogen

21 Consists of amino acids, ammonia, urea and small
peptides.

Table 4.4. Typical fat and protein contents (kg/100 kg) for the milk of several breeds of
dairy cows (from various sources).

Breed

Fat Protein

Protein/Fat Ratio

Jersey

5.4 3.8

0.70

Holstein

3.8 3.2

0.84

Guernsey

4.9 3.6

0.73

Ayrshire

4.0 3.3

0.83

43
Mean fat content by month kg/hl
3.70
3.80
3.90
4.00
4.10
A
u
g
O
c
t
D
e
c
F
e
b
A
p
r
J
u
n
F
a
t

k
g
/
h
l
91/92 96/97 97/98 98/99
99/00 00/01

Mean protein content by month kg/hl
3.10
3.20
3.30
3.40
3.50
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
P
r
o
t
e
i
n

k
g
/
h
l
91/92 96/97 97/98 98/99
99/00 00/01

Mean Other Solids content by month kg/hl
5.64
5.69
5.74
5.79
5.84
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
O
t
h
e
r

S
o
l
i
d
s

k
g
/
h
l
91/92 96/97 97/98
98/99 99/00 00/01

Mean protein/fat ratio by month
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
P
r
o
t
e
i
n
/
f
a
t

r
a
t
i
o
91/92 96/97 97/98
98/99 99/00 00/01

Figure 4.1. Seasonal variation of fat, protein, lactose and protein:fat ratio in Ontario producer milk

44

Figure 4.2. The concepts of pH and titratable acidity. The proteins and weak acids act as
reservoirs for hydrogen (H
+
) and hydroxyl (OH
-
) ions. When acid is added the equilibrium
shifts to the left as free hydrogen ions associate more with proteins and weak acids.
Conversely, when base (hydroxyl ions) is added as in determination of titratable acidity,
hydrogen ions move out of the reservoirs to react with the hydroxyl ions. These, reservoirs,
therefore, act as pH buffers, in that they reduce the effect of adding acid or base on the
change in pH. In other words, titratable acidity (TA) measures all hydrogen ions, including
those associated with proteins and acids, but, pH measures only the activity of un-associated
hydrogen ions, those that are free in solution.

H
+

H
+

H
+

H
+

Proteins
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
Acids/Salts
H
+
H
+
H
+

H
+
H
+

+
=
TA
pH
Protein properties
Microbial growth
Taste
Lower pH =higher acidity =more free H
+

Higher pH =lower acidity =less free H
+

pH scale goes from 1 14.
Acid pH <7. 0. H
+
>OH
-

Neutral pH =7.0. H
+
=OH
-

Alkaline pH >7. 0. H
+
<OH
-
H+
H
+

H
+
H
+
H
+

45
5. TREATMENT OF MILK FOR CHEESE MAKING

5.1. Clarification

Clarification may be as simple as filtering out debris or may include standardization of micro
flora by removing microbial cells and spores. The principal clarification/standardization
procedures are as follows.

Cloth filters are common to remove debris at the farm but should not be necessary at
the processing plant.
Centrifugal clarifiers, medium speed centrifuges, remove particles which escape
filtration. Cream separators effectively double as centrifugal clarifiers because small
particles of debris collect at the periphery of the separator bowl and are ejected as
sludge. The loss of milk solids by this process is minimal.
Bactofugation is a high speed centrifugal process that separates bacterial cells and
spores. Bactofugation is used most commonly in Europe to prevent late gas formation
in Dutch and Swiss type cheeses.
Bactofugation removes 95% of the spores of milk which means the risk of late gas
defect due to germination and growth of Clostridium tyrobutyricum is much reduced,
but not eliminated.
1-2% of milk solids is transferred to the bactofugate. To avoid yield loss, the
bactofugate which contains 12-16% dry matter, is sterilized by ultrahigh temperature
processing and added back to the milk.
Microfiltration, a membrane process, has been used in a few European cheese plants
since 1985. Think of microfiltration as an ultra fine sieve. Microfiltration and related
membrane processes are illustrated in Figures 5.1 and 5.2 and further described in
Chapter 22. Microfiltration achieves about 99% reduction of spore forming bacteria
relative to 95% by bactofugation. The disadvantage is that microfiltration can be
applied only to skim milk because the milk fat globules are too large to pass through
the microfiltration membrane (See Figures 5.2).

5.2. Standardization of cheese milk composition

The objective of milk composition standardization is to obtain the maximum economic return
from the milk components. In practice, this means that milk composition is adjusted to
achieve the most economically favourable balance of the cost of ingredients and the percent
transfer of milk solid components to cheese while maintaining cheese quality.

Cheese yield is mainly determined by the recoveries of protein and fat in the cheese (that is
the percent of fat and protein transferred from milk to cheese) and by cheese moisture, but
other components also contribute significantly. Cheese yield is discussed in Chapter 12.
Chapter 6 is a detailed practical guide to milk standardization, including the necessary
calculations for manual standardization. This section describes general considerations only.

Government standardized cheese varieties

46

Food regulatory agencies in many jurisdictions have mandated standardized foods for which
specific criteria with respect to composition and/or quality must be met. Section 28 Table
Part 1, Canada Agricultural Products Act and Regulations lists maximum moisture and
minimum fat levels (percent by weight) for 46 cheese varieties. No other composition or
quality standards are prescribed, so, the identities of cheese varieties are not protected. For
example, American mozzarella is not pasta filata cheese like Italian stretch mozzarella, but it
is mozzarella according to Canadian regulations.

Cheese fat on a dry matter basis

Table 6.1 includes data for target fat and moisture content according to the respective
minimum and maximum values as prescribed by the Canada Agricultural Products Act. It
also includes a column for fat in the dry matter (FDM) which is the target cheese fat content
reported as a percentage of the target total solids content. Because the principal non-fat
component in cheese is casein, the target FDM value is useful to estimate the proportions of
fat and protein required in the cheese milk. For example cheese makers generally consider
that a full fat cheese contains 50% FDM, which corresponds to a protein fat ratio in the
cheese milk of 0.91 - 0.96. By this criteria, both Cheddar and Feta are full fat cheese because
they both contain about 50% FDM, although on a wet basis their respective fat contents are
31 and 22%.

Protein/fat ratios (PF)

PF (ratio of protein to fat) is exactly what the name implies. Having no units, it is an index of
the relative proportions of fat and protein in the milk. Please be clear that the PF value
indicates nothing about the absolute value of fat and protein. PF ratio is generally lower in
low fat milk and higher in high fat milk, so that Jersey milk, for example, has a less
favourable PF for cheese making than Holstein milk. This is partially offset by a higher
casein number (casein as a percentage of total protein) in Jersey milk.

Standardizing to target protein/fat ratios

Standardization normally means adding skim milk or skim milk solids, or removing cream to
increase the PF. Several practical points are relevant.
Multiple component pricing makes it possible to cost milk components as individual
ingredients. PF can then be optimized according to relative costs of protein and fat,
transfer rates of protein and fat from milk to cheese, and the value of fat in the cheese
relative to its value as cream.
Component yield economies must be balanced against cheese quality.
Calculation of PF to produce cheese with required moisture and fat depends on
retention of fat, casein and serum solids in the cheese, where serum solids refers to
recovery of the soluble components of milk, namely, sugars, whey proteins, non-
protein nitrogen and some minerals. Specifically the important principles with respect
to serum solids are:

47
Higher serum solids recovery means that a lower PF is required (that is more fat or
less protein) in the cheese milk to achieve the target FDM in the cheese.
Serum solids recovery is increased in high moisture cheese because the moisture
retained includes dissolved solids.
Serum solids recovery is reduced by curd washing treatments.
Serum protein (whey protein) recovery is increased by milk pasteurization (there is
more discussion on heat treatments in the next section).

Standardizing to casein/fat ratios

Better process and composition control can be achieved by standardizing to fixed casein/fat
ratios rather than protein/fat ratios. This requires accurate casein measurement which is still
not feasible for many plants. See further discussion in Chapters 6 and 12.

Sources of milk proteins

Standardization usually requires the addition of protein or removal of fat. The former has the
advantage that it is possible to produce cheese quantities beyond what is possible from the
available fresh milk. This is significant in areas where fresh milk is in short supply or as in
Canada, where milk purchases are limited by quotas. Several sources of milk proteins are
available for cheese milk standardization.

(1) Skim milk powder is convenient for small or remote cheese plants. It can be used
effectively with the following limitations:
Use only certified LOW HEAT (Whey Protein Index > 6) and antibiotic free
powders.
Reconstitute the powder thoroughly and filter to remove un-dissolved particles
before blending with the cheese milk. Incomplete solubilisation may cause over
set Swiss cheese and poor stretching of pasta filata cheese.
Non-fat solids of cheese milk should not be raised above about 11% (normal level
is 9%). This can be avoided by adding more water with the powder.

(2) Skim milk and condensed milk are convenient sources because they can be handled and
measured in liquid form. The only cautions are to limit heat treatment to minimum
pasteurization requirements and limit non-fat milk solids to less than 11 kg/100 kg.
Again, non-fat solids can be adjusted by adding water.

(3) Culture media contribute non-fat milk solids that must be accounted for in calculations
for milk standardization. For example, the high heat treatment involved in bulk culture
preparation ensures that most milk proteins (including whey proteins) present in the
culture will be transferred to the cheese.

(4) Protein concentrates and isolates available to supplement cheese milk are numerous. A
few are listed below. The feasibility of using one or more of these products depends on,
among other things, the type of cheese. For example, relative to most other varieties,
high levels of whey proteins can be used in Feta cheese without compromising quality.
Liquid or dried milk concentrates prepared by ultra filtration of skim milk contain

48
caseins and whey proteins in the normal proportions found in milk.
Specially prepared blends of caseins and whey proteins.
Liquid or dried casein concentrates prepared by microfiltration of skim milk.
Sodium or hydrogen caseinates, usually prepared from rennet casein.
Liquid concentrates of denatured whey proteins (Centri-whey process).

Sources of milk fat

Most jurisdictions prohibit the use of non dairy fat in cheese. That leaves a number of
choices:
Milk and cream unaltered other than by pasteurization and gravity or centrifugal
creaming.
Recombined cream prepared from skim milk and butter oil. This process requires
homogenization which is undesirable for cheese with some exceptions including
Feta, Blue and cream cheese. According to some recent work, quality problems
associated with homogenization are reduced by homogenizing the cream rather
than the milk. Homogenization of cheese milk is further discussed in Section 5.4
below.

In cases where non-dairy cream is desirable, the limitations are:
Altered flavour, especially the absence of short chain fatty acids such as butyric
that are found only in dairy fat. The flavour problem can be addressed by dairy
flavour additives.
Preparation of filled cheese milk (filled means containing fat other than dairy fat)
requires homogenization, which as noted above, normally creates inferior texture.
The fat should have melting properties similar to butter fat.

Manual standardization

In the absence of online systems equipped with customized algorithms, it is necessary to
create spread sheets to calculate milk formulae and monitor yield parameters. The first step is
to determine the optimum PF, a process that always involves some experimentation. The
estimates given in Table 6.1 can be used for a first approximation and then adjustments can
be made on succeeding days based on the cheese analysis. This emphasizes the need for
consistent and accurate records of milk and cheese composition and manufacturing
parameters. Detailed procedures, including calculations, for manual standardization are
described in Chapter 6.

Automated standardization

Automated composition control systems separate warm milk into cream and skim and then
automatically and continuously recombine the two streams in the proportion required to
obtain the desired PF ratio. The standardized milk is tempered to the correct setting
temperature and delivered directly to the setting vats. Two general types of control are
possible.
Fully automated using online milk analysers based on near infra red, density
measurement, or light scattering technology.

49
Partially automated control where composition is monitored with an off line milk
analyser.

Recombined milk

Considering the limitations described above for protein and fat sources, it is possible to
manufacture cheese from recombined milk.

5.3. Heat treatments

Many people assume that all dairy products in Canada, including cheese, are made from
pasteurized milk. Not so; several alternatives are possible as outlined below. Note, however,
that the Food and Drugs Act and Regulations, recognizes only two types of cheese with
respect to milk heat treatment, namely, fully pasteurized milk and raw milk. That is, if the
milk is not fully pasteurized the resulting cheese is considered raw milk cheese.

(1) No heat treatment results in raw milk cheese. Raw milk cheese by law must be "held
at 2C or higher for a period of 60 days or more from the date of the beginning of the
manufacturing process, " Food And Drugs Act And Regulations, Sections B.08.030
and B.08.043. The question of raw milk cheese is an ongoing concern to consumer
groups and to health authorities. Suffice it to say that with respect to regulations on
cheese milk heat treatments, one size doesnt fit all.

(2) Thermisation (63-65C, short hold) results in phosphatase positive milk, which must be
fully pasteurized before cheese making. The purpose is to prevent raw milk spoilage
(e.g. over a weekend) due to acid or protease producing bacteria.

(3) Pasteurization (63C, 30 min. or 72C, 16 s) is generally considered the safest
alternative, but the full flavour of traditional ripened cheese can not be achieved. Note
that over pasteurization causes denaturation of whey proteins which subsequently
adsorb to the casein particles. The effects are:
Longer flocculation times
Weak or no curd formation
Excessive loss of fines
Poor syneresis (moisture release)
Coarse textured curd with reduced ability to stretch, mat and melt.

(4) Heat treat (55 - 65C, 16 s) is trade lingo for sub-pasteurization treatments that are
applied to destroy most pathogens, but allow some bacteria to survive and contribute to
cheese ripening. This process permits fuller flavour of cheese with better control of
culture growth (i.e., acid development) than with raw milk. For current regulatory
purposes, heat treat is equivalent to raw. Most aged Canadian Cheddar is safely made
from heat treated milk

5.4. Homogenization

50

The process of homogenization reduces milk fat globule sizes from 1 - 15 micrometer (m)
to less than 2 m (a micrometer is 0.000,0001 m). The natural membrane on the fat globule is
replaced by milk proteins, mainly caseins. This results in increased interaction between fat
globules and the casein particles in the rennet gel. For some cheese, homogenization is
desirable:
Homogenization promotes lipolysis, whitening, and flavour development in
cheese made from cow milk that are traditionally made from goat or sheep milk,
e.g., Blue and Feta.
Homogenization increases fat recovery and creates smoother texture in cream
cheese.

With respect to most firm/hard ripened cheese, many workers have observed that cheese
made from homogenized milk is too tough and firm after pressing. However, there is
evidence that homogenization for Cheddar cheese making has the following advantages if
medium pressure (6.9 MPa) is used and if only cream (35% fat) is homogenized and
subsequently blended with non-homogenized skim milk (Nair et al. 2001, Int. Dairy Journal
10:647).
Increased rate of gel firming and higher curd firmness at cutting.
Increased cheese yield due to greater moisture retention and improved fat and
protein recovery.
Notwithstanding higher moisture content, cheese texture and flavour was not
decreased by homogenization.

5.5. Additives to Cheese milk

(1) Calcium Chloride is frequently added at a level of about 0.02% to aid coagulation and
reduce amount of rennet required, especially if milk is set immediately after
pasteurization. The role of calcium in milk coagulation will be discussed in Chapter 8.

(2) Nitrates (sodium or potassium nitrate) may be added at levels of about 200 ppm to
Edam, Gouda and Swiss types to inhibit growth of gas forming Clostridium
tyrobutyricum.

(3) Annatto cheese color is added to some cheese to standardize seasonal changes in color
or to create orange cheese such as Cheddar and Cheshire.

The following are some properties of annatto.
Annatto is a carotenoid similar to -carotene and Vitamin A in structure, but it
has no Vitamin A activity.
Annatto color is red to yellow pigment, but it usually appears as orange. The red
constituent is more apparent with decreasing pH (6-4.8) changing the orange to
pink while at pH < 4.5, the pink fades and becomes nearly white. This accounts
for 'acid-cut cheese'. Bleaching and pinking of annatto is also caused by oxidizing
agents such as copper, iron, chlorine and light.
Oxidation of annatto is also encouraged by heat, so annatto is an unsuitable
colorant for process cheese

51
Alternatives to annatto are:
Beta-carotene which is too yellow and makes the cheese taste like carrots.
Apo-8-carotenal which has the advantage that relative to annatto it is less
soluble in the whey.

(4) Decolorants

Goat and sheep milk are flat white in color because they lack -carotene. Cow milk may be
whitened to mimic goat or sheep milk. Legal whitening agents include:
Titanium dioxide
Chlorophyll based products that mask the natural yellow colour. Excess
chlorophyll makes green cheese.

(5) Ripening Agents

A wide range of products are available to accelerate cheese ripening or to develop a broader
flavour profile. Relative to traditional cheese varieties, several factors suggest the need for
ripening supplements:
Non-traditional cheese making methods such as:
Pasteurized or heat treat versus raw milk
Cows milk substituted for the milk of other species
Traditional rennet pastes containing a wide range of enzymes including
lipases and proteases have been replaced with purified extracts
Cold storage and transport of milk severely alters natural milk micro flora
Economic pressure to reduce ripening time
Marketing pressure to standardize quality attributes

Lipases (lipolytic enzymes) are traditionally added to cow milk to produce cheese such as
Feta, Romano, Kefalotyri, and Parmesan which are traditionally made from goat or sheep
milk. Thats because goat and sheep milk, especially goat milk, have more natural lipase than
cow milk. Commercial lipases are commonly extracted from kid goats.

Enzyme Cocktails. These are mixtures of enzymes from various sources added to the milk to
accelerate ripening of aged cheese such as Cheddar. They may include both lipases and
proteases, with a predominance of proteases for Cheddar. Bacterial enzyme extracts from
lactic acid bacteria have also been used. Accelerated ripening is further discussed in Chapter
10.

52

Figure 5.2. Microfiltration Flowchart
RAW Milk
Separator
Cream Skim
Microfilter
Recombine Retentate
UHT Standardize
Permeate
Pasteurize
Figure 5.1 Membrane concentration/fractionation
Micro
Organisms
Fat
Globules
Proteins
Lactose
Minerals
Acids
Water
Micro
0.1-10
Ultra
.01-0.1
Nana
.001-.01
RO

Particle Size in (10 )
-6

53
6. STANDARDIZATION OF MILK FOR CHEESE MAKING

Standardization refers to the practice of adjusting the composition of cheese milk to
maximize economic return from the milk components while maintaining both cheese quality
and cheese composition specifications. Composition specifications may be self imposed
(e.g., low fat cheese) or imposed by government standards of identity. In Canada, standards
of identity are defined for 46 cheese varieties (Table 6.1). These standards only include limits
for maximum moisture and minimum fat so they do little to standardize other cheese
characteristics. For example, American Mozzarella is made by a different process and has
different properties than Italian stretch Mozzarella, but by Canadian regulations American
Mozzarella can be called Mozzarella provided it contains less than 52% moisture and more
than 20% fat.

6.1. Important parameters of composition

Standardization of cheese milk normally requires increasing the proportion of protein relative
to fat, which can be done by adding protein or taking away fat. The relative amount of
protein and fat in milk is called the protein-fat ratio or PF. The PF is the principal factor
which determines the amount of fat in the cheese relative to other milk solids in the cheese.
Because it is easy to measure cheese fat and total solids, the proportion of fat in the cheese is
reported as: (1) % fat by weight on the wet basis; and (2) the percent ratio of cheese fat to
cheese total solids. This ratio is called 'fat in the dry matter' or FDM. The FDM in cheese
is determined mainly by PF of the milk but the percent moisture is also important. Because
cheese whey contains soluble solids, higher cheese moisture means that more soluble solids
(mostly non-fat solids) are also retained in the cheese so that the ratio of FDM decreases.
The target value of FDM in the cheese can be used to determine the first approximation of
the PF required in the milk to give the desired fat content of the cheese. See Table 6.1.

There is a third ratio, namely, casein number (CN), which we will not use in the
standardization procedures given below, but which is important to understand. Total protein
content of cow milk is about 3.3 kg/hl of which about 2.6 kg/hl is casein. The remainder is
whey protein (about 0.7 kg/hl) including about 0.1 kg/hl of nitrogenous compounds that are
not true protein and are referred to collectively as non-protein nitrogen (NPN). Casein is
mostly recovered in cheese (i.e., transferred from milk to cheese during cheese manufacture).
Whey proteins remain soluble in whey so that only small amounts are recovered depending
on how much whey is retained in the cheese. Casein content is, therefore, most relevant to
cheese yield, so when cheese makers standardize milk on the basis of protein content, they
are using total protein as an index of casein content. Direct measurement of casein would be
better because the proportion of casein in total protein varies with breed, season, region and
other factors. However, wet chemical analysis of casein is not feasible for most plants and
rapid instrumental methods are still under development. The percentage proportion of casein
in total protein is referred to as the casein number (CN).

6.2. Methods of Standardizing

There are three conventional methods for standardizing milk, namely:
1. Addition of concentrated non-fat milk solids (i.e., skim milk powder or condensed skim).

54
2. Addition of skim milk.
3. Removal of cream.

These methods are based on the assumption that the milk has a high fat content relative to the
protein content. This is normally the case, so that cow milk usually has excess fat over that
required to produce a legal cheese. The exceptions are high fat cheese such as cream cheese
or double cream blue cheese.

Also, note that PF ratios can be increased by standardization with milk protein concentrates,
caseinates and native caseins.

It is not always economical to standardize milk. The cheese maker must compare the costs
of standardizing with the extra yield of cheese or cream. Cheese makers may simplistically
assume that all they have to do is standardize milk to meet the official composition standards.
But, the objective of standardization is to maximize the total return from all milk components
while meeting regulations and without compromising quality. If the value of butter fat is low
relative to protein, it is more economical to sell the fat as cheese rather than as cream,
provided that the extra fat can be retained in the cheese without compromising quality.

6.3. Units

Raw milk composition for payment purposes is reported in units of kg of component per hl of
milk at 4C. This is referred to as weight over volume (w/v) measurement. Measurement in
units of w/v is dependent on milk density which in turn is affected by both composition and
temperature. Weight over weight (w/w) measurements (e.g., kg component per 100 kg of
milk) result in smaller values because the density of milk is more than 1 kg/l. Measurement
by w/w has the advantages that: (1) most wet chemical reference analyses used to calibrate
milk analysers report composition in units of w/w; and (2) w/w values are independent of
milk temperature. However, milk composition for payment purposes is reported in units of
w/v because the volume of milk is easily measured with dip sticks or volumetric meters.
Weight measurement would require installation of farm bulk tanks on expensive load cells.
Volume rather than weight measurement of milk and other liquids is also more convenient in
the plant.

In any case, the important point with respect to accurate standardization is to ensure that all
measurements and calculations use the correct units. When component estimates are given
as percentages, the basis of measurement must be stated as w/w percent (e.g., kg fat per 100
kg milk) or w/v percent (e.g., kg fat/hl of milk). In this manual composition values given
in percent always mean w/w. Cheese composition will always be stated in percent w/w
(e.g., 30% fat in Cheddar cheese means 300 g fat per kg cheese). Similarly, 3.3 % fat in milk
means 3.3 kg fat per 100 kg milk. When weight-over-volume units are used, the specific
units are given, e.g., 3.3 kg/hl. Because composition of producer milk is reported to
processors in units of kg/hl and because milk metering systems are volumetric, milk
composition is usually reported in units of kg/hl.

It is important to ensure that milk analysers are calibrated in the appropriate units and the

55
correct units are subsequently used for milk standardization calculations and calibration of
automated standardizing systems. Wet chemical analysis is normally done by weight, so
reference results for milks used to calibrate milk analysers are normally reported in units of
percent by weight and it is convenient to calibrate milk analysers in percent by weight (e.g.,
kg/100 kg). If required, w/v values can be estimated using the following equation.

Note, that the density must be known at the given temperature. For example, if the milk
composition was given in units of w/w and you are metering milk into your cheese vat at
32C you need to know the density of the milk at 32C. For milk of average composition (4.0
% fat), the density can be estimated according to the following equation (derived from data
in Marketing Research Report 701, 1965, United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, DC).

Density values for milk of average composition (4% fat) at some temperatures relevant to
cheese manufacture are:

Temperature

4 10 20 32 37 40
Density

1.0352 1.0331 1.0296 1.0254 1.0237 1.0226

6.4. Calculations

The following steps are required to calculate the amount of powder or skim milk to be added,
or the amount of cream to be removed. Suppose a cheese maker wishes to fill a 10,000 l
(100 hl) setting vat for the manufacture of Cheddar cheese.

Step 1. Determine the protein and fat contents of the milk using an automatic milk analyser.
If a milk analyser is not available the protein content of pooled milk can be crudely
estimated from the fat content using the following formula:

kg/hl of protein = (0.4518 x kg/hl of fat) + l.521

For the purpose of this example, assume the available milk contains 3.50 kg/hl of fat and 3.l0
kg/hl of protein.

Step 2. Determine the required fat, moisture and FDM of Cheddar cheese. 'Dairy Products
Regulations' of the Canada Agricultural Products Standards Act require Cheddar cheese to
contain a minimum of 30.0% fat and a maximum of 39.0% moisture. Therefore,

FDM = % fat/% dry matter = 30.0/(100.0 - 39.0) = 49.2 %

T e temperatur at density is where w/w = w/v
T T
* ) (
T e temperatur at density is where .00035T - 1.0366 =
T T

56
Step 3. Determine the required PF of the milk. The PF required to yield FDM = 50% as
required for Cheddar cheese is about 0.96. See Table 6.1.

Step 4. Calculate the amount of skim milk powder to be added, or fat to be removed, or skim
milk to be added.

Standardization by Adding skim milk powder

1) Calculate the % protein required to give PF = 0.96

The required level of protein = 0.96 x % fat = 0.96 x 3.50 = 3.36

2) The % protein to be added = 3.36 - 3.10 = 0.26 kg/hl

3) Calculate the weight of protein which must be added per 100.00 hl of milk.
The required weight of protein = 0.26 kg/hl x 100.00 hl = 26.0 kg

4) Calculate the amount of powder which must be added assuming the skim milk powder
(SMP) contains 35.0% protein. If possible the skim powder should be analysed so the
exact protein content is known. The supplier may be able to provide this information.
Protein content can also be estimated using a milk analyser to test the reconstituted skim
milk.

Required amount of powder = 26.0 kg/0.35 = 74.0 k

5) Check calculations:

Weight of fat in milk: 3.50 kg/hl x 100.00 hl = 350.0 kg.

Weight of protein in milk 3.10 kg/hl x 100.00 hl = 310.0 kg

Weight of protein in SMP 0.35 kg/kg x 74.0 g = 26.0 kg

Total Protein 310.0 kg + 26.0 kg = 336.0 kg

PF ratio of standardized milk 336.0 kg/350.0 kg = 0.96

Standardization by removing fat

1) Calculate the level of fat required to give PF = 0.96.
The required level of fat = kg/hl of protein/0.96 = 3.1 kg/hl/.96 = 3.23 kg/hl

2) Use a Pearson's square to calculate the litres of cream that must be removed, assuming
that the separator removes cream containing 30 kg/hl of fat.

Un-standardized Milk

30.00 - 3.50 = 26.50 Parts of

57
3.50 kg/hl standardized Milk

Standardized
milk
3.23 kg/hl

Cream
30.00 kg/hl

3.50 - 3.23 = 0.27 Parts
Cream

Total Parts 26.50 + 0.27 = 26.77

This means that the required proportions of cream and standardized milk are 0.27 and 26.50
parts, respectively, for a total of 0.27 + 26.50 = 26.77 parts. On a percent basis, the
components are:

Standardized milk 100 x 26.50/26.77 = 98.99% w/v

30% cream 100 x 0.27/26.77 = 1.01% w/v

3) Calculate how much 30% cream must be removed from 10,000 kg of milk to provide
standardized milk containing 3.23% fat.

Cream to be removed = 1.01% of 100 hl = 1.01 hl or 101 l.

4) Check calculations:

Weight of fat in milk: 3.50 kg/hl x 100.00 hl = 350.0 kg

Minus fat in cream 30.00 kg/hl x 1.01 hl = 30.3 kg

Weight of fat in standardized milk 350.0 kg - 30.3 kg = 319.7 kg

Net volume of milk 100.00 hl - 1.01 hl = 98.99 hl

Weight of protein: 3.10 kg/hl x 98.99 hl = 306.9 kg

Protein/fat ratio 306.9/319.7 = 0.960

5) Adjust the final weight for the quantity of cream removed. If you wish to fill the vat
completely, sum the vat capacity and the initial estimate of the cream to be removed and
recalculate the required amount of cream.

Approximate total volume of fresh milk: 100.00 hl + 1.01 hl = 101.01 hl.

58

Weight of cream to be removed 1.00% of 101.01 hl = 1.01 hl

Final volume of standardized milk 100.00 hl - 1.01 hl = 99.99 hl

Standardization by adding skim milk

The following calculation is based on the assumption that the protein content of the skim
milk is the same as the protein content in the skim portion of the fresh milk to be
standardized. This is exactly true only when the skim milk is derived from the same source as
the fresh milk.

1) Use a Pearson square to determine the relative proportions of skim milk and milk
required to yield a fat content of 3.23% as calculated in Step B above.

Skim Milk
0.10 kg/hl

3.5 - 3.23 = 0.27 Parts
Skim Milk

Standardized Milk
3.23 kg/hl

3.50 kg/hl

3.23 - 0.10 = 3.13 Parts

Total Parts 0.27 + 3.13 = 3.40

This means that 0.27 parts of skim are required for 3.13 parts of milk where the total mixture
consists of 0.27 + 3.13 = 3.40 parts. On a percent basis, the mixture is:

Skim milk 100 x 0.27/3.4 = 7.9%

Standardized Milk 100 x 3.13/3.4 = 92.1%

2) Calculate the amount of skim and fresh milk required.

Weight standardized milk 92.1% of 100 hl = 92.10 hl.

Weight of O.1% skim milk 7.9% of 100 hl = 7.90 hl.

3) Check:

59
Weight of fat in standardized milk 3.50 kg/hl x 92.10 hl = 322.4 kg

Weight of fat in skim milk 0.10 kg/hl x 7.90 hl = 0.80 kg

Total fat 322.4 kg + 0.8 kg = 323.2 kg

Weight of protein 3.10 kg/hl x 100 hl = 310.0 kg.

Protein/fat ratio 310.0 kg/323.2 kg = 0.959

6.5. Addition of Cream

The natural PF of milk is higher in low fat milk. In practice, this means that when the milk
fat is less than 3.0%, it may be necessary to add fat to obtain PF = 0.96 and make a full fat
cheese with FDM = 50%. When the required FDM is less than 50%, it is unlikely that fat
would have to be added to the milk. The natural PF is also high in the fall and early winter
so fat may have to be added for full fat cheese at these times. Some cheese such as double
cream Blue or double cream Havarti may also require addition of fat. Given the fat content
of available cream, a Pearson's square can be used to calculate the amount of cream required
in a similar manner to the examples given above.

6.6. General Guidelines for Standardization

1. Determine the present composition of your cheese.
2. Determine the fat and protein content of milk accurately and daily.
3. Measure milk volume or weight accurately and keep accurate records.
4. If powder is being added, use only high quality, low temperature, antibiotic free
powder of known protein content. Low temperature powder is required to ensure that
excessive denaturation of whey proteins in the powder will not impair milk
coagulation and/or cause texture defects in the cheese. To ensure low temperature
powder, ask your supplier to certify a whey protein nitrogen index (WPI) greater than
6.0. Effects of heat treatment on coagulation and cheese quality are discussed in
Chapter 8.
5. Weigh accurately the weight of powder or skim milk added or the weight of cream to
be removed.
6. Determine the composition of the standardized cheese and if necessary adjust the
proportions of fat and protein in the cheese milk on succeeding days.
7. If bulk starter is being added reduce the amount of protein added by the amount of
protein in the culture.
8. The maximum recommended level of skim milk solids in cheese milk is 11%. Normal
milk contains about 9% skim solids so the maximum level of additional skim solids is
2%. If standardization requires more it is recommended to standardize by removing
fat or adding skim milk rather than by adding skim milk powder. Another alternative
is to add some powder and then complete standardization by removing cream or
adding skim milk.
9. Without sophisticated meters it is difficult to obtain exact standardization. Provided
you have a milk analyser, you can do a final check of milk composition after the milk

60
is in the vat and then fine tune the PF ratio by adding skim solids or cream as required.
10. It is not possible to predict the exact composition of the finished cheese. However,
when manufacturing conditions and milk composition are the same from day to day, it
is possible to predict the composition of cheese with greater accuracy and the
proportions of fat and protein in the cheese milk can then be fine-tuned accordingly. It
is, therefore, important to keep accurate records.
11. Be careful to use the correct units when calculating, weighing and metering.

61
Table 6.1. Some cheese varieties with some characteristics, composition and suggested ratio of protein/fat in standardized milk. Fat
and moisture levels for most varieties correspond to definitions given in Canadian regulations.

Cheese Target Composition Yield

Texture

Washing Salting Rind Fat

Moist FDMMNFS Prot/Fat % w/w

Alpina (Stella Alpina)

Semi-soft Maybe warm B or DS Smear 27 46 50 63 0.90 11.5
Asiago

Firm to hard

None B Dry 30 40 50 57.1 0.93 10.1
Baby Edam

Firm

Warm wash B None 21 47 39.6 59.5 1.56 8.7
Baby Gouda

Firm

Warm wash B None 26 45 47.3 60.8 1.15 9.7
Blue

Soft to semi-soft

None DC&DS Smear or
none
27 47 50.9 64.4 0.87 11.9

Bra

Firm to hard

None B or DS Dry 26 36 40.6 48.6 1.4 7.6
Brick

Semi-soft to firm

Usually warm DC or DS Smear or
none
29 42 50 59.2 1.04 9.7

Brie

Soft

No DS Mould 23 54 50 70.1 0.86 14
Butterkase (Butter)

Semi-soft

Maybe warm B Smear 27 46 50 63 0.90 11.5
Caciocavallo

Firm to hard

Hot Stretch B Dry 24 45 43.6 59.2 1.17 9.8
Camembert

Soft

None DS Mould 22 56 50 71.8 0.86 14.7
Canadian Muenster

Semi-soft

Maybe warm B or DS Smear 27 46 50 63 0.9 11.5
Cheddar

Firm

None DC None 31 39 50.8 56.5 0.91 10
Cheshire

Firm

None DC None 30 44 53.6 62.9 0.79 11.9
Colby

Firm

Cold wash DC None 29 42 50 59.2 1.03 9.7
Coulommiers

Soft

None DS Mould 22 56 50 71.8 0.85 14.8
Danbo

Firm, small eyes

None B,DS or
DC
Smear or
none
25 46 46.3 61.3 1.04 10.6

Edam

Firm

Warm wash B Dry or none 22 46 40.7 59 1.5 8.7
Elbo

Firm

None DS or B Dry or none 25 46 46.3 61.3 1.04 10.6
Emmentaler

Firm with eyes

None B Dry or none 27 40 45 54.8 1.13 9.1
Esrom

Semi-soft

Maybe warm DS or B Smear 23 50 46 64.9 1.04 11.5
Farmers

Firm

Cold wash DC None 27 44 48.2 60.3 1.11 9.7

62

Cheese Target Composition Yield

Texture

Washing Salting Rind Fat

Moist FDMMNFS Prot/Fat % w/w
Feta Soft None DS None 22 55 48.9 70.5 0.9 14
Fontina

Semi-soft to firm

Maybe warm DS or B Light smear 27 46 50 63 0.9 11.5
Fynbo

Firm, small eyes

? B or DC Dry 25 46 46.3 61.3 1.05 10.5
Gouda

Firm, small eyes

Yes B None 28 43 49.1 59.7 1.07 9.7
Guyere

Firm, eyes

No B&DS Light smear 28 38 45.2 52.8 1.14 8.7
Havarti

Semi-soft

Warm wash B or DS Smear or
none
23 50 46 64.9 1.19 10.5

Jack

Semi-soft

Cold wash DC None 25 50 50 66.7 1.02 11.4
Kasseri

Firm to hard

Hot stretch B Dry 25 44 44.6 58.7 1.13 9.8
Limburger

Soft to semi-soft

Maybe warm DS or B Heavy
smear
25 50 50 66.7 0.88 12.6

Maribo

Firm, small eyes

None B or DS Dry or none 26 43 45.6 58.1 1.09 9.8
Montasio

Firm

Usually warm DS or B Dry 28 40 46.7 55.6 1.19 8.7
Monterey

Firm

Cold wash DC None 28 44 50 61.1 1.04 10
Mozzarella (Italian)

Semi-soft to firm

Hot stretch B None 20 52 41.7 65 1.22 11.1
Mozzarella (Canadian)

Firm

Cold wash DC None 20 52 41.7 65 1.22 11.1
Muenster

Semi-soft

Maybe warm B or DS Light smear 25 50 50 66.7 0.88 12.6
Parmesan

Hard, grating

None B&DS Dry 22 32 32.4 41 2.02 6.1
Part Skim Mozz

Semi-soft to firm

Hot stretch B None 15 52 31.3 61.2 1.9 9.1
Part Skim Pizza

Semi-soft to firm

Pizza

Semi-soft to firm

Hot stretch B None 20 48 38.5 60 1.42 9.5
Provolone

Firm

Romano

Hard

None B&DS Dry or none 25 34 37.9 45.3 1.58 7
Samsoe

Firm, few eyes

None B&DS Dry or none 26 44 46.4 59.5 1.05 10.1
Tilsiter (Tilsit)

Firm

Usually warm B or DS Smear or
none
25 45 45.5 60 1.08 10.2

Tybo

Firm, few eyes

None B Dry or none 25 46 46.3 61.3 1.04 10.6

63

CONSTANTS, ASSUMPTIONS AND LEGEND
1. All cheese composition and yield values are in units of percent by weight--including both cheese and standardized milk. The calculations assume raw milk composition
of 3.9% w/w fat and 3.2% w/w protein with subsequent standardization to specified P/F ratios by removing cream.
2. Estimation of yield and protein/fat ratios are based on principles and yield equations described by D.B. Emmons, C.A. Ernstrom, C. Lacrois and P. Verret. J. Dairy
Science 73(1990):1365.
3. Whey solids in moisture was assumed to be 6.5% except for washed types when a value of 3.2% was used. For the purpose of yield calculations, pasta filata types (hot
stretch) were considered to be unwashed. 75% of cheese moisture was considered available as a solvent for whey solids.
4. Conversion factors: Proportion of fat transferred from milk to cheese was 0.93
Amount of casein + minerals transferred to cheese was casein x 1.018
Casein number was 76.5
Washing: 'warm' means washing at temperatures near normal cooking temperatures (32-40
o
C)
'cold' means wash water at temperature less than 20C is used to wash and cool the curd
'maybe warm' means that the cheese may or may not be washed with warm water
'hot stretch' means the cheese is heated and worked in hot water (70-80C) as in Pasta Filata types.
Salting: B = brine salted; DS = dry salted on cheese surface; DC = curd dry salted before hooping.
FDM = fat as percentage by weight of cheese solids; MNFS = moisture as percentage of non-fat substance in cheese.
Prot/Fat = ratio of protein to fat in standardized cheese milk.

64
7. CULTURES

7.1. General Functions of Cheese Cultures

Lactic acid bacteria and other microorganisms are present as contaminants in cheese milk
and further environmental contamination takes place during cheese manufacture. Provided
the milk is not chilled, it is possible to make cheese without any additional cultures, but
normal practice is to add domestic cultures for the manufacture of cheese from both raw and
pasteurized milk. Culture, then, refers to prepared inocula of bacteria, yeasts and moulds
which are added to cheese milk and cheese. In the broadest terms cultures have two purposes
in cheese making: (1) to develop acidity; and (2) to promote ripening. Lactic acid cultures
contribute to both of these functions, while numerous special or secondary cultures are added
to help with the second function.

Development of Acidity

Raw milk at warm temperature will support a variety of microorganisms in succession as the
pH changes over time (see illustration in Figure 7.1). In controlled conversion of milk to
fermented dairy products, a primary component of fermentation is development of acidity by
lactic acid bacteria. Acid development in cheese making is absolutely essential to cheese
flavour, cheese texture and cheese safety. Acid is required to:
Assist coagulation. Lower pH results in faster coagulation and in acid
coagulated cheese is the dominant or only factor which induces coagulation.
Promote syneresis. This is a most critical means to control moisture. Acidity
(specifically reduced pH) causes the protein matrix in the curd to contract and
squeeze out moisture. That process of contraction is called syneresis.
Prevent growth of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria. Proper rate and extent of
acid development is the most important principle with respect to quality and
safety of natural cheese. I would argue that with the exception of non cultured
cheese varieties such as ricotta, proper culture growth and acid development is
more important than pasteurization with respect to safety. Notice, I did not say
that pasteurization is not important!
Develop cheese texture, flavour and colour. Generally:
high pH produces soft, soapy, fruity and bitter cheese
low pH produces cheese with brittle texture and mottled colour

Assist curing

Growth factors produced by lactic cultures are required for other non starter
microorganisms which contribute to the desired flavour and body of cheese
Enzymes (both lipases and proteases) produced by lactic cultures contribute to
interior ripening of cheese and are important to both flavour and texture
development.
Special or secondary cultures are responsible for eye development, surface
ripening etc. See Section 7.5.

65
7.2. General Characteristics of Lactic Acid Cultures

Lactic acid cultures are often called starters or referred to by the acronym LAB which
stands for lactic acid bacteria. LAB are:
Non motile gram+ bacteria.
Non spore forming; therefore, not thermoduric
Catalase negative, so, simple tests for catalase activity can be used to identify
spoilage bacteria in lactic cultures.
Microaerophilic or facultative anaerobes, which means they tolerate only low
oxygen concentrations.
Not psychrotrophic, which means that cold storage depletes their numbers and
encourages the growth of spoilage bacteria as described in Chapter 4.
Cocci (spherical cells) 1 m in diameter OR rods (rod shaped cells) 1 m wide
and 2 to 3 m long.

7.3. Classification of Lactic Acid Cultures

Classification of lactic cultures is confusing because many LAB have been renamed. Table
7.1 lists the old and new Latin names for some common lactic cultures. It is helpful to
categorize lactic cultures according to general technological and growth characteristics. From
that perspective, cultures are grouped by four criteria, namely:
Principal metabolites (end products of fermentation)
Optimum growth temperatures: meso- versus thermophilic
Starter composition
Forms of inoculation

Principal metabolites: homo- versus heterofermentative

Homofermentative means that lactic acid is the principal metabolite with minimal production
of gas (CO
2
) and flavour compounds. Heterofermentative means that lactic acid is the
principal end product of fermentation, but technologically significant amounts of one or more
of the following metabolites are also produced.
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) which causes the small gas holes in Havarti, Gouda and other
cheeses. Gasiness in most cheese varieties is a defect.
Short chain fatty acids such as acetic acid and propionic
Acetaldehyde, a principal component of yoghurt flavour
Diacetyl, a principal flavour note in sour cream, butter milk, Dutch cheese and
Havarti cheese
Ethyl alcohol (only relevant to mixed cultures containing yeasts).

Optimum growth temperatures: meso- versus thermophilic

Mesophilic cultures prefer medium range temperatures, rather than cold temperatures
(psychrophilic) or hot temperatures (thermophilic).

66
Optimum growth range for mesophilic cultures is 30 - 35C.
Acid production is slow or absent at temperatures less than 20C.
Growth is inhibited at temperatures greater than 39C.
Generally any cheese which does not require high temperatures to dry the curd will
utilize mesophilic cultures. These include Cheddar, soft ripened cheese, most fresh
cheese, and most washed cheese.
Mesophilic cultures include both homo- and heterofermentative cultures (Table 7.1)

Thermophilic cultures are defined by their ability to grow at temperatures above 40C. With
respect to cheese making, their important characteristics are:
Optimum growth in the range of 3950C
Survive 55C or higher
Minimum growth temperature is about 20C. Cell counts decrease rapidly at colder
temperatures, so bulk thermophilic cultures should not be stored at temperatures less
than 20C.
Thermophilic starters are normally mixtures of cocci and rod cultures, which at the
time of inoculation are about equal in numbers. Rod/cocci blends grow together in a
relationship referred to as 'mutualism', where the growth rate and acid production of
the mixed cultures are faster than for either culture on its own. The rods produce
amino acids and peptides that stimulate the growth of cocci, and the cocci produce
formic acid that is required by the rods.
The balance between the rods and cocci can be controlled by temperature and pH
The cocci prefer higher temperatures (optimum about 46C) than the rods
(optimum about 39C).
The rods are more acid tolerant than the cocci. Normally the cocci develop the
initial acidity and out grow the rods. But, as the acidity increases the rods begin to
grow faster than the cocci.
Some thermophilic rod cultures have the ability to ferment galactose as well as
glucose which is desirable in some cheese, especially Mozzarella.
Although thermophilic cultures produce acetaldehyde, a principal component of the
yoghurt flavour, none of the thermophilic LAB are considered heterofermentative
(Table 7.1).

Starter composition

Pure defined cultures are single strain cultures selected from natural mixed
populations for specific properties such as proteolytic characteristics or resistance to
phage (bacterial viruses). Pure defined strain cultures:
May be rotated to avoid phage infection,
Have the advantages of uniform rate of acid development and uniform flavour
profiles, and
May be blended to form a defined mixture that is more resistant to phage, but
retains predictable rates of acid development and flavour profiles.
Mixed cultures are non specific blends of cultures, some what like a natural eco
system. Non specific culture blends normally have complex systems of phage

67
resistance. A disadvantage is less uniform rate of acid development from vat to vat.
Non specific blends of mesophilic starters are still common, but thermophilic starters
are usually defined cultures.

Forms of Inoculation

Cultures are typically prepared for cheese milk inoculation in one of three formats:
Traditional starters that need several scale up transfers. This system requires some
microbiological facilities and expertise and is only feasible for large plants or perhaps
for smaller plants that use non specific mixed cultures.
Bulk set culture. In this system, the culture supplier does all the purification and
transfer work, and delivers a bulk set culture that is used to inoculate a bulk culture,
which in turn is used to inoculate the cheese milk. Bulk cultures are the norm in
medium to large plants because the cost savings are significant.
Direct to the vat cultures require no scale up at the cheese plant. Concentrated
cultures ready to inoculate the cheese milk are supplied directly by the culture
supplier.

7. 4. Other technological properties of lactic acid cultures

In addition to properties mentioned above, the following list includes other technological
properties of importance to cheese making. Note that many of these technological
characteristics are encoded on extra-chromosomal genetic material called plasmids. Plasmids
have the disadvantage of being unstable, so characteristics encoded on plasmids are also
unstable. The advantage is that plasmids can be transferred to other bacteria so
microbiologists can use plasmids to transfer technological properties from one LAB to
another.
Lactose metabolism. Most but not all LAB are able to metabolize lactose.
Galactose metabolism. The ability to ferment lactose is important for late acid
development in Italian cheese and to control browning on mozzarella cheese.
Proteolytic characteristics which determine cheese flavour development.
Resistance to phage (bacterial viruses).
The ability to metabolize citrate which is associated with flavour development
(diacetyl or butter milk flavour) and gas formation.
Production of bacteriocins, that is, antibiotics produced by bacteria against
other bacteria.
Resistance to bacteriocins
Antibiotic resistance.

7.5. Secondary Cultures

In addition to lactic acid cultures, many special or secondary cultures are used to promote
specific ripening (both flavour and texture) characteristics.
Large holes: Propioni bacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii

68
White moulds: Penicillium camembertii, P. caseiocolum, and P. candidum
Blue/green moulds: Penicillium roqueforti, Penicillium glaucum
Smears:
yeasts and moulds
Various coryneform bacteria including Brevibacterium linens, several
species of micrococci, and several species of Staphylococci
Ripening adjuncts:
Bacterial or yeast cultures added in addition to the regular lactic acid
cultures
Attenuated cultures which are not intended to grow but only to contribute
their enzymes
Species of Lactobacilli and pediococci which are intended to grow
during cheese ripening and contribute enzymes

7.6. Culture Production, Distribution and Storage

Commercial culture preparation

Genetic techniques offer much opportunity to develop cultures with specific technological
characteristics. However, at the commercial level, culture preparation is relatively simple.
Lactic cultures are grown in buffered media to facilitate maximum growth
without acid inhibition
The cells are concentrated by centrifugation
The cell concentrate is fast frozen or freeze dried (lyophilized). Frozen
(-40C) or lyophilized cultures can be stored for several months without
substantial loss of activity. Lyophilized cultures usually require a longer lag
time, i.e. time after inoculation and before rapid cell growth.

Culture Practice in the Cheese Plant

Direct to the vat cultures need only to be delivered to the vat under aseptic conditions. The
following comments relate to the preparation of bulk culture at the cheese plant.
Culture preparation should take place in a separate culture room which is kept
at positive air pressure with hepa-filtered air (0.2 m filter).
All surfaces in the culture room must be of a material that can be sterilized.
Use sterile pipettes and sanitize surfaces and equipment with 200 ppm
chlorine.
Alternative culture media are:
Milk, but care must be taken to avoid rancid milk, mastitic milk, milk
containing antibiotics, and milk with high bacteria counts.
10 -12% reconstituted skim milk powder is adequate provided that the
powder is tested and certified antibiotic free.
Whey and reconstituted whey powder may be used, but may not achieve
the same cell counts as skim milk (due to less buffer capacity).
A number of commercially prepared culture media are available. Most of

69
these are based on milk protein powders.
Culture media may be buffered with phosphates to increase cell counts but
some cultures particularly Lactobacillus bulgaricus appear to be inhibited by
phosphates.
Addition of phosphates also confers phage resistance because phosphates bind
calcium, and phage require calcium to attach themselves to the bacterial cells.
Calcium reduced skim milk powder and addition of anhydrous ammonia have
also been used to inhibit phage in bulk cultures
Culture media should be heated (at >88C for 1 h) to destroy bacteria and some
inhibitory substances. Heating also reduces the redox potential (lowers oxygen
concentration) which encourages the growth of LAB.
Optimum pH endpoint before cooling is between 4.5 and 5.5, depending on the
acid tolerance of the culture. If the pH is too low, cell count will decrease
during storage.
Cell count can be increased by:
Internal pH control using buffered media
External pH control by adding sodium hydroxide or ammonium
hydroxide to maintain pH at 5.0 - 5.5.
Optimum storage temperatures are 4C and 20C for mesophilic and
thermophilic cultures, respectively. However, the optimum storage
temperature depends on the particular culture. Consult with the culture
supplier. Storage time should be as short as possible, but I am aware of plants
that successfully use a single bulk set culture for a week before making a new
batch.

7.7. Bacteriophage (bacterial viruses)

Like all viruses bacteriophage (hence forth abbreviated to phage) are parasites. That is, part
of their life cycle is dependent on the host bacteria. Here are a few facts about their
characteristics and how they can be controlled.
Extracellular phage called mature or resting particles are sperm shaped, < 1
micron in length, and consist entirely of DNA (genetic material) and protein.
The basic structure is a DNA core enclosed in a protein sheath.
The basic life cycle, called the lytic cycle, is:
The resting phage attaches itself to the bacterial cell wall by its tail, bores
a hole in the wall with the help of enzymes, and injects its DNA into the
cell. The protein sheath remains outside the cell.
From the moment of invasion the bacteria begins to reproduce phage
DNA and protein in addition to its own.
Nucleic acid and protein strands assemble themselves into new phage
particles that eventually lyse the cell (break it open) to release the phage
particles into the medium. A new generation of resting phage are now
available to repeat the lytic cycle
Sometimes infection occurs without lysis resulting in a lysogenic culture where
infected cells survive and reproduce infected daughter cells. Therefore, cheese

70
cultures can exist in one of three states with respect to phage sensitivity:
Insensitive due to inherent or acquired resistance.
Phage carrier (lysogenic). In this state the bacteria are resistant to another
phage infection
Phage sensitive in which case the phage will grow quickly and may
terminate the culture. Culture growth will stop when phage levels reach
10
3
to 10
7
per ml.
Phage have a short latent period (reproduce as quickly as every 30 to 50 min)
and a large burst size (each lysed cell will release 50 to 100 new phage).
Phage are quite strain specific, which is the reason for culture rotation. As
many as 10 different cultures may be rotated on a daily basis.
Culture failure due to phage can be recognized by normal acid development
initially followed by a decrease or termination of culture growth at a later
stage. This is different than inhibition due to antibiotics, which can be
recognized by no or slow initial growth; if inhibition is not severe, culture
growth and acid development by resistant strains or mutants may increase with
time.

Summary of phage control measures

Use aseptic techniques with proper culture room.
Rotate cultures daily and/or use defined phage resistant strains.
Use phage resistant media for culture preparation.
Use direct-to-vat culture to avoid contamination during transfers.
Use a mixed strain culture of two closely related strains.
Remove and dispose of whey daily
Routinely check for presence of phage using a culture activity test with the
culture currently in use and some whey from the most recent vat

71

Table 7.1. Some lactic acid bacteria commonly used in cheese making.

Old Name

New Name Comments

MESOPHILIC CULTURES

Streptococcus
cremoris
Streptococcus
lactis

Lactococcus lactis
ssp cremoris
Lactococcus lactis
ssp lactis
As a mixed blend these two form the most
common mesophilic and homofermentative
culture.
Used for many low temperature varieties; fresh
cheese, Cheddar, American varieties etc.

Leuconostoc
citrovorum

Leuconostoc
lactis

Leuconostoc
mesenteroides spp
cremoris
Leuconostoc lactis
Hetero cultures; ferment citrate; produce both
CO
2
and diacetyl
Often mixed with L. lactis ssp cremoris / lactis
for traditional butter and butter milk
May be used for cheese with small holes

Streptococcus
diacetylactis

Lactococcus lactis
ssp lactis biovar
diacetylactis
Hetero culture; ferments citrate; produces both
CO
2
and diacetyl
Mixed with homofermentative lactococci for
cheese with small holes

THERMOPHILIC CULTURES

Streptococcus
thermophilus

Lactobacillus
helveticus

Streptococcus
thermophilus
Lactobacillus
helveticus
Commonly used coccus/rod blend for high
temperature varieties, Swiss and Italian
L. helveticus galactose +ve, used to reduce
browning in Moz, and to promote proteolysis in
Cheddar

Lactobacillus
bulgaricus

Lactobacillus
delbrueckii ssp
bulgaricus
Commonly blended with S. salivarius. ssp
thermophilus for yoghurt
Alternative to L. helveticus in high temperature
cheese

Lactobacillus
lactis

Lactobacillus
delbrueckii ssp
lactis
Alternative to L. helveticus and L. bulgaricus
where low acid is preferred as in mild and
probiotic yoghurts

72

Figure 1. Natural fermentation of raw milk: A to B. At the natural pH of milk (6.6 6.8)
and temperatures greater than 20C, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) rapidly ferment milk sugar
(lactose) to lactic acid. Most other bacteria are lactose intolerant. Lactic acid lowers the pH
and inhibits most bacteria, eventually including LAB. B to C. Then, acid tolerant yeasts and
moulds begin to grow and utilize lactic acid, which permits further growth of LAB. This
synergistic relationship continues until all the lactose is gone. C to D. Yeast and moulds are
eventually joined by proteolytic bacteria. Together they consume lactic acid or neutralize it
with protein break down products. The shaded zones indicate very generalized pH tolerance
of pathogenic bacteria. Most pathogenic bacteria will grow at pH 5.6 7.0 (light shading);
some will grow at pH less than 5.6 (medium shading); and, some may survive but few will
grow at pH less than 4.6 (dark shading). Note that in general terms all ripened cheese
follows this pattern of pH versus time, except that for most predominantly rennet coagulated
varieties the minimum pH is greater than 5.0.

4.2
4.6
5
5.4
5.8
6.2
6.6
7
0 1 2 3 4 5
Days
p
H
A
B
C
D
Lactic
bacteria
Yeasts and
moulds
Proteolytic
bacteria

73
8. COAGULATION

8.1. Milk Structure

Chapter 4 provided an introduction to milk chemistry. Now we look briefly at milk physics
to help understand how milk coagulation works. Refer to Figure 8.1 and review the following
elements of milk structure.
Milk is an emulsion with fat particles (globules) dispersed in an aqueous (watery)
environment.
The fat globules do not coalesce and form a separate layer (oil off or churn)
because they are protected by a membrane layer which keeps the fat particles
separate from the water phase.
The principal group of milk proteins, the caseins, are not soluble in water and
exist in milk as small particles (<300 nM) called micelles.

We can now define the following terms:

Milk is a dispersion of fat globules (fat particles) and casein micelles (protein particles) in a
continuous phase of water, sugar (lactose), whey proteins, and minerals.

Milk Plasma is what is left after you separate the fat globules and, for most practical
purposes, is equivalent to skim milk.

Milk Serum is what is left after you take away both fat globules and casein micelles and, for
most practical purposes, is equivalent to cheese whey.

Milk permeate is what is left after you take away fat globules, casein micelles, and whey
proteins.

Coagulation is what happens when the casein micelles stick together (aggregate). Because
casein particles are hydrophobic (they do not associate with water) their natural tendency is
to aggregate (clump together). In normal milk, aggregation is prevented by two factors. If
one of these factors is eliminated the micelles will aggregate and form a gel something like
Jello.

(1) The first stabilizing factor is a hairy layer of surface active protein, called kappa-
casein (-casein), on the surface of the micelle. This layer helps prevent the micelles
from getting close enough to stick together.

(2) The second factor is a negative charge on the micelles. At the pH of milk the micelles
are negatively charged so they repel each other.

Based on these properties, there are two ways to coagulate milk. One is to remove the hairy
layer from the micelles. Thats called enzymatic coagulation. The second is to neutralize the
negative charge on the micelle. That can be accomplished by acidification using cultures to

74
ferment lactose to lactic acid, or by direct acidification with organic acids such as lactic,
citric or acetic. A variation on acid coagulation is to add acid to hot milk and/or whey as in
the manufacture of Ricotta cheese.

8.2. Enzymatic Coagulation of Milk

In enzymatic coagulation, the primary milk protein, casein, is coagulated by the enzyme,
rennet. Acid production by lactic cultures encourages coagulation and has important effects
on the final cheese texture, but the primary coagulating agent (coagulant) is rennet. In
physical-chemical terms enzymatic coagulation involves three stages as follows.

The three stages of enzymatic coagulation

(1) Primary Stage
In the first stage, the enzyme (rennet) cuts off a specific fragment of one of the caseins,
namely, -casein. At the natural pH of milk, more than 80% of -casein must be
cleaved to permit aggregation of the micelles to proceed. Note: is the Greek letter
kappa.

(2) Secondary Stage
The next stage is the physical process of aggregation of casein particles (micelles) to
form a gel. After losing its water soluble tail, -casein can no longer keep the casein
particles separated, so they begin to form chains and clusters. The clusters continue to
grow until they form a continuous, three dimensional network which traps water inside,
and forms a gel, something like Jello.

(3) The third stage refers to an ongoing development of the gel network. For some cheese
the gel is cut as soon as it is firm enough to do so. For others, like some soft ripened
varieties, cutting is delayed while the gel continues to become firmer.

Effects of processing parameters on enzymatic coagulation

Because rennet coagulation takes place in stages, it is necessary to understand the effect of
processing on each stage. We will focus mainly on the first and second stages.

Effects of pH. Lower pH increases enzyme activity and neutralizes charge repulsion between
micelles. Therefore, both primary and secondary stages of coagulation proceed more quickly
at lower pH.

Effect of Calcium. Calcium is not required for the primary stage (i.e., enzyme hydrolysis of
-casein) but is essential to aggregation of the casein micelles. At low levels of calcium the
primary phase goes to completion. Subsequently, instantaneous coagulation can be induced
by adding sufficient calcium chloride.

Effect of temperature. The optimum coagulation temperature for most cheese is 30-32C, the

75
exception is Swiss which is set at 37C. At temperature less than 30C the gel is weak and
difficult to cut without excessive yield loss due to fines. At temperatures less than 20C
coagulation does not occur, but the primary stage goes to completion and the milk will then
coagulate quickly when warmed.

Effects of heat treatments. Mild heat treatment such as pasteurization decreases the rate of
the secondary stage. During heat treatment calcium and phosphate move from soluble to
colloidal (insoluble) form, so there is less calcium available to assist with coagulation. This
effect is reversed by cold storage or the addition of calcium chloride. Heat treatment in
excess of pasteurization results in increased clotting time and a weak gel. High heat
treatments cause absorption of whey proteins onto the casein particles. The casein particles
are then unable to form a strong gel.

Effects of Homogenization. The following effects occur if the cheese milk is homogenized in
its entirety. As noted in Chapter 5, some of these results may be different if only the cream is
homogenized and then added back to the skim milk. Homogenization primarily affects the
secondary phase of aggregation. Some cheese quality effects are also noted.
Reduced aggregation of casein particles
Decreased syneresis
Finer gel network due to smaller fat globules
Improved texture of soft cheese
Fat recovery (i.e., percent transfer from milk to cheese) is increased. Note that
homogenization also increases fat recovery in acid and heat/acid coagulated
cheese.
Hard cheese becomes rubbery
The cheese is whiter because the yellow fat is masked by the artificial protein
membranes on the homogenized fat globules.

Coagulating Enzymes

The traditional enzyme is rennet (chymosin) which is derived from the abomasum of the milk
fed calf. The practice of cheese making probably began when somebody discovered that
milk stored in bags made from calf stomachs formed a sweet curd.

Other proteases that have been used for cheese making include:
Pepsins from the pig, cow and chicken
Microbial proteases (Mucor miehi, Mucor pusillus, and Endothia parasitica).
Synthetic chymosins by recombinant DNA techniques using strains of Eshericia
coli or Klaveromyces lactis or Aspergillus niger as host organisms are now
available. The transferred genetic material exists in the host cell in the form of a
plasmid and is used as a template for the production of an enzyme identical to
chymosin.

Requirements of suitable coagulating enzymes

76
(1) Suitable ratio of clotting to proteolytic activity (C/P). This ratio is dependent on the
specificity of the enzyme for the Phe
105
-Met
106
bond of -casein. Most rennet
substitutes are more proteolytic than rennet (i.e., low C/P) and cause diminished yields
of casein and fat, and bitterness during ripening

(2) Proteolytic specificity. Structure and flavour of ripened cheese depends on the type of
proteolysis caused by the coagulant during cheese curing. The exception is in cheese
such as cooked Swiss and Italian varieties where most of the rennet activity is
destroyed by the high cooking temperature. During ripening chymosin breaks down
s1-
casein much more than other caseins. This important, for example, for Cheddar flavour
development.

(3) High pH optimum. Rennet activity is stable and able to coagulate milk at the normal
pH of milk, although its activity increases with decreasing pH. Most pepsins and
microbial proteases are denatured at the pH of milk. This has been a major difficulty in
developing rennet substitutes.

(4) Denaturation temperature is important for two reasons:
Ripening due to coagulating enzymes is not desirable in cooked cheese such as
Swiss and Italian types. Rennet is eliminated during the high temperature cook in
these cheeses, but microbial coagulants are not.
The coagulant must be eliminated by pasteurization to prevent proteolysis in
products made from whey. Some microbial rennet substitutes survive
pasteurization.

(5) Distribution between curd and whey. The most important factors which determine
rennet retention and activity in the cheese are:
Cooking treatments.
As noted above, rennet does not survive in high temperature cooked cheese
varieties.
In low cooked cheese such as Cheddar, variations in cooking temperature and
time influence rennet activity during aging.
The pH at draining. Rennet is less soluble at low pH and, therefore, the amount of
rennet activity retained in the curd increases with decreasing pH at draining and also
with extended ripening and setting times. Retention of microbial rennet substitutes in
the curd is independent of pH at draining.
Changing rennet sources may also influence rennet retention and cheese ripening.
Different rennets with the same coagulating properties may have different thermal
tolerances and different proteolytic characteristics.

(6) Standard and consistent activity. Single strength rennet is standardized so that 200 ml
coagulates 1,000 kg of milk in 30 - 40 min. Typical commercial rennet preparations are
about 50% chymosin (calf rennet) and 50% bovine pepsin, so there is much opportunity
for variation. Commercial calf rennet preparations are about 94-96% chymosin. Using
recombinant rennet it should be possible to produce commercial rennet preparations that

77
are more consistent with respect to all of the properties listed above, including proteolytic
specificity and heat tolerance.

8.3. Acid coagulation

The second type of coagulation is acid induced coagulation of casein, where the acid is
produced by natural fermentation or sometimes by the slow release acidulating agent,
glucono-delta-lactone. GDL is slowly hydrolysed to gluconic acid in the presence of water.
Fresh cheeses are acid coagulated in the temperature range of 20 - 35C. In this temperature
range, a pH of less than 4.9 is required to form the coagulum. Some fresh cheeses are
fermented to pH as low as 4.3. In addition to fresh cheese such as cottage cheese, bakers
cheese and quark, acid coagulation is also used to produce other fermented milk products
such as yoghurt, commercial butter milk, kefir etc. In the case of cottage cheese and quark a
small amount of enzymatic coagulant such as chymosin may be used (2 ml/1,000 L) to make
the curd more elastic and less subject to breakage (dusting) during cutting and subsequent
handling.

8.4. Heat-Acid coagulation

The third type of coagulation, like the second, is primarily acid induced, but no fermentation
is involved and the acid is added to hot milk at temperatures in the range of 75 - 100C. This
process has the unique properties that:
The heat treatment denatures the whey proteins, which can then be coagulated along
with the casein and recovered in the cheese. This is a substantial yield advantage.
Protein recovery in the cheese increases from about 78% to greater than 90%.
The recovered whey proteins have a great capacity to bind water so that a high
moisture but firm cheese can be produced. This is another yield advantage.
Acid coagulation at high temperatures requires less acidification, so the final cheese
is much less acid with pH in the range of 5.2 to 6.0 rather than the range 4.4 - 4.8
required for the Family 1 varieties.
The inclusion of whey proteins prevents cheese melting, so this process can be used
to produce frying/cooking cheese such as ricotta, Paneer and some varieties of Latin
American origin.

The basic process for heat-acid coagulation is:
Heat milk or milk-whey blends to at least 80C for at least five minutes to completely
denature (unfold) the whey proteins and encourage association of whey proteins with
casein micelles.
Continue heating and acidify slowly with gentle agitation. The caseins and whey
proteins will coagulate together and form either sinking or floating curds.

78

Figure 8.1. Structural elements of milk. After Walstra and Jenness, 1984. Dairy Chemistry
and Physics, Wiley & Sons, N.Y.
Milk
5X
Plasma
500X
fat
globules
0.1 - 10
microns
fat
globules
casein
micelles
10-300nM
Serum
50,000X

79
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)
C
o
n
s
i
s
t
e
n
c
y

(
C
p
)
Time of
minimum
Consistency
(8 min)
Coagulation
Time
16 min
Slope = rate of firming
Curd strength
at 60 min
Cutting
Time
32 min
Rennet added
at time zero

Figure 8.2. General relationship between consistency and time during rennet coagulation. Cutting
time means the point where gel consistency is optimum for most cheeses.

RNA
Code
For
Chymosin
Fermen-
tation
Bacteria,
Yeast or
Mould cell
Extraction
Calf
Stomach
Calf Cell
Extraction
Prochymsin
Activation
Chymosin
Extraction involves salting out or ultrafiltration.
Standardization is done after prochymosin is activated.
Strength of both chymosin and fermentation produced
chymosin can measured by International Dairy Federation
Standard (IDF) 157A (1997).

Figure 8.3. Manufacture of chymosin (calf rennet) and fermentation produced recombinant
chymosin.

80
9. CHEESE MAKING STEP BY STEP

This chapter describes the principal steps involved in cheese manufacture. Tables 9.1 and 9.2
are sample process (make) and quality sheets.

9.1. Ripening the Milk

This term is a little confusing because it is also used to describe the ripening or aging of
cheese. Here, ripening refers to the practice of giving the culture time to begin acid
production before the rennet is added. This is done for two reasons:
To ensure the culture is active before the milk is renneted. It is impossible to
inoculate after the milk is set. Normally, 45 - 60 min is sufficient to decrease pH by
0.01 units or increase TA by 0.005 - 0.01%
Development of acidity aids the coagulation process, especially the secondary stage.

In some varieties such as brine brick and Swiss, low amounts of culture are used and
renneting proceeds with little or no prior ripening

9.2. Setting the Vat

Handling Rennet
Repeatable performance depends on accurate measurement. For most varieties the
quantity of rennet is selected to set the milk to a firm coagulum in 30 - 40 min.
Measure the rennet accurately and monitor to ensure that coagulation rate is uniform
from day to day.
Rennet must be diluted (about 20 times) in water and well mixed when added to
ensure uniform distribution.
Use nearly the same dilution each time to improve the consistency when adding the
diluted rennet to the vat.
Watch out for chlorine. It is imperative that the dilution water contains no chlorine.
Only 2 ppm of chlorine will destroy 40% of rennet activity in 3 minutes. Similarly, do
not sanitize the container used for the rennet with chlorine.
Another water quality issue is pH. Typically if the water is hard, it also has pH
greater than 7.0, which also decreases rennet activity.
Finally, dilute immediately before adding the rennet to the vat. After the brined
rennet is diluted in water, its activity declines quickly.

Optimizing setting parameters

Milk preparation was discussed in Chapter 5. Here are the principal considerations:
Pasteurization temperature: higher temperatures increase yield by increased
recovery of whey proteins, but a suggested maximum with respect to curd quality
is 75C, 16 s.
Temperature history: if the milk is pasteurized and immediately sent to the setting
vat, it will be necessary to adjust the mineral balance by adding calcium chloride.

81
The jury on selection of coagulant always seems to be out. I tentatively suggest that
microbial coagulants are not advisable for high temperature varieties unless the
supplier certifies that the heat treatment in the cheese making process is sufficient to
deactivate the enzymes. For other varieties the caution is to ensure that yield and
flavour development are not compromised. Given the decreasing availability of calf
rennet (the technical name for calf rennet is chymosin), recombinant rennet is the
preferred enzyme provided that customers are not spooked by the genetic technology.
The amount of rennet must be carefully determined. Because rennet is costly, it is
desirable to minimize its use, but this can be false economy if curd properties or
cheese quality are compromised. Poor setting means increased losses of both fat and
protein as fines. And, dont forget that the coagulant is also a ripening agent.
Temperature control must be accurate and uniform through out the vat because both
the enzyme activity and the subsequent process of micelle aggregation are extremely
temperature sensitive. Inaccurate or non uniform temperature during setting will
result in local areas of under or over set curd, which in turn cause loss of fines during
cutting.
Soft curd results from:
Over heat treatment
Low setting temperature
Homogenization
Colostrum or mastitic milk
Firm curd results from:
High calcium
Low pH
Standardisation to high protein content.

9.3. Cutting the Curd

Proper cutting is important to both quality and yield. Improper cutting and handling the curd
results in the loss of fines; that is, small curd particles which are not recovered in the cheese.
Unlike whey fat, fat trapped in fines is not recovered by whey cream separation. Therefore,
both fat and protein losses occur when shattered curd results in fines too small to be
recovered in the cheese.

Determination of curd cutting time

Both early cutting when the curd is fragile and late cutting when the curd is brittle cause
losses of fines. Several means are used to determine cutting time.
Manual testing. The curd is ready to cut if it breaks cleanly when a flat blade
is inserted at a 45 angle to the surface and then raised slowly.
Several mechanical devices based on oscillating viscometry, thermal
conductance and sonication have been tested experimentally and some are
used in commercial practice.
Some plants cut by the clock. This may be OK as long as all conditions are
uniform from day to day (is that ever true?) and adjustments are made for any

82
change in milk composition or properties.
If setting temperature is high as for some Swiss recipes, the curd firms rapidly
and cutting must begin early when curd is still somewhat soft to prevent over
setting. Agitation should begin immediately to prevent matting.

Curd size

Curd size has a great influence on moisture retention.
High temperature and low moisture varieties such as Italian hard cheese
require the smallest curd. Cutting continues until the curd is the size of rice
grains.
Medium moisture cheeses like most washed varieties and Cheddar are cut to
cm cubes.
High moisture varieties like soft ripened cheese are cut with 2 cm knives or
the curd is simply broken sufficiently to be dipped into forms.

Small curd size will result in greater fat and NFS recovery because large curds tend to get
crushed resulting in the loss of 'fines'. Smaller curds will also dry out faster and, therefore,
other factors such as cooking temperature and stirring out may have to be adjusted according
to curd size.

Manual cutting

Manual cutting is done with cutting harps, made by stretching stainless steel or nylon wire
over a stainless steel frame. Total cutting time should not exceed 10 minutes (preferably less
than 5 minutes) because the curd is continually changing (becoming overset) during cutting.
The knives should be pulled quickly through the curd so they cut the curd cleanly, rather
than push it around the vat.

Automated cutting

With mechanical knives, the curd size is determined by the design of the vat and agitators,
the speed of cutting (rpm) and the duration of cutting. In Double 'O' vats for Cheddar and
American varieties, cutting is normally at a speed of about 4 rpm for 7 - 13 minutes,
corresponding to a total of 30 to 50 revolutions. It is important that the knives are sharp, so
they cut the curd cleanly rather than partially mashing the curd or missing some pieces
altogether.

There is evidence (Johnston et al 1991, J. Dairy Res. 58:345) that curd particle size at
draining in mechanized Cheddar cheese is influenced by cutting time, cutting speed, and
subsequent agitation such that:
Short cutting times and low rpm result in small particle size at draining and
larger losses of fines.
With increasing cutting time (more total revolutions), curd particle size at
draining reaches a maximum which corresponds to a maximum in fat

83
recovery.
Further increased cutting time causes decreased curd size at draining with
little effect on fat recovery.

Healing

The exterior of the freshly cut curd is fragile, so some time is needed for the edges to close
up (heal) and prevent the loss of fat and protein in the whey. Fresh cut curd also has a
tendency to aggregate, which is undesirable. So, agitation after cutting should be minimal to
give the curd some time to heal, but sufficient to prevent the curd from matting.

An index of cutting quality

The loss of fines is best monitored by accurate analysis of whey fat content. Whey fat for
cheese with 50% FDM should be <0.3%. Efficient operations may achieve levels near 0.2%.

9.4 Cooking

The combination of heat and the developing acidity (decreasing pH) causes syneresis with
resulting expulsion of moisture, lactose, acid, soluble minerals and salts, and whey proteins.
It is important to follow the cooking schedule, closely. Cooking too quickly causes the curd
to shatter more easily and forms a tough exterior on the curd particles which prevents
moisture release and hinders development of a smooth texture during pressing

9.5. Draining

Most cheese is drained in the range of whey pH 6.1-6.4 (curd pH 6.0 - 6.3). Draining time
should be uniform at about 20 min to prevent variation from vat to vat. Cheddar types may
be stirred out 1 to 3 times as required to obtain required curd moisture.

9.6. Washing

Lactose content can be adjusted by moisture removal (syneresis), fermentation, or leaching
with water (washing). Washing to remove lactose makes it possible to make a high moisture
cheese and still achieve a final pH of about 5.0 - 5.2. Most varieties with final moisture
higher than 40% and minimum pH greater than 5.0 are washed. Temperature of the wash
water will determine the moisture content of the curd. Sometimes relatively hot water (e.g.,
Gouda) is used to dry the curd and develop its texture.

Traditionally, washing was accomplished by removing 50 to 65% of the whey, replacing it
with water and agitating for about 15 min. This process results in the dilution of large
amounts of whey that must be concentrated or dumped. It also creates problems where curd
tables have less capacity than setting vats. The solution is to remove more whey before
washing and reduce the amount of wash water.

84
9.7. Curd Handling

Most brine or surface salted varieties are dipped directly into the forms or pressed under the
whey. In the absence of salt, the curd forms a smooth structure, which depending on other
factors, may retain mechanical openings. Mechanical openings result when whey trapped
inside the curd at draining is absorbed into the cheese and possibly expelled through the
exterior of the cheese. The hoops are turned at regular intervals to promote uniform
drainage, symmetrical shape, and a smooth finish.

Some varieties such as Gouda and Swiss are pressed under the warm whey before draining.
This prevents mechanical openings and helps develop smooth elastic texture, which is ideal
for eye formation.

For Cheddar and Pasta Filata varieties the curd is kept warm in the vat or drain table and
allowed to ferment to pH 5.2 -5.4. Pasta Filata varieties are then worked and stretched in hot
water before brine salting, while Cheddar is salted in the vat before forming.

9.8. Pressing

Pressing varies from little or none for soft cheese up to 172 kPa for firm or hard cheeses,
such as Cheddar. Warmer the curd requires less pressure. Mechanical openings may be
reduced by vacuum treatment before, during or after pressing

9.9. Salting

Almost all cheese is salted by one of three methods: before pressing as in Cheddar and
American varieties, surface salting after pressing, or brine salting.

Purposes of Salting

Promote further syneresis
Slow acid development
Check spoilage bacteria. Lactics are more salt tolerant than pathogens and
spoilage bacteria.
Promote controlled ripening and flavour development.
Salty flavour

Brine salting

Concentration 16 - 25% NaCl
Time: a few hours for small cheese (< 1 kg), up to several days or weeks for
large cheese.
New brine should be treated with about 0.1% of CaCl
2
to prevent conversion
of calcium and hydrogen caseinate to sodium caseinate. The latter has high
water holding capacity, so the cheese takes up water from the brine and the

85
cheese surface becomes soft and slimy.
Brine pH should be adjusted to the pH of the cheese. Normally a pH of 5.2 -
5.6 is adequate.
If the pH is too high, ion exchange causing sodium caseinate is encouraged.
If the pH is too low, there is insufficient Ca/Na exchange and the cheese
surface becomes hard.
Brine must be cleaned regularly by filtration, preferably microfiltered. UV
sterilization combined with filtration is also used.
Brine must be continuously agitated to prevent density fractionation (lower
concentration brine on top) and dilution of the brine around the cheese.
If cheese is floated rather than immersed in the brine, the exposed surface of
the cheese should be dry salted.

Vat salting

For vat salted cheese, uniform salt content depends on accurate estimate of the
weight of unsalted curd, accurate weighing of salt, and consistent processing
conditions.
Salt uptake is:
Increased by increased acidity (lower pH) at salting.
Decreased by increased time between milling and salting due to healing of
the cut surfaces on the curd particles.
Increased by increased curd moisture content.
Decreased for larger curds.
For Cheddar and American varieties the salt content as a percent of moisture
(SM) should be greater than 3.6%.

86
Table 9.1. RECORD OF MANUFACTURE

MAKER CHEESE VAT # DATE

Milk kg _______
Skim kg _______
Powder kg _______
Starter kg _______
TOTAL kg _______
FRESH MILK
Fat _______
Protein _______
STANDARDIZED
Fat _______
Protein _______
STARTER TA _______
pH _______
Age _______
Media ______
Phage _______

OPERATION

TIME

TEMP TA pH Curd
pH
COMMENTS
Standardization

P/F =
Heat treat

Pasteurization

Add Primary
Starters

Type Amount
Add Secondary
Starters

Type Amount
Additives

Type Amount
Added rennet

Type Amount
Coagulation

Coagulation Time
Start cutting

Time from Inoculation to cutting
Finish cutting

Steam On

Steam Off

Draining

Time from Cutting to draining
Washing

Temperature Amount
Draining

Milling

Time from Draining to milling
Working

Salting

Curd weight Amount of salt
Hooping

Hooped yield
Pressing

Pressed yield
Packaging

87
Table 9.2. RECORD OF QUALITY CONTROL

Maker

Cheese Vat #

Date

CHEESE
COMPOSITION %

Fat __________

Moisture __________

Protein __________

Salt __________

Calcium __________

FDM __________

MNFS __________

S/M __________

YIELD

Expected yield %

Actual yield __ %

Yield efficiency ________%

Fat Recovery

Milk fat _ kg

Cheese fat _ kg

Recovery %

Whey fat %

pH PROFILE

Cutting __________

Draining __________

Milling __________

Salting __________

1 day __________

7-14 days __________

3 months __________

6 months __________

1 year __________

MILK QUALITY

Protein/fat __________

Casein/protein __________

Somatic cells __________

Total counts __________

Antibiotics __________

Flavour __________
CHEESE QUALITY Date __________

Presumptive coliforms __________

E. coli __________

Presumptive staphylococci __________

S. aureus __________

Yeast and moulds __________

Salmonella __________

GRADING Grader __________________
Date / Cheese age
Texture
Score
Flavour
Score
Total
Score
Comments

Comments:

88
10. RIPENING AND PACKAGING

10.1. Ripening processes: chemical and physical changes

Cheese ripening is basically about the breakdown of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates (acids
and sugars), a complex process that releases flavour compounds and modifies cheese texture.
The biochemical and biophysical processes involved have only partly been elucidated. Here
we include only a few practical principles of ripening.

General Principles
Ripening varies from nil for fresh cheese to 5 years or more for some hard ripened
cheese. Like a good wine, a good aged cheese should get better and better with
age.
Ripening processes are broadly classified as interior and surface ripened.
Varieties that depend mainly on interior ripening, such as Cheddar and
Italian types, may be ripened with rind formation or may be film wrapped
before curing. Having said that, I hasten to add, that traditional Italian types
are always rind ripened. Traditional cloth bound Cheddar is also once again
available. American varieties are the only ripened cheeses that (in my view)
are best ripened in film.
Cheese which depend mainly on surface ripening include smear ripened and
mould ripened
In the broadest terms there are three sources of cheese flavour:
Flavours present in the original cheese milk, such as natural butter fat
flavour and feed flavour.
Breakdown products of milk proteins, fats and sugars that are released by
microbial enzymes, enzymes endogenous to milk, and enzyme additives.
Metabolites (various chemicals) produced by starter bacteria and other
microorganisms.
Flavour and texture development are strongly dependent on:
pH profile
Composition
Salting
Temperature
Humidity
EXPERIENCE.
As a general rule factors which increase the rate of ripening increase the risk of
off flavour development, and reduce the period of time when the cheese is
saleable.

Protein Breakdown (Proteolysis)

Natural degradation of protein is called 'putrefaction' and results in 'rotten potato' type
odours, especially if high quality proteins such as animal proteins are involved. Thats
because animal proteins contain the nutritionally essential sulphur amino acids. These

89
putrefactive components are also the stuff of which good flavours are made. Protein
degradation during cheese curing is a directed process resulting in protein fragments with
desirable flavours.
Some off flavours associated with undesirable or excessive protein breakdown in
cheese are bitter, stringent, putrid and brothy.
Protein breakdown causes shorter body that is less rubbery, less elastic and more
meltable. For example, flavour and texture development in Cheddar are mainly
dependent on protein breakdown and much less dependent on fat breakdown.
Protein breakdown involves three general types of processes:
Proteases break proteins into smaller peptides, some of which are flavour
compounds. For example, bitter and brothy flavoured peptides are well
known to occur in cheese.
Peptidases further break down peptides to amino acids.
Further catabolism of amino acids by cheese microorganisms produces
aldehydes, alcohols, carboxylic acids and sulphur compounds, many of
which are flavourful.
Many aged cheeses contain crystals of calcium salts of tyrosine. Tyrosine is an
amino acid resulting from protein breakdown. The crystals may be quite large (up
to 2 mm) and are easily detected on the pallet.

Fat Breakdown (Lipolysis)

Dairy fat is a rich source of flavours, because it contains an extremely diverse selection of
fatty acids. In particular, butter fat is the only natural fat which is rich in short chain fatty
acids. Butyric acid for example is a potent flavour compound. As with all potent flavours,
the trick is to deliver just the right amounts in balance with other flavours. Here are a few
principles:
Dairy fat without any ripening during cheese making is an important contributor
to cheese flavour and texture:
Fresh dairy fat has the well known buttery flavour associated with low
levels of free fatty acids.
Fat may also act as a flavour reservoir, which, for example, may modify the
perception of flavours associated with fat soluble protein fragments.
Finally, fat is an important component of cheese softening and melting.
The fat derived flavours associated with cheese ripening result from the release of
fatty acids by lipolysis and further modification of fatty acids by microorganisms
to other compounds.
Varieties traditionally made from goat milk have higher levels of lipolysis.
Blue moulds are generally quite lipolytic.

Lactose

Milk contains no starch or fibre or any sugar other than lactose, so all carbohydrate
compounds in cheese are derived from lactose or produced by microorganisms. Relative to
fat and protein, lactose contributions to flavour are minimal. Here are several principles:

90
At Day 1 following cheese manufacture most of the milk sugar has been removed
in the whey or converted to lactic acid by the cultures.
Residual lactose depends on the type of cheese and other factors. For examples:
High salt in the moisture phase of Cheddar slows lactose metabolism so
lactose content is 0.3 to 0.7% at one day after manufacture and slowly
declines to less than 0.1% during curing.
Residual lactose in Camembert cheese is used by Penicillium camemberti,
so it decreases quickly, especially on the surface, when the mould begins to
grow.
In well drained cheese such as Swiss types, lactose is completely used up in
a few hours.
In washed cheese varieties, lactose not leached by washing is quickly used
up by the culture, especially for brine salted cheese where salting is delayed.
In American varieties, early vat salting reduces the rate of utilization of
residual lactose.
Many organisms, including yeasts and moulds in mould and smear ripened
cheeses utilize lactic acid and produce various flavourful compounds.
Calcium salts of lactic acid may form white precipitates on the surface of aged
cheese.

10.2. Principal Ripening Agents

Milk Enzymes

Plasmin: A milk protease which survives pasteurization and break down caseins
during cheese ripening.
Particularly important in Swiss type cheese.
Inhibited by Beta-lactoglobulin, so it has minimal activity in cheese made
from ultrafiltered milk.
Lipoprotein lipase is the principal milk lipase
Inactivated by low heat treatment but, is important to flavour development
in raw milk cheese.

Milk Coagulant

Each milk coagulant has its own proteolytic profile (see section on coagulants).
Purified extracts produce more consistent flavours but lack character.
For aged cheese no enzyme other than calf rennet and recombinant calf rennet has
proven fully acceptable.
Rennet and recombinant rennet actively break down alpha-casein, but do not
break down beta-casein in cheese.

Lactic Cultures

During the early days and weeks of ripening, LAB numbers decrease while the

91
numbers of nonstarter bacteria decrease. For example, in Cheddar cheese, LAB
counts reach a maximum (up to 500 million per gram) within 3-4 days and then
decrease to about 20 million at 4 weeks. However, the dying cells release
enzymes that continue to ripen the cheese.
Lactic cultures contribute to proteolysed flavours but are minimally lipolytic.
Heterofermentative cultures ferment citrate as well as lactose and contribute both
flavour (diacetyl) and carbon dioxide for small eye development.

Secondary Cultures

In Swiss types, carbon dioxide production by Propionibacterium is encouraged
by exposure to 20C for about 3 weeks after brining and drying off in the cold
room.
For smear ripened cheese, Brevibacterium linens, coryneform bacteria, and yeasts
are encouraged by high humidity (90-95%) and washing to discourage moulds.
Penicillium sp. for Camembert, Brie and Blue types require 85-90% humidity
and air circulation to provide oxygen.

Non-starter Microorganisms

Microorganisms present in the milk due to environmental contamination are important
contributors to cheese ripening. Some important principles are:
Bulk cooling and storage of raw milk selects for cold tolerant (psychrotrophic)
bacteria (see Chapter 3).
Heat treatment selects for thermal stable spore forming bacteria.
Non-starter bacteria commonly present in heat-treat Cheddar include
Lactobacillus sp. and Pediococci sp.
Many other bacteria and yeasts may be present and may or not grow depending
on complex symbiotic relationships with other bacteria.
Heat treat (sub-pasteurization processing as described in Chapter 5) is really a
process of standardizing the nonstarter microorganisms. Important results are
reduced numbers of proteolytic psychrotrophic bacteria and retention of a range
of useful microbial ripening agents.
Non-starter bacteria in cheese milk can be reduced by microfiltration. This is
common practice for low fat cheese.

Added Ripening Agents

Ripening agents are used mainly to accelerate ripening of traditional varieties and to improve
quality of reduced fat varieties. Cheddar, including low fat Cheddar is the focus for much of
the ongoing work in this area. The principal approaches are:
Direct addition of single enzymes of dairy or non-dairy sources
Enzyme cocktails which are mixtures of proteases and lipases. Other than in the
preparation of enzyme modified cheese pastes, enzyme cocktails have had limited
commercial success.

92
Enzyme capsules which release trapped enzymes during ripening.
Attenuated (freeze shocked or heat shocked) proteolytic cultures
Genetically modified cultures hold lots of promise for future success.
Culture adjuncts such as Lactobacillus helveticus in Cheddar cheese hold much
promise to replace the normal diverse microflora of raw milk.

10.3. Cheese Composition for Optimal Curing

Cheese composition is critical to yield optimization, and both flavour and texture
development. This section describes several critical composition parameters, with special
reference to Cheddar cheese. As indicated in Figure 10.1A, New Zealand has compositon
standards for Cheddar cheese. Figure 10.1B indicates the ranges, which in my view are
typical of good Canadian Cheddar. Each of these composition parameters are described
below.

MNFS

Moisture: higher moisture cheese ripens faster ripening, which means more
potential for off flavours and over ripening.
Water activity (a
w
) decreases with age because ripening results in many soluble
breakdown products of acids, sugars, proteins and lipids.
Fresh Cheddar a
w
= 0.98, which is which conducive for growth of most bacteria
In aged Cheddar a
w
may be as low as 0.88, which is too low for growth of most
bacteria.
MNFS is a better index of cheese ripening potential than % moisture.
Optimum MNFS depends on expected date of maturity and curing temperatures.
Examples for Cheddar: 8C, 6-7 months MNFS = 53%
8C, 3-4 months MNFS = 56%
MNFS is controlled mainly by pH at draining and cooking treatments. Subsequent
curd treatment such as curd ripening and salting also influence MNFS.
MNFS is also influenced by FDM (percent fat in the dry matter of cheese). Other
conditions being constant, MNFS increases with increasing FDM, because fat
inhibits syneresis.

SM

Determines rate of acid development during pressing and early curing and,
therefore, influences the minimum pH.
Affects bacterial profile, eg., high SM will discourage contaminating bacteria
such as coliforms.
Influences the rate of proteolysis and the type of protein derived flavours.
Fortunately, the acceptable range is broad (3.6 - 6.0), because SM varies widely
even within a single cheese.
Salt uptake is affected by quantity of added salt, size of curds, moisture content of

93
curds, and acidity.
When the salt content exceeds two percent of the total weight of the cheese
consumers tend to perceive the cheese as too salty. For typical Cheddar of 37%
moisture two percent salt corresponds to 5.4% SM.

FDM

Higher fat restricts syneresis, so MNFS tends to increase with FDM.
Fat shortens and softens cheese texture because the fat globules physically disrupt
the protein matrix.
FDM is determined by milk PF (See Chapter 5).

pH

The pH profile is the single most important trouble shooting tool. Critical points
are: cutting, draining, milling, forming, 1 day and 7 days.
Most cheese, including Cheddar, should reach a minimum pH of 5.0 to 5.1 during
the first week after manufacture. Obtaining a final pH in this range is greatly
helped by increased buffer capacity of milk proteins in the pH range 5.2 - 4.6.
Factors determining the pH at one day are amount of culture, draining pH,
washing, curd treatment such as curd ripening, and salting.
Draining pH is most important to cheese texture and also determines residual
amounts of chymosin and plasmin in the cheese.
pH increases with age due to release of alkaline protein fragments. This is
especially true of mould ripened cheeses. Camembert pH increases from 4.6 to
7.0, especially on the surface.
Increasing pH during curing encourages activity of both proteases and lipases.

10.4. Temperature of Curing

Cheddar types: It is desirable to initiate ripening for several weeks at 4-6C and
then increase the temperature to 8 - 10C. Low temperature initially, minimizes
early growth of starter and non-starter bacteria and reduces the risk excessive of
off flavour development. It also minimizes the risk of the minimum pH reaching
levels below 5.0.
Most firm to hard varieties are ripened at 10 - 15C and then stored at about 4C
until consumed.
Most surface ripened varieties are ripened at 12 - 15C and then stored at about
4C until consumed.

94
10.5. Humidity of Curing

Surface ripened cheeses also require adequate air circulation to provide sufficient oxygen for
moulds and yeasts. Humidity requirements in general are:
Washed bacterial surface ripened: 90-95%
Fungal flora: 85-90%
Dry rinds: 80-85%

10.6. Ripening Treatments

According to the type of surface characteristics, cheese treatments are grouped as follows:
Ripened by surface moulds.
Washed rinds with minimal bacterial growth, e.g., St. Paulin types.
Washed rinds with smear, e.g., Muenster types and Oka.
Washed rinds with mixed flora including moulds and bacteria.
Dry rinds that may be coated with oil or butter to prevent cracking and
desiccation, e.g., Edam, Scamorza, and Parmesan.
Waxes and resins that may be applied by dipping, brushing or spraying. These
provide good protection but are more permeable than plastic films, so it is still
desirable to maintain 85% RH to prevent drying.
Rindless cheese which are cured in moisture and gas impermeable film or in large
blocks (eg., 640 lb Cheddar)

Waxes and films may be treated with anti-mould agents such as pimaricin, sorbic acid and
propionates to prevent mould growth.

10.7. Packaging

Vacuum and/or gas flush (N
2
and CO
2
) in gas and moisture proof film are
common.
Vacuum alone is not recommended because complete evacuation of oxygen is
difficult and small unsightly mould spots often appear.
Gas flush with CO
2
or blends of CO
2
and N
2
effectively prevent mould growth.
CO
2
is water soluble so it is absorbed into the water of the cheese and the package
becomes tight.
N
2
, which is not water soluble, is useful for applications such as shredded cheese
and cheese curd where a loose package is desired.
High density plastic (rigid) containers are used for fresh cheese such as cottage.
Oxygen permeable wrap such as grease proof paper and foil-laminated but
unsealed wraps, are preferred for surface ripened soft cheese

95

%S/M
2.5-6.0
%S/M
4.0-6.0
%MNFS
50-57
%MNFS
50-57
%FDM
52-55
% FDM
50-56
pH
4.95-5.1
pH
4.8-5.2

A
B
% S/M
3.6--6.0
%MNFS
50-55
%FDM
50-56
pH
4.95-5.1
Figure 10.1. Cheddar cheese composition for optimal curing. (A) New Zealand
standards for Premium and First Grade Cheddar cheese. (B) Typical ranges for high
quality Canadian Cheddar. Note: pH measured between 3 and 14 days after
manufacture.

96
11. PROCESS CONTROL

This chapter will not be discussed during the short course lectures because most of its
contents are covered in other Sections or in the cheese make procedures. It is included here
as a summary of important process control principles. Table 11.2 illustrates some of these
principles by comparing time versus pH profiles for several cheese varieties. Note in
particular the comparison of low to high moisture Cheddar.

11.1. The Objectives of Cheese Manufacturing

To maximize returns, the cheese maker must obtain the maximum yields that are consistent
with good cheese quality. For example, water and salt are cheaper than milk fat and protein,
but you can only have so much cheese moisture and salt---more on cheese yield in Chapter
12. With respect to consistent production of high quality cheese the objectives of the cheese
maker are to:
Develop the basic structure of the cheese.
Obtain cheese composition required for optimum microbial and enzyme activity
during curing. Optimum composition mainly means optimum levels of moisture, fat,
pH (lactic acid), minerals, and salt.

For example, the characteristic texture of Swiss cheese is largely determined at the time
when the curd and whey are transferred to the press table. At this time the basic structure
(i.e., the manner in which the casein micelles and fat globules are arranged) and chemical
composition (especially mineral content) is already determined. You can not take Swiss curd
at this stage and make Cheddar cheese. On the other hand it is possible to produce both Feta
and a Brie type cheese from the same curd.

11.2. Moisture Control
Cheese making is a process of removing moisture from a rennet coagulum or an acid
coagulum consisting of fat globules (unless the milk is skimmed) and water droplets
trapped in a matrix of casein micelles.
Cheese is, therefore, a concentrate of milk protein and fat.
Most cheese making operations are related to this process of removing water from the
milk gel by the process of syneresis.
Syneresis = to contract; refers to contraction of the protein network with the resulting
expulsion of water from the curd. The water and water soluble components are
literally squeezed out of the curd.
This liquid, (whey) contains water, sugar, whey proteins, lactic acid and some of the
milk minerals.
The final moisture content, therefore, influences the final pH of the cheese because it
determines the residual amount of fermentable lactose in the cheese.
At the same time other factors such as the amount and rate of acid development and
the temperature and time of cooking, determine the amount and the rate of syneresis

97
11.3. pH Control

With respect to cheese quality and safety, the most important process control factor is
the development of acidity.
Increasing acidity causes:
Syneresis (due to reduced charge repulsion on casein micelles) and moisture
expulsion.
Solubilization of calcium phosphates.
Disruption of casein micelle structure with alterations in curd texture.
Reduced lactose content by fermentation to lactic acid.
Acid development occurs mainly within the curd because most bacteria are trapped in
the gel matrix during coagulation.
The minimum pH value is dependent on the amount of acid developed during
manufacture and the residual lactose that will ferment during early curing and cause
further acid development.
The residual lactose content is mainly determined by the moisture content, washing
which removes lactose by leaching, and the extent of fermentation.
Ability of the culture to ferment galactose is also important.
Both the rate of acid development and the amount of acid development (as measured
by final pH) are important. Eg., final pH of Swiss is the same as Cheddar, but
Cheddar cheese reaches pH 5.2 after about 5 hours while Swiss cheese requires about
15 h to reach this pH.
It is important to maintain uniform rate of acid development; if acidity develops too
slow or too fast, adjust the amount of culture rather than changing cooking time or
temperature.
pH at draining largely determines the mineral and residual sugar contents of the
cheese and from the sugar, the final pH.
Salting reduces the rate of acid development, and, therefore, the time and amount of
salting is important to the pH at 1and 7 days following manufacture.

11.4. Mineral Control

Loss of calcium phosphate determines extent of casein micelle disruption--hence it
determines basic cheese structure; the important parameter is the ratio of Ca to casein
or Ca to NFS (non fat solids), which is easier to measure (Table 1.1).
In Swiss (high Ca, about 750 mM Ca/kg NFS) the casein micelle structure is intact
while extensive dissociation and disruption of submiclles is evident in Feta types (low
Ca, about 400 mM Ca/kg NFS)).
Retention of calcium phosphate also increases the buffer capacity of the cheese.
pH at draining determines the solubility of calcium and phosphate when the curd is
separated from the whey.
More Ca is retained at high draining pH as in Swiss cheese (pH 6.4 - 6.5) versus
Cheddar 6.1 - 6.3 (See Table 1.1).
Little Ca is retained in Feta cheese, a fact that needs some explanation. Feta is dipped

98
into the forms early while the pH is still quite high. However, the moisture is also
high because no cooking has taken place. Therefore, the moisture is removed by
syneresis as the pH decreases while the cheese is in the forms. The net result is that a
great deal of moisture (whey) is removed at low pH and most of the calcium
phosphate is removed with it. This is also true for other soft ripened cheese like blue
and Camembert. Another factor is that soft ripened cheese recipes normally call for a
long ripening time after the culture is added to allow some acid development, and
also an extended setting time; this acid development before cutting encourages
release of minerals into the whey.

11.5. Texture (cheese body) Control

When cheese graders refer to cheese texture they often mean the amount and type of
openness or holes in the cheese. Here, texture refers to the sensory properties of firmness,
elasticity, brittleness etc.
Untypical texture in a young cheese is a strong indication of probable flavour defects
later. Therefore, a primary objective of cheese making is to develop the ultra-
structure that determines the proper texture.
Conformation of the protein matrix is also influenced by pH; at lower pH micelles are
disrupted, but the proteins are tightly packed because of reduced charge repulsion.
Therefore, Feta is brittle while Camembert is soft and smooth due to alkalinity
contributed by ammonia during ripening.
Cheese drained at higher pH retains more Ca and is firmer and more elastic.
Firmness is also affected by ripening agents (see 11.6. Flavour control).
Later curd handling treatments such as salting and pressing also texture and body, but
do not the basic structure of the protein matrix at the submicelle level.

11.6. Flavour Control

In the broadest terms, directed flavour development depends on retaining or adding ripening
agents and controlling their activity over time. Important principles are:
Milk heating and clarification treatments determine non-starter bacteria present in the
milk.
A great deal of direction is obtained through selection of cultures, coagulants and
other additives. Debittering cultures for example are an important tool to reduce
bitterness and extend the shelf life of high moisture varieties such as Monterrey Jack
and of low fat varieties.
All cooking and curd handling procedures have specific effects on the types of
ripening agents (bacteria and enzymes) that remain to ripen the cheese.
Again, pH at draining is important because it determines the distribution of plasmin
and rennin between the curd and the whey.
Plasmin is the principal milk protease: it prefers neutral to slightly alkaline pH and is
more soluble at low pH. Therefore, varieties that are dipped at high pH, have higher
retention and activity of plasmin (eg., in Swiss protein breakdown during ripening is

99
due to plasmin). Plasmin activity is also increased by the higher cooking temperatures
in traditional Swiss and Italian varieties.
Calf rennet is more soluble at higher pH, but more active at lower pH. Therefore,
rennet retention is higher for varieties that are drained at lower pH and in particular
for varieties that are cut at lower pH. Rennet activity is also drastically reduced by
the higher cooking temperatures in traditional Swiss and Italian types, so it is more
active in mesophilic varieties.

100
Table 11.1. pH versus time profiles for several cheese varieties (Hill, 2005, Emmons and Tuckey, 1967, Reinbold, 1972).

Operations
Swiss type Gouda
Cheddar
MNFS 53%
Cheddar
MNFS 57% Feta Cottage
Time pH Time pH Time pH Time pH Time pH Time pH
Add starter 0 6.60 0 6.60 0 6.60 0 6.60 0 6.60 0 6.60
Add rennet 15 6.60 35 60 6.55 30 6.55 75 6.50 60 6.50
Cut 45 6.55 70 6.45 90 6.50 75 6.50 115 300 4.80
Drain or dip
into forms
150 6.35 100 210 6.20 195 6.3 130 NA 360
Milling NA NA NA NA 360 5.40 315 5.45 NA NA NA NA
Pressing 165 6.35 130 420 5.35 390 5.40 NA NA NA NA
Demoulding 16 h 5.30 8 h 5.40 24 h 5.20 10 5.20 24 h 4.6 NA NA
Minimum pH 1 wk 5.20 1 wk 5.20 1 wk 5.10 1 wk 5.10 1 wk NA NA
Retail 6 mo 5.6 6 mo 5.6 24 mo 5.50 4 mo 5.3 6 wk 4.4 214 d 5.2

101
12. YIELD EFFICIENCY

12.1. Distribution of Components During Cheese Making

TABLE 12.1. Distribution of milk components during cheese making (% by weight) and
percent transfer from milk to cheese.

Fat Protein CHO Ash Solids
Milk composition %
Cheese composition %
Whey Composition %
% Transfer
3.3 3.2 5.0 0.7 12.4
31 25 2.0 2.1 60
0.22 0.61 5.3 0.58 7.0
93 78 4 30 49

12.2. Factors Affecting Yield

Milk casein is the principal yield determining factor. Casein contributes absorbed
water and minerals as well as its own weight. Cheese quality limits the ratio of
moisture/casein, a ratio which corresponding to MNFS.
Fat is also a principal yield component. Fat interferes with syneresis and, therefore,
also contributes more than its own weight, but if other conditions are adjusted to
maintain constant MNFS, then fat contribution to yield is dependent only on the
conversion factor of fat from milk to cheese (i.e., fraction of milk fat recovered in the
cheese).
Cheese moisture. A 1% increase in Cheddar cheese moisture causes about 1.8%
increase in cheese yield, partly because more moisture means more whey solids and
more salt are recovered in the cheese (e.g., given 90 kg cheese/1000 kg milk, a
moisture adjustment from 35 to 36% would result in 91.6 kg cheese/1000 kg milk)
Cheese salt. An extra 0.1% salt means an extra 0.14% yield of Cheddar cheese if the
moisture content is increased accordingly.
Milk quality factors: somatic cell counts, psychrotrophic bacteria, protein quality etc.
See Chapter 4.
Increasing time and temperature of milk pasteurization increases cheese moisture
retention and the recovery of whey proteins and soluble solids. There doesnt seem to
be any consensus on how much is desirable but its safe to say that it depends on the
type of cheese and the quality standards of the manufacturer.
Process control parameters (See Chapter 9)
Careless cutting.
Heating too fast at early stages of cooking.

102
Salting too soon after milling of Cheddar allows rapid salt uptake which in turn
causes rapid syneresis and increased solubility of casein. Yield is, therefore,
reduced by losses of protein, fat and soluble solids.
High temperatures during pressing cause loss of fat.
Proteolytic cultures or coagulating enzymes cause protein losses before and after
cutting.
Washing removes soluble solids.
Working as in Mozzarella removes fat and soluble solids. Loss of soluble solids is
minimized by equilibration of the wash water with the cheese moisture.

12.3. Principles of Yield Optimization

With respect to yield the cheese maker's objectives are to:
Obtain highest MNFS (moisture in non-fat substance) consistent with good quality to
maximize moisture and the recovery of whey solids
Standardize milk to obtain maximum value for milk components consistent with good
quality (eg., adjust PF to maximize cost efficiency).
Minimize losses of fat and casein in the whey

12.4. Yield Control

It is important to measure and maximize yield efficiency. This means maximizing the return
(or minimizing the loss in the case of lactose) from all milk components entering the plant.
This includes obtaining maximum returns for whey non-fat-solids, whey cream and cream
skimmed during standardization. Usually the highest return for all milk components is
obtained by keeping them in the cheese.

12.5. Recovery of Milk Components

Yield efficiency can be determined by monitoring recovery of milk components and losses in
the whey as recommended by Gilles and Lawerence N.Z.J. Dairy Sci. Technol.
20(1985):205. By keeping accurate records of all incoming milk components and their
distribution between cream, cheese, whey cream and defatted whey it is possible to
determine the plant mass balance.

12. 6. Yield Expressions

Actual or absolute cheese yield (Y
a
)
Quantity of cheese per unit of milk
Y
a
= kg cheese/kg of milk
% Y
a
= Y
a
x 100 = kg cheese/100 kg milk

103
Limitation: meaningful yield comparisons can only be made between cheese of
constant composition made from milk of constant composition.

Composition specific yield expressions
Adjusts actual cheese yield to constant or standard levels of moisture, fat, salt, and/or
protein.
Most common are moisture and salt adjusted yields.
For example, moisture adjusted yield (Y
madj
) can be calculated from actual moisture
(M
actual
) values and standard moisture values (M
standard
) as follows:

Y
madj
= Y
a
x (100-%M
actual
)/(100-%M
standard
)

Similarly moisture and salt adjusted yield (Y
smadj
) is calculated as:

Y
smadj
= Y
a
x (100-%M
actual
) (100-%S
actual
) /(100-%M
standard
)( 100-%S
standard
)

12.7. Yield Prediction

Purposes of Calculating Predicted Yields
Provide a target against which to judge actual yields and determine mass balance
within the plant.
Flag errors in measurement: e.g., the weight of milk or improper standardization.
Provide an early signal of high or low moisture content allowing adjustment on
subsequent vats. This can be met by rapid moisture tests (microwave) which is
sufficiently accurate for this purpose.

The Van Slyke and Price Formula

The formula most often used for Cheddar cheese is the Van Slyke formula that was published
in 1908 and has been used successfully ever since. The Van Slyke formula (Equation 12.1) is
based on the premise that yield is proportional to the recovery of total solids (fat, protein,
other solids) and the moisture content of the cheese.

Yield
F C
M
=
+
=
( . . ) .
.
0 93 0 1 1 09
1
9 945%

F = Fat content of milk (3.6 kg/100 kg)
C = Casein content of milk (2.5 kg/100 kg)
0.1 = Casein lost in whey due to hydrolysis of -casein and fines losses

104
1.09 = a factor which accounts for other solids included in the cheese; this represents calcium
phosphate/citrate salts associated with the casein and whey solids
M = moisture fraction (0.37)

This formula has several important limitations:
First, its difficult to measure casein. Many plants use total protein in the predictive
formula and multiple by a factor to estimate casein. The classical procedure for
casein determination is Rowland Fractionation, which is too involved for most cheese
plants. I recommend that two or three silo samples be sent to a private lab every 4
weeks to monitor seasonal variation in the casein fraction of protein. Alternatively the
casein content can be estimated from the equation given in Chapter 6.
A second difficulty is that the formula fails to consider important variables such as
variation in salt content and whey solids.
A third difficulty is that the equation is quite specific to Cheddar.

Many other formulae have been developed and used. See Emmons et al. J.Dairy Sci.
73(1990):1365-1394, and references listed in Chapter 2.

12.8. Composition Control

The importance of yield control is illustrated for moisture in Figure 12.1 and Table 12.2.
Control of other composition parameters is also critical to the bottom line (salt, fat etc.).

Table 12.3 illustrates the common problem of composition gradients. The table shows the
extreme example of large blocks (290 kg) of Cheddar, but composition gradients occur in all
cheese.

105
Table 12.2. Examples showing high, medium and low levels of Cheddar moisture control
(Lacroix, Verret and Emmons, 1991)

Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant 3
Mean Cheese Moisture 38.10 37.24 35.63
Standard deviation 0.554 1.038 0.959
Target value 38.09 37.29 37.42
Mean minus target +.01 -.04 -1.79
Level of control High Medium Low

Table 12.3. Variation of composition in 290 kg blocks of stirred curd Cheddar cheese.
Samples were taken from 6 positions in stainless steel hoops after holding at 5C for 7 days
after pressing. Reinbold and Ernstrom, 1988.

Centre Side Upper
corner
Held at 5C for 7 days
Salt 1.3 1.6 1.5
Moisture 36.04 42.50 41.07
pH 5.10 5.18 5.25
T at 24 h 35C 8C

106

Figure12.1. Normal distribution curves showing importance of moisture control. In the
example, the desired moisture is 39%. Imprecise moisture control (higher standard deviation
(SD)), forces the cheese maker to target lower mean moisture contents () to avoid producing
cheese with excess moisture.

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Moist ur e % w/w
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
u =37.5 SD =0.5
u =36.5 SD =1.0
u =35.5 SD =1.5
Over
spec
Upper
Limit

107
13. DEFECTS AND GRADING

13.1. Defects

The following brief summary does not do justice to the existing body of knowledge and
experience. Readers interested in more details on defects of surface ripened cheese are
referred to Eck & Gillis, 2000.

Common Cheese Defects

Body. In the context of modern sensory analysis body refers to texture, which is confusing
because cheese graders use the term texture to refer to cheese openness. Here, we will use
the traditional cheese grading terms. Some descriptors for body defects are:
Crumbly/short: often due to excess salt or acid
Corky: due to overcooking, low fat, low moisture, or excess salt.
Mealy: this defect can be detected on the palate or by massaging the cheese
between the thumb and forefinger. It is usually associated with excess acidity.
Pasty: sticks to the palate and fingers; due to excess moisture.
Weak: breaks down too quickly when worked by hand; due excess fat or
moisture.

Texture relates to openness in the cheese which may or may not be desirable depending on
the type of cheese and the cause of openness. Openness can be due to:
Mechanical openings, which are holes of irregular shape caused by trapped whey.
Trapped whey makes the impression in the cheese during pressing, but during
ripening the moisture is dispersed through out the cheese leaving the hole behind.
Openness is desirable in Colby, but is considered a defect in Cheddar.
Mechanical openings can lead to discolouration around the opening due to local
acid development. Undesired mechanical openings can be reduced or closed by
vacuum packaging.
Gas holes, which are desirable in many types of cheese. Gas hole defects include:
Early gas defects due to coliforms. These appear as small, spherical, shiny
holes. The defect is often associated with unclean flavour.
Late gas due to Clostridium. tyrobutryricum or perfringens, especially in
some European made cheese. Clostridia spores are often present in
American cheese as well but do not normally cause problems. However,
they may be activated by heat treatment and, therefore, sometimes cause
gas defect in processed cheese.
A third gas defect occurs in Cheddar and American types. The defect is
distinctive in that the gas (mainly C0
2
with some hydrogen sulphide) blows
the package but not the cheese. The defect occurs at 6 - 9 months in

108
Cheddar, but a similar defect is sometimes observed earlier in American
Mozzarella and Colby. The causative anaerobic organism is not fully
identified; however, experiments have demonstrated that the defect does
not occur in cheese aged at < 10C.
Yeast slits due to yeast growth.

Flavour. Most grading systems assign the greatest weight to flavour defects. A few common
descriptors are:

Acid flavour is often associated with acid body defects noted above. The common
causes all relate to process control:
Too much moisture (i.e., too much lactose).
Too much starter (i.e., too much acid development before draining).
Salting too late or too little.
Too warm during or immediately after pressing.

Bitter flavours are common defects in American but also other cheese, including fresh
cheese. Some causes include:
High moisture.
Excess rennet.
Bitter cultures.
High ripening temperatures.

Fruity/Yeasty flavours are usually associated with high pH and bitterness, and
sometimes with yeast slits.

Unclean flavours are reminiscent of the barn yard, and may be associated with
coliforms.

Whey taint is due to high moisture and is usually associated with acid defects
including bitterness.

109

Colour. Other than traditional colour preferences such as orange Cheddar and white goat
cheese, the most important colour parameter is uniformity. Even for cheese such as Colby,
which is coloured with annatto, graders do not evaluate colour intensity. Rather, they look
for non uniformity, which may signal a manufacturing defect. Some common descriptors are:
Acid cut (pink or bleached): low pH, oxidation of annatto
Mottled: may be an acid defect or caused by mixing cheese from different vats.
Seamy: this is Cheddar defect where the curd particles fail to knit properly. Causes
are
Greasy curd from too much vat or high temperature during pressing
Improper salting, too soon after milling or pH at salting is too high or too low
Hooped too soon after salting

Finish. A lot of art and patience are required to produce cheese with a good finish. Common
defects are:
Checked/Cracked: too dry on surface
Greasy: temperature too high during pressing or curing
Huffed: gassy
Mineral Deposits due to calcium lactate
Common on Cheddar cheese and sometimes on American varieties
Encouraged by certain non-starter Lactobacilli and Pediococci which favour
formation of D-lactate which in turn encourages crystallization of DL-calcium
lactate.
Control measures are:
Decrease numbers of non-starter bacteria (eg., pasteurize versus heat treat
and/or bactofuge the milk)
Use tight packaging. Calcium lactate crystals tends to form in areas where the
package is loose or in depressions on the cheese surface.
Avoid temperature fluctuations. Calcium lactate crystals often form in the
dairy case where temperatures are not constant.
Encourage rapid turn over in the dairy case.
Rind rot caused by mites or mould.
Surface mould is definitely one of the most common defects. A frequent consumer
question is about the safety of mouldy cheese.
Unsymmetrical/Rough: poor workmanship.

13.2. Grading

The following grading description and score sheets are included as examples only. The
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada official scoring system for export Cheddar is below.

110
Also included is a general score card entitled Cheese Judging Score Card that can be used
for any cheese variety (Table 13.2).

Agriculture and Agri-Food Guidelines for Grading Cheddar Cheese

Standards - Canada Dairy Products Act.
Flavour 45
Texture 25
Closeness 15
Colour 10
Finish 5

Flavour An ideal cheddar cheese should have a clean, mildly salty, nutty flavour and
a pleasing aroma. The intensity of flavour varies with age.

Body The desirable body should be firm and springy, slightly elastic. The cheese
should be smooth and waxy when crushed between the fingers. A
slight weakness or coarseness may be permitted in first grade.

Closeness The ideal cheese should be continuous and free from openings, cracks, breaks or
fissures. A slight openness may be permitted in 1st grade. Slight gas
holes in second grade and gas holes or Swiss holes are third grade
defects.

Colour The colour should be uniform and translucent whether white or coloured. A
slight seaminess may be allowed in 1st grade.

Finish - The cheese should present an unbroken rind or symmetrical shape and a clean
neat attractive appearance.

Notes:
1. Cheese should be held overnight at 14.5 - 15.5C before grading.
2. Cheese samples should be 9 kg in weight.
3. Cheese should be at least 21 days old before grading.
4. Early evaluation of aging potential can be obtained by grading a sample stored at 15C
for 21 days.

Common Descriptors used in Grading Canadian Cheddar Cheese
Code - Total Score, Maximum 94
1. Sl. open, sl. stiff, sl. coarse, blurred branding, sl. damp end, sl mouldy surface.

111
2. As above plus slight acid tendency.

3. Weak, open, coarse, wet ends, sl. acid, sl. gas or pin holes, mottled colour etc.

4. Checked rinds with mould penetration. Sl. gas or pin holes. Any above defect plus a
second defect except weak and open.

5. Very weak, very acidy, very stiff, very open, gas or Swiss holes (always 3rd), very
uneven colour, very mottled.

6. Checked rinds, mould penetration, gas or Swiss holes (always 3rd).

Code - Flavour Score, Maximum 40

F
1
Sl. unclean, sl. off, sl. fruity, sl. weak. sl. musty, sl. bitter, sl. sour.

F
2
Sl. rancid, fruity, off, bitter, weed, sour, musty.

F
3
Very fruity, rancid, badly off, very bitter, very unclean, very weedy.

Typical examples

Cheese Score
40 - 92
1
A 1st grade cheese with no flavour defects but which has objectionable
body defects such as (1) sl. open, sl. stiff, or blurred branding.

39 - 88
5
A 2nd grade cheese with no flavour defects but which has objectionable
body defects such as (5) checked rinds with mould penetration very
weak or very acidy etc.

38
(F1)
-88
3
A 2nd grade cheese with (F
1
) a sl. unclean, sl. off, sl. fruity, sl. weed, etc.,
flavour and with defective body characteristics (2) open, weak or sl.
acid.

36
(F3)
-86
5or6
A 3rd grade cheese with (F3) very fruity, rancid flavour, etc. and has
objectionable body characteristics (5 or 6) such as checked rinds with
mould penetration or large gas holes, etc.
sl. - slight

112

Table 13.2. CHEESE JUDGING SCORE CARD
FLAVOR: 40 Points BODY & TEXTURE: 35 Points
________ Acid ________ Acid
________ Bitter ________ Crumbly
________ Feed ________ Curdy
________ Fermented ________ Gassy
________ Flat ________ Mealy
________ Fruity ________ Pasty
________ Lipase ________ Pin Holes
________ Metallic ________ Short
________ Old Milk ________ Weak
________ Yeasty ________ Woody
_________________________ ____________________________
Points Deducted ___________ Points Deducted ______________

COLOR: 10 Points MAKE UP & APPEARANCE: 10 Points
________ Dull ________ Huffed
________ Mottled ________ Mold Under Wrapper
________ Uneven Distribution ________ Surface Finish
________ Mold ______________________________
________ Unnatural Points Deducted _________________
________ Wavy
_________________________ SALT: 5 Points
_________________________
Points Deducted ____________ ________ Too much
________ Not enough
________ Uneven
________________________________
Points Deducted __________________

Comments:

Graders Signature: __________________ Date ___________ Total Score _____

113
14. SANITATION

Many thanks to Larry Kropf, JohnsonDiversey for his presentation on Sanitation. Well print
his PowerPoint slides for you to insert here.

114
15. SOFT-RIPENED CHEESE

A. Feta Cheese

Standards: Moisture 55%; Fat 22%

Traditional Procedure (Structured Feta)

1. Standardize milk to PF = 0.90 and pasteurize (72C, 16 S or 62C, 30 min.). The Greeks
prefer a perfectly white smooth product made from sheep milk. Goat milk also produces
a white cheese. If desired, a smoother cow milk product can be made by selecting milk
with higher fat contents in the range of 5.5 to 6.0%. The undesirable cream colour of
cow milk can be removed by treating the milk with 0.03 - 0.04% titanium dioxide.
Titanium dioxide is diluted with 10x its weight of warm water and added to the milk
before renneting. Whiter cheese can also be produced from cow milk by homogenizing
the milk
2. Adjust temperature to 31C. Add 3% of S. lactis and/or S. cremoris bulk starter (or
equivalent DVS (direct to the fat) inoculum) and (optionally) 1 g lipase per 1,000 kg
milk. Ripen 1 hr. at 31C or until TA increases by 0.05%.
3. Measure 250 ml single strength rennet per 1,000 kg milk. Dilute the rennet with 20
volumes of water and add the mixture to the milk. Mix for about two minutes and then
remove the agitators. Ensure the milk temperature is stabilized at 31C before the rennet
is added. Setting time should be 45 - 60 min.
4. Cut the curd using 13 mm (0.5") knives.
5. Stir gently for 20 min.
6. Dip curd and whey into rectangular forms on a drain table.
7. Drain for two hours at room temperature; then place the curd in a room at 18C and 85%
RH. Alternatively, cover the cheese with clean plastic film and store overnight at room
temperature and humidity.
8. When the pH is 4.7, 20 - 24 h after adding culture, take the cheese out of the hoops,
weigh to the nearest 0.1 kg, and cut into 10 cm cubes.
9. The required salt is 50 g of salt per kg of cheese. Weigh all the salt for all the cheese at
once and distribute it uniformly by rubbing salt on all sides of the cheese surfaces. Place
the cheese cubes in 1 l plastic tubs with the lids partially open to allow the cheese
surfaces to dry, and store at room temperature for 24 h.
10. Add sufficient brine (8% NaCl, 0.5% CaCl
2
, pH 4.6) to completely fill the container and
ensure that no head space (oxygen) will remain to support mould growth after the lid is

115
on. Vinegar can be used to adjust the pH. CaCl
2
is best added as a 50% solution, which
is readily available from dairy suppliers as a coagulation aid.
11. Ripen at 8-10C for up to 30 days.
12. Store at 2-4C until consumed.

Distribution

Feta cheese is packaged and distributed to retailers and restaurants in one of four ways: (1)
Cubes and brine in small tubs; (2) Crumbled product in a gas flushed package (nitrogen)
ready for addition to salads; (3) Vacuum packed blocks; and (4) Bulk shipments of cubes in
large containers.

Process and Quality Control Notes

Obtain an increase of at least 0.05% TA before renneting.
Obtain pH 4.7 before surface salting.
Yeast and mould counts are the best indicators of hygienic problems. The low pH keeps
bacterial spoilage to a minimum.
A comfortable best before date is 6 months after manufacture. Good manufacturing practice
and storage can achieve 12 months shelf life.

B. Camembert Cheese

Standards: 56% moisture; 22% fat

Procedure:
1. Standardize milk to 0.86 PF and pasteurize.
2. Add 3% S. lactis and/or S. cremoris bulk starter (or equivalent DVS inoculum) and
spores of P. camemberti or P. candidum according to the manufacturers directions.
Alternatively, mould spores may be sprayed onto the surface of the cheese after
forming and salting. Ripen 1 hr. at 31C or until TA increases by 0.05%.
3. Measure 250 ml single strength rennet per 1,000 kg milk. Dilute rennet with 20
volumes of water before adding it to the milk. Mix for about two minutes and then
remove the agitators. Ensure the milk temperature is stabilized at 31C before the
rennet is added. Setting will occur in about 15 min, but do not cut until 45 min after
renneting. The pH should be 6.2 - 6.4.
4. Cut curd using 13 mm (0.5") knives. Allow the curd to settle for 1 hr. Note: If it is
desired to make Feta and Camembert from the same vat, stir the curd in the whey for

116
about 20 minutes and then remove the desired amount of curd and whey for the Feta
as directed in Step 6 of the Feta procedure above. Then, allow the curd to settle for
30 45 minutes and proceed as follows for Camembert manufacture.
5. Drain the whey down to the level of the curd. Dip the curd and remaining whey into
cylindrical Camembert moulds. The preferred mould dimensions are 11.5 cm in
diameter and 11.5 cm high. Moulds available in the Food Science pilot plant are 8.5
cm in diameter and 10.5 cm high. Add curds and whey to each form in rotation until
they are full.
6. Turn the hoops 4 to 6 times within 4 to 5 h and then occasionally until the pH is 4.6-
4.9 (8 - 24 h after adding culture).
7. Weigh sufficient salt to provide 8 g of salt per cheese. Dry salt the cheese (6 - 9 g
salt/cheese) by rubbing the salt on all surfaces. Store the cheese at 85% RH and 12 -
14C for 24 h. Alternatively, place the cheese on plastic mats in plastic tubs with the
lids partially open to allow some drying off of the cheese, and store at 12 - 13C for
24 h.
8. If Camembert culture is to be sprayed on the cheese, disperse it in water and spray on
all surfaces of the cheese. Store the cheese at 95% RH and 12 - 14C for 6-15 days,
with daily turning, until a luxurious growth of white mould is evident. Alternatively,
the cheese can be ripened on plastic mats in large plastic tubs with lose fitting lids to
maintain humidity and allow some air exchange.
9. Pack in waxed paper or foil and store at 4-8C. Camembert cheese is fully ripe when
the entire cheese is soft and creamy. The pH will increase to near 7.0 or above,
especially on the surface.


Camembert has some special safety concerns because the acidity decreases (pH increases)
dramatically due to the proteolytic action of enzymes produced by the white moulds. This is
a particular concern with respect to aciduric pathogens such as E. coli 0157: H7 and Listeria
monocytogenes, which may survive the initial acidic conditions and then grow when the pH
increases during ripening.

To prevent accumulation of pathogens, Camembert curing rooms must be cleaned and
sanitized regularly. It is no longer acceptable to cycle Camembert continuously through
unsanitized curing rooms.

Grading Schedule for Brie and Camembert (after Shaw, M.B., 1981, The manufacture of
soft, surface mould ripened cheese in France with particular reference to Camembert. J.

117
Society of Dairy Technol. 34(4):131).

Cheese shape and exterior appearance
Regular shape, thin rind, white with some red streaking due to red organisms (4 to 5
points).
Irregular shape, malformed sides, irregular rind thickness, irregular white mould
growth with spots of other moulds, toad skin effect, (3-3.5 points).
Irregular shape, slimy rind, very moist, numerous spots (less than 2.5 points).

Colour and consistency of body.
Light creamy colour, very little or no openness in texture, supple body, smooth, not
runny at consumption temperature (4 to 5 points).
Some discolouration, some openness, slightly layered, body too firm or too runny, (3-
3.5 points).
Very discoloured, much openness, very firm or runny, granular, layered (less than 2.5
points.

Flavour and aroma
Pleasant, characteristic, rather mild with good aroma (8 to 10 points).
Neutral, slightly acid, very slightly bitter, slightly salty, slightly ammoniacal (6 - 7.5
points).
Over acid, bitter, very salty, metallic, pungent, very ammoniacal, soapy taste (less
than 5.5 points).

C. Blue Cheese

Introduction

The origin of mould ripened cheese is lost in antiquity. It was made in France at least as
early as the Roman era. The name" Roquefort" first appeared in the year 1070. Roquefort
cheese is made from sheep milk, and the trade name is protected throughout the world.
Other cheese varieties that are ripened by the mould Penicillium roqueforti include Blue
(Bleu, Blue-veined), Gorgonzola (Italy), Stilton, Wensleydale and Dorset Blue (Blue
Vinney) of England, Niva of Czechoslovakia, Danablu and Mycella of Denmark, Nuworld,
U.S. and Errmite, Canada. P. roqueforti has been known by other names such as P. glaucum,
P. gorgonzola and P. stilton. A white mutant of P. roqueforti was developed by Knight of
Wisconsin and the resulting cheese is called Nuworld.

Standards: 47% moisture; 27% fat. In practice, the fat content is usually higher.

118
Procedure

1. Pasteurize milk. PF ratio of about 0.87 is desirable. Milk may also be homogenized
before pasteurization to promote lipolysis in the cheese. If the milk is not homogenized,
add 1g lipase per 1,000 kg of milk. If the milk is highly coloured, 0.03 - 0.04% titanium
dioxide diluted with 10x its weight of warm water may be added to the milk before
renneting, to prevent green cheese.
2. Add 3% mesophilic lactic bulk starter (or equivalent DVS inoculum) and ripen for about
an hour at 30C until TA increases by at least 0.005% and pH is 6.6 - 6.5.
3. Measure 250 ml single strength rennet per 1,000 kg milk (dilute the rennet about 20 times
with water and add it to the milk). Mix for about two minutes and then remove the
agitators. Ensure the milk temperature is stabilized at 30C before the rennet is added.
Setting will occur in 20 - 30 min, but do not cut until 1 h after renneting.
4. Cut curd with 13 mm (0.5") knives). Allow curd to settle for 10 min then agitate gently
to prevent matting. About 60 min. after cutting push curd away from the gate and allow
it to settle for 10 min.
Note: If it is desired to make Feta and Camembert from the same vat, stir the curd in the
whey for about 20 minutes and then remove the desired amount of curd and whey for the
Feta as directed in Step 6 of the Feta procedure above. Then, allow the curd to settle for 30
45 minutes, remove whey until the level is just above the curd, and transfer the desired
amount of curd and whey as directed in Step 5 of the Camembert procedure above. The
remaining curd will be used for Blue proceeding from Step 5 below.
5. Remove whey to the level of the curd. Break up curd and remove remaining whey.
Ditch curd and turn over after 10 min. After an additional 10 min. break up the curd to
prepare for salting.
6. Add salt, 1% of weight of curd. Sprinkle blue mould powder (Penicillium roqueforti
over all the curd. It should look like well peppered scrambled eggs. Mix the mould
powder into the cheese thoroughly, and then place the curd in cylindrical hoops on a
drain table. Be certain that blue cheese is kept well apart from other cheeses in the make
room.
7. Turn cheese 5 - 10 min. after filling and then at 30 min intervals for 2.5 h.

8. Cover with a plastic sheet and incubate overnight at room temperature for 16 - 20 h or
until cheese pH is 4.5 - 4.7.
9. Weigh sufficient salt to provide 30 g of salt per kg of cheese. Salt the cheese by rubbing
the salt on all surfaces. Store the cheese at 85% RH and 12 - 14C for 24 h, or place the

119
cheese on plastic mats in large plastic tubs with the lids partially open to allow air
exchange. Store at 12 - 13C for 24 h.
10. If desired, the cheese can be waxed before skewering and ripening. Alternatively: (1) the
cheese may be turned, brushed and washed regularly while curing to encourage
development of smear on the surface; or (2) Allow the surface flora to grow wild and
then brush it off before packaging.
11. Put about 40 holes on both sides of each cheese with a 3 mm diameter skewer. Similarly,
pierce the sides of the cheese. To obtain thoroughly veined cheeses, pierce them again
after 7 - 14 days of ripening.
12. Store the cheese at 95% RH and 12 - 14C for 6 - 8 weeks. Alternatively, the cheese can
be placed on plastic mats in large plastic tubs with loose fitting lids to allow some air
exchange and ripened at 12 - 14C. Turn every day for several days and then turn once a
week. The pH should increase to 6.0 - 6.25 after 8 weeks.
13. Vacuum in film or wrap in foil and store at 7C until consumed (up to 12 months).

Curing

Few lactic starter bacteria survive the first few weeks of curing due to acid and salt
inhibition. Growth of P. roqueforti becomes evident 5 - 10 days after skewering. This mould
grows well because it is more tolerant of salt and low oxygen tension than other moulds. The
smear that forms on the surface is due to B. linens or B. erythrogenes. Too much smear is
undesirable.

Activities of mould lipases and added lipases produce butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric and
higher fatty acids. A predominant flavour compound is methyl-n-amyl Ketone (heptanone
2).
Caprylic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
6
.COOH
Methyl-n-amyl Ketone CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
.COCH
3

120
16. SEMI-HARD

CHEESE -- WASHED

A. Brine Brick

Introduction

The descriptor, brine, is used to distinguish brine salted Brick cheese from the modern
version which is similar to Colby. Brine Brick is a sweet, mild version of German Brick. Its
texture is similar to that of Harvarti.

The acidity of Brine Brick cheese is determined mainly by the amount of lactose removed
during washing. There is little acid development until after hooping because the inoculum is
small and the milk is not ripened before renneting. It is mild and sweet in flavour and lacks
the sharpness of Cheddar and the strong flavour of Limburger and German Brick. Brine
brick cheese should be clean, well shaped, free from checks and moulds, and have a rind with
a predominantly smooth surface. The cheese should present a neat attractive appearance and
be of uniform size and shape. The sides should be square, not bulged.

Standards: 42% moisture; 29% fat.

Procedure

1. Pasteurize whole milk. Milk standardized to PF = 1.04 will make a legal cheese, but a
higher fat cheese is preferred. PF = 0.90 is suggested.
2. Add 0.25% of a lactic bulk starter (or equivalent DVS inoculum) at 30C. Normally
Lactococcus lactis and/or cremoris are used, but heterofermentative lactics such as
Leuconostic mesenteroides subsp. cremoris and/or Lactococcus diacetylactis may be
used to promote an open structure.
3. Add a smear culture according to the manufacturers instructions. Alternatively, the
traditional practice of old to new smear inoculation can be performed after brining;
however, this practice is discouraged to the risk of accumulation of Listeria
monocytogenes and other pathogenic bacteria in the curing room.
4. Cheese colour may be added at the rate of 6 - 8 ml/1,000 kg milk when the cattle are off
fresh pasture.
volumes of water and add the mixture to the milk immediately after adding the starter.
Mix for about two minutes and then remove the agitators. Ensure the milk temperature is
stabilized at 30C before the rennet is added. Setting should be complete in 20 - 30
minutes.

121
6. Cut curd with 6 mm (0.25") knives when the curd breaks cleanly with a spatula. Acid
development at this stage should be minimal (whey pH 6.5 - 6.6).
7. Agitate for 10 min. and then begin to cook. Follow the heating schedule carefully.
Heating is required to firm the curd and obtain the correct moisture:
Begin heating 30.0C
5 min. 30.5C
10 min. 31.0C
15 min. 33.0C
20 min. 36.0C

8. Hold the temperature at 36.0C and continue to agitate for another 30 minutes or until the
curd is sufficiently dry.
9. Drain the whey to a level of 2.5 cm (1") above the curd and add water at 36C. The
required amount is 50% of the original weight of milk, or about the equivalent of the
amount of whey removed. Hold the curd in the water with gentle agitation for 15 min to
allow the lactose in the curd and water to equilibrate. Short holding times result in acid
cheese. Longer holding times (or excess water) results in bland cheese.
10. Drain the whey/water to a level 2.5 cm above the curd.
11. Dip the curd and whey into rectangular perforated forms on a drain table. Alternatively,
the curd and whey may be moved with a positive rotary pump. Add curds to each form
in rotation until they are full, but not heaped up.
12. Turn the hoops at 5, 10, 30, 60, and 90 minutes and occasionally thereafter. Add the
metal followers after the first turn. If the curd does not form smooth sides, a little hot
water may be sprayed over the curd to close up the cheese and form a good finish.
13. Cover the hoops with plastic sheets and store for up to 16 h at room temperature. The pH
should be 5.2 5.3.
14. Remove the cheese from the moulds and place in 22 - 25% salt brine for 24 h at 10 -
15C. Adjust the brine pH to 5.3 with vinegar and the CaCl
2
concentration to 0.1% with
50% CaCl
2
solution. Dry salt the exposed surface of the cheese.
15. After removal from the brine, the cheese should be placed in a curing room at
approximately 15C with a relative humidity of 90%. Alternatively, the cheese can be
placed on plastic mats in large plastic tubs with loose fitting lids to allow some air
exchange and maintain humidity. During curing film yeasts, corynebacterium such as
Bacterium linens and other organisms form an orange-red smear on the surface of the
cheese. The growth is quite luxurious after about 2 weeks.
16. Gently wash and turn the cheese every day for about 12-15 days. Washing is done with a

122
damp cloth dipped in a 20% brine solution. Moisten the entire surface of the cheese with
the salt water and brush or wipe off any mould that appears.
17. After the smear has developed sufficiently (12 -15 days), rinse the cheese with cold
water, gently brush off excess smear, and then allow the cheese to dry. If a milder
flavoured cheese is desired, the smear may be washed off the cheese at an earlier date.
18. After the final washing, dry the cheese for 4 - 6 h and then vacuum pack. Place the
packaged cheese in a curing room at 5 - 7C for 1 - 3 months.


Acidity: Excessive acidity can result from too much culture. The pH at 3 - 4 days should be
5.1 - 5.2
Gas formation: Coliform bacteria may grow in the cheese during draining and salting,
causing early gas that gives rise to pinholes or to a spongy condition. Coliform organisms
can be controlled by pasteurization and by avoiding post pasteurization contamination. Late
gas formation by Clostridia organisms may occur due to insufficient acid and salt.
Lack of smear development: A smear will not grow if the humidity in the curing room is too
low or if the cheese surface is not kept moist. It may necessary to re-inoculate with more
smear culture.
Mould growth: If the cheese is not washed often enough, moulds may grow on the cheese.
The moulds will not grow if a good smear is developing.

B. Colby

Colby cheese was named after a township in Southern Wisconsin in the 1880s. Colby is high
moisture, open-textured, soft-bodied and quick-curing. It is sometimes called Farmer's
cheese. The make procedure for Colby is similar to Cheddar until the correct acidity is
attained for draining. At this time, the final acidity of Colby is adjusted by washing to
remove lactose and acid, while in Cheddar manufacture lactose is removed by curd ripening
(Cheddaring) a process of further fermentation and syneresis.


Procedure

1. Standardize milk to PF 0.96, pasteurize and cool to 30C before adding starter.
2. Add 1.5% of S. lactis and/or S. cremoris bulk starter (or equivalent DVS inoculum).

123
Ripen for 1 h or until acidity increases by 0.01%.
3. Measure 70 ml cheese colour per 1,000 kg milk. Dilute 20x with water and add to milk.
is added.
5. Cut using 10 mm (3/8") knives when the curd is firm. Agitate gently or as vigorous as
required to prevent matting.
6. Start cooking about 15 min. after cutting. Increase temperature from 30 to 39C during
30 min. Heat slowly at first, not more than 1C every 5 min.
Begin heating 30.0C
5 min 30.5C
10 min 31.0C
15 min 32.5C
20 min 35.0C
25 min 37.0C
30 min 39.0C

7. Hold at 39C until whey pH is 6.2 - 6.3. This process should take 75 min from the time
the temperature reaches 39C or 2 h from the time of cutting. If the acidity is increasing
too quickly the temperature may be raised slightly (maximum 40C) to retard the culture.
8. When whey pH is 6.2 - 6.3, drain, the whey down to the level of the curd.
9. Add water at 15C until the curd-water mixture is 26C.
Alternatively, transfer the curd to a curd table leaving about 5 - 8 cm of whey in the
bottom of the table. Add water (7 - 14% of original weight) at the required temperature
to give a final temperature of 26C. This has advantages over washing in the vat: (1)
Greater efficiency because a smaller capacity and less expensive curd sink is used for
washing while the setting vat is used to begin another batch; (2) The amount of wash
water that must removed from the whey or otherwise disposed is reduced.
10. Stir when adding water and for an additional 15 minutes. If wash water is below 15C
use less water. Colder water produces a higher moisture cheese. Warmer water produces
a low moisture cheese.
11. Drain completely by piling curd at the sides of the vat. Curd should not mat.
12. Add salt at the rate of 2.5 kg/1,000 kg of milk and stir well. Allow 15 min. for the salt to
dissolve before hooping.
13. Hoop in 20 lb (9 kg) Cheddar hoops. Colby cheese may lose shape in large sizes.

124
14. Press overnight at 70 - 140 kPa (10 - 20 lbs/in
2
). Start with low pressure and gradually
increase to at least 70 kPa. In modern commercial practice, pressing is often shortened to
as little as one hour.
15. Vacuum package in film and cure at 7 - 13C for 1 - 3 months.

Colby cheese has higher moisture and a softer body than Cheddar, and never attains the sharp
character of Cheddar.

Defects

Acid-sour flavour: This defect may be caused by too much acid development in the vat
before draining. It may also be caused by poor culture activity and a lack of acid
development at draining. If the culture is not growing properly and acid is not being
produced, then the curd will be high in moisture and lactose. The lactose later ferments
producing a sour acid cheese.

Fermented flavour: This is caused by a lack of acid development due to a poor starter or
starter inhibition. If the cheese pH is above 5.4, the cheese will inevitably be fermented and
fruity.

Woody, corky body: This defect may be caused by lack of acid development, washing the
curd with too much water, prolonged holding of the curd in the water, or by cooking over
40C.

Mottled cheese: This defect is usually due to lack of acid development, or by salting too
soon after draining. Short draining time before salting and pressing may also result in slight
mottling.

Yield

The yield of Colby cheese of 40 - 42% moisture should be from 10 to 11 kg of cheese per
100 kg of 3.5% milk.

C. Gouda

Gouda cheese originated in the Netherlands and is similar to Edam. Normally Gouda has a
higher fat content than Edam, but fat in dry matter (FDM) does vary from 30 - 50%. In
Canada, Gouda cheese must contain a minimum of 28% fat (49% FDM) and a maximum of
43% moisture. Gouda is made in round or block forms and the cheese vary in weight from
600 g to 20 kg. A gas-forming culture is used to induce small eye formation.

125

Procedure

1. Standardize milk to protein/fat ratio of 1.07 and pasteurize. 1- 2 ml of annatto per 1000
kg of milk may be added during the winter months.
2. Add 0.75% bulk starter (or equivalent DVS inoculum) at 30C. Mixtures of
Streptococcus lactis and Leuconostic cremoris and Streptococcus diacetylactis are
recommended. Ripen until an increase of 0.005 - 0.01 in titratable acidity is achieved.
3. Measure 190 ml single strength rennet /1000 kg of milk. Dilute the rennet with 20
is added.
4. When curd cuts cleanly, cut into 0.5 - 1.0 cm cubes. Stir curd for an additional 20 - 30
minutes. Whey pH should be 6.4 - 6.5.
5. Run off one-third of the whey and slowly add water at 60C to give final temperature of
36 - 38C. The volume of water should be 20 - 25% of the amount of milk. Add the
water slowly during 15 - 20 min with continual stirring. Continue stirring for another 15
min after all the water is added.
6. Move the curd and sufficient whey to cover the curd to a press table and press for 10 - 30
min.
7. Drain the whey and cut to fit cloth lined hoops. Press at 100 kP (14 psi) for 5 - 8 h with
occasional turning. After first turning increase pressure to 200 kP (28 psi). The pH after
pressing should be 5.3 - 5.5.
8. Immerse in 20% salt brine for periods as indicated below.
Edam 1.5 - 3 kg 3 days
Gouda 0.5 kg 20 hours
Gouda 1 kg 1 days
Gouda 10 kg 4 days
Gouda 20 kg 7 days

9. Wax or pack in plastic film and incubate at 15C, 4 - 6 weeks. Then store at 10
C for
6 - 12 months.

The pH after salting should be 5.15 - 5.25. During ripening the pH should increase to 5.3 -
5.5.

D. Montasio (Friulano)

126

Montasio is a washed curd variety of Italian origin. Relative to other Italian varieties such as
Romano and Parmesan, Montasio employs a low cooking temperature (final temperature
43C), but still requires a thermophilic culture. The curd may be pre-pressed under the whey
to obtain smoother and more uniform texture. Lipase may be added to produce a more
piquant flavour. Montasio is produced in wheels of 2 - 8 kg and is ripened 2 - 4 months for
mild table cheese and 12 - 18 months for grating cheese. The mild version is normally
vacuum packed before curing. The aged version is cured at 10C and is washed and turned
regularly. After several weeks, the ripening cheese may be oiled, waxed or vacuum packed.
Montasio is similar to the Canadian cheese, Friulano.


Procedure

1. Standardize milk to PF = 1.07 and pasteurize.
2. Add 1.0% thermophilic starter (0.5% each of S. thermophilus and L. bulgaricus) (or
equivalent DVS inoculum) at 30C. Ripen for 1 h or until acidity increases 0.01%.
is added. Curd should be firm enough to cut in 25 - 30 min.
4. Cut with 6 mm (1/4" ) knives when curd is firm.
5. Heat (slowly at first -- 2 degrees every 5 minutes) to a final temperature of 39C. Hold at
39C until the pH of the whey is 6.1 (about 2 hr. from the time of cutting).
6. Drain whey to the level of the curd.
7. Add hot water (60C) until the curd-whey mixture is 43C. Hold at 43C for 10 min.
with agitation.
8. Drain completely.
9. Place curd in cylindrical forms and let drain at room temperature overnight.
10. Place in salt brine for 12 hrs
11. Ripen at 85% RH and 12C for 1 - 3 months. Rub oil on the surface to prevent checking.
Alternatively, the cheese may be waxed or vacuum packed to produce a rindless cheese.

127
16. FIRM TO HARD CHEESE: LOW TEMPERATURE:
PROVOLONE, CHEDDAR

A. Provolone

The manufacturing procedures for Pasta Filata types (Mozzarella and Pizza cheese) and
Provolone are similar. These cheese are made using the principle of working or kneading the
curd to produce the desired melting and stretching properties. The principal differences are:
(1) Pasta Filata types contain less fat than Provolone; (2) In addition to mesophilic cultures,
Provolone requires thermophilic starters to promote curing while the Pasta Filata types are
usually made with mesophilic starters that are destroyed or severely retarded during the
process of working. (3) Provolone is suspended with ropes at 85% humidity for curing. The
following procedure is for Provolone.


Procedure

2. Add 1 to 2% mesophilic starter and thermophilic starter (S. thermophilus and L.
bulgaricus) (or equivalent DVS inoculum). Ripen at 30C for 1 h or until acidity
increases 0.01%.
3. Add lipase enzymes as directed by the manufacturer's instructions.
is added. Milk should set in 30 min.
5. Cut when curd is firm with 6 mm (1/4") knives.
6. Agitate gently for 10 min. and then cook according to the following schedule to a final
temperature of 39C in 30 min.
Begin heating 30.0C
5 min 30.5C
10 min 31.0C
15 min 32.5C
20 min 35.0C
25 min 37.0C
30 min 39.0C

128
7. Stir the curd and whey for about 10 min; then allow the curd to settle for 5 min. Drain
1/3 of the whey and store it in a cylindrical vat for use in Ricotta cheese manufacture.
Resume agitation until the pH of the whey is 6.1 - 6.2. Then allow the curd to settle for 5
min before removing the remaining whey.
8. Form the curd into a continuous slab 12 - 20 cm (5 - 8") deep and 45 cm (18") wide along
the sides of the vat. Trim the edges and put loose curd under the slab.
9. After 10 min. cut the slab into blocks 20 - 30 cm (8 - 12") wide and turn every 15 min.
until the pH is 5.4. Pile the blocks two high on the third turn.
10. When cheese pH is 5.4 and curd strings in 77C water, mill or cut the curd into strips as
in Cheddar cheese manufacture. If stretching is to be done by hand, wait until the pH is
5.2 - 5.0. Test the curd by dipping a small piece in hot water for 30-45 s or until the
whole piece is heated to 55-60C. Remove the curd from the water and stretch. When the
curd is ready to work, it should stretch easily to 25 - 50 cm without breaking. Do not
hurry to start working.
11. Work the curd in a mechanical stretch machine. Or, if working and stretching is to be
done by hand, cover the curd with its weight of hot (>70C) water. Fuse, stretch and
work curd until it looks and stretches like taffy. The internal temperature (greater than
50C) and pH (5.3 - 5.0) must be right for this appearance. Work and roll the stretched
curd into desired shapes. Beginners will not want to make the large styles at the first
attempt. Learn to seal the ends of the curd first. Keep curd hot while working by dipping
it in the hot water. When the curd is formed and sealed, drop it in cold water until chilled
and hardened in shape. If the curd gets to hot (>60C) or remains in the hot water too
long, it will lose stretchability and mouldability.
12. Float the curd in 22% salt brine. Salting time depends on the size of the cheese:
0.5 kg 20 hours
1 kg 1 days
10 kg 4 days
20 kg 7 days.

13. Hang the cheese in the conventional smooth rope or plastic netting. The cheese may be
lightly smoked in a cool room for 2 - 4 hrs. Alternatively, vacuum pack the cheese.

Process and Qaulity Control Notes

The pH at the time of draining is critical to the retention of calcium in the curd, and Ca is a
principal determinant of curd strength. For a stronger curd drain the whey at higher pH to
retain more Ca.
Other pasta filata cheese such as Mozzarella and Pizza are close cousins of Provolone. Pasta
filata cheese intended for use on pizza or similar application should be aged for 10-12 days to

129
improve melting properties. This effect is possibly due to proteolysis or perhaps due to
equilibration reactions among casein and the Ca salts of phosphate and citrate.

B. Cheddar

Standards: 39% moisture, 30% fat.

Procedure

1. Standardize milk to PF = 0.91, pasteurize and cool to 30C before adding starter. Note a
PF ratio of 0.94 -0.96 will produce a legal cheese with respect to fat content (31% fat wet
basis, or 50% fat dry basis). However, a somewhat lower PF ratio incorporates more fat
in the cheese, which is economically desirable when the price of milk protein exceeds the
price of milk fat.
2. Add 1% of S. lactis and/or S. cremoris bulk starter (or equivalent DVS inoculum). Ripen
until acidity increases by 0.01% or until pH decreases by 0.05 units (about 1 h.).
3. Measure 70 ml cheese colour per 1,000 kg milk (optional). Dilute the colour with 20
volumes of water and add the mixture to the milk. Mix well.
is added.
5. Cut, using 6 mm (1/4") knives when curd is firm. Agitate gently.
6. Start cooking 15 min after cutting according to the following schedule.
Begin heating 30.0C
5 min 30.5C
10 min 31.0C
15 min 32.5C
20 min 35.0C
25 min 37.0C
30 min 39.0C

7. Hold at 39C until pH is 6.1 (about 75 min from the time the temperature reaches 39C or
2 h from the time of cutting). If the acidity is increasing too quickly, the temperature
may be raised slightly (maximum 40C) to retard the culture.
8. When curd pH is 6.0 - 6.1 (whey pH 6.2 - 6.3) remove the whey. After the bulk of the
whey is removed stir out the curd one, two or three times depending on desired cheese
moisture content.

130
9. Form the curd into a continuous slab 12 - 20 cm (5 - 8") deep and 45 cm (18") wide along
the sides of the vat. Trim the edges and put loose curd under the slab. After about 10
min, trim the front edge and cut the curd into blocks about 25 cm (10") wide. Turn the
blocks every 15 min until the pH is 5.4-5.3 (about 2 h after draining). At the second turn,
pile the blocks two high and then three high at the third turn.
10. Cut the blocks of curd into 10 -13 cm (4-5 inch) strips and pass the strips through the
curd mill. Stir the cheese curds every ten min or so until the cut edges become round and
smooth (about 30 min after milling).
11. Distribute the salt uniformly over the curd and mix well. The final salt content of the
cheese should be about 1.7%. Calculate the required amount of salt as follows:
a. Estimate cheese yield as: Yield = (% fat + % protein) k
where k is a factor dependent on cheese moisture. K values corresponding
to 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39% moisture are 1.40, 1.42, 1.44, 1.46 and 1.48,
respectively.
b. The required amount of salt is 2.5% of the estimated yield. This value is higher
than the final 1.7% content because considerable whey drainage occurs after
salting.
12. After the salt is well absorbed and the flow of whey has stopped, the curd is ready for
hooping. Use 20 lb (9 kg) hoops and place 22 lb (9.9 kg) of curd in each hoop. The
hoops should be lined with plastic, single service press cloths.
13. Press overnight at 75 kPa (10 - 20 lbs/in
2
). Start with low pressure and gradually
increase to 75 kPa. Vacuum treatment to remove air from the cheese and increase the
rate of cooling may be applied during or after pressing. In modern commercial practice,
pressing is often shortened to as little as one hour.
14. Vacuum pack the cheese blocks and store at 5 -8C for curing. Warmer temperatures (10-
15C) develop flavour more rapidly, but quality control is difficult. Raw milk cheese by
law must be "held at 2C or more for a period of 60 days or more from the date of the
beginning of the manufacturing process" (Canadian Food and Drug Act and Regulations
Sections B.08.030 and B.08.042 to B.08.048).

Grading

Special samples for grading should be kept at 14.4-15.5C for 2 days after the date of
manufacture. These samples cured at high temperature give an indication of the probable
quality of the aged cheese. If, in the judgement of the grader, the cheese is not sufficiently
mature to properly assess its quality, the grading should be deferred until it has reached a
suitable maturity. Other samples should be taken from the curing room at about 3 and 6

131
months during a 9 month curing period.

132
FIRM TO HARD CHEESE: HIGH TEMPERATURE: ROMANO, SWISS

A. Romano


Procedure

2. Add 1.5% thermophilic bulk starters: 0.74% L. bulgaricus and 0.75% S. thermophilus
(or equivalent DVS cultures). Ripen briefly (15 min.) at 32C.
3. Add lipase according to the manufacturers instructions. Measure 190 ml single strength
rennet per 1,000 kg milk. Dilute the rennet with 20 volumes of water and add the
mixture to the milk. Mix for about two minutes and then remove the agitators. Ensure
the milk temperature is stabilized at 32C before the rennet is added.
4. Cut when curd is still somewhat soft using a double cut with 6 mm (1/4") knives.
Continue cutting using the vertical knives until the curd is the size of rice grains.
5. Cook from 32 - 46C in 50 min.
6. When the pH is 6.1 - 6.2, allow the curd to settle. Then push the curd away from the gate
and level it beneath the surface of the whey. Drain the whey. Cut portions of the curd to
fit dressed hoops. In the Guelph lab, use a 25 kg cylindrical hoop.
7. Allow 20 min without pressing; then stack the hoops double for 20 min. Reverse the
hoops and hold for another 20 min. Then press for 60 min. Hold overnight at room
temperature without pressure.
8. Place cheese in a salt brine for 48 - 96 hrs (48 hrs. for 9 kg blocks).
9. Dry cheese for 48 h at 10C and 85% RH.
10. Cure at 10 - 15C for at least 5 months and regularly rub the surface with mineral oil.
Alternatively, the cheese may be vacuum packed.

Cheese composition should be 32% moisture and 21% fat.

B. Swiss Type Cheese

Swiss (Emmentaler) cheese was first made in the fifteenth century in the Emmental Valley.
Swiss varieties made in other areas are known by local names: Gruyere (Switzerland),
Allfauer Rundkase (Bavaria), Battlematt (Switzerland), Fontina (Italy), Traanon

133
(Switzerland) and Samso (Denmark). Swiss is traditionally made in copper kettles, drained
using a cloth and formed into large wheels of up to 130 kg. The procedure described here is
for a rindless Swiss type that is formed in a press table in approximately 20 kg blocks, brine
salted and then film wrapped for curing.

The distinctive feature of Swiss cheese is the formation of eyes by the gas forming bacteria
Propioni bacterium shermanii. The manufacturing procedure is designed to provide the right
chemical composition for the growth of P. shermanii and the right texture (sufficient
elasticity) for bubble formation. Important manufacturing parameters are: (1) high draining
pH (about 6.3), which promotes retention of minerals; (2) high cooking temperature (52C)
which promotes mineral retention and the loss of both moisture and lactose by syneresis; (3)
high final pH (5.3 - 5.4) and mineral content which promote elasticity. The final pH is
influenced by the amount of Lactobacillus helveticus which is added in the starter because
this organism is able to metabolize both glucose and galactose.


Procedure

1. Standardize milk to PF = 1.1 by removing cream or adding skim milk. Do not add skim
milk powder. Pasteurize.
2. Add starters through a fine mesh screen, especially if the starter was made with
reconstituted skim milk. Add 0.1% S. thermophilus, 0.1% L. helveticus and 0.005%
Propioni bacterium shermanii bulk starters or equivalent amounts of DVS starters.
Ripen briefly (10 - 15 min.) at 37C.
is added.
4. Cut when curd is firm using 6 mm (1/4") knives. Continue cutting vigorously with the
vertical knives until curd size is reduced to the size of rice grains. If curd is forming
clumps, cut more vigorously and begin agitation as soon as rice grain particles are
achieved. Cutting speed is increased as the curd becomes less fragile. Too much cutting
initially will cause dusting. The cutting process should take about 5 min. Do not allow
the curd to clump.
5. Stir out the curd with vigorous agitation until the curd is firm and resilient when gently
pressed (30 - 60 min.). There should be little acid development at this point (pH 6.55 -
6.50).
6. Cook the curd from 37C to 52C in 30 min. Heat slowly at first (1 - 1.5C in 5 min).

134
Rapid heating causes "case hardening" which traps moisture and acid inside the curd
particles. Curd cooked too slowly may also be too acid. Continue vigorous agitation to
prevent matting until the pH is 6.3 - 6.4. Experienced cheese makers look for the proper
`grip' before removing the whey. Curd pH should not be less than 6.3 at whey
separation.
7. Stop agitation, allow the curd to settle and pump the whey into the moulding vat until the
discharge pipe is beneath the surface of the whey. During this time check pump and
pipes for air leaks. Shut off the pump and resume vigorous agitation to break up clumps.
Then, pump the curd and whey into the moulding vat. Be careful to match output with
input so that the curd is always covered in whey. When the make vat is nearly empty,
recycle whey back into it to transfer all curd without drawing air. Make sure that the
curd fills the vat evenly and forms a level surface under the whey.
Alternatively but not preferably, the curd and whey may be dipped from the setting vat
to the press table. In that case, try to minimize air incorporation and gently stir the curd
and whey as it enters the curd table to encourage the air to rise and escape from the
surface.
8. Cover the surface of the cheese with a double layer of cloth and place the press plates on
top. At this stage loose curd must not be added to the curd mass. Add weights and let
stand for 15 - 30 min and then drain the whey from the moulding vat. Let stand for 1 hr.
Remove the press plates and the surface cloth and also remove all loose curd particles
and protruding edges. Then replace the cloths, cover with terry cloth to help dry the
surface, position the press plates and add the weights. Press for 12 - 18 h at room
temperature (22C if possible).
9. Remove the press plates and cloths, and cut the cheese into blocks (approximately 20 kg).
Cheese pH at this time should be 5.2 - 5.4.
10. Place the curd in 23% brine at 10C and liberally salt the surface. Brining requires 48 -
60 h with frequent agitation.
11. After brining, immerse the cheese in the brine to remove salt particles from the surface
and then store at 10C to dry the surface. Vacuum the blocks in pouches sufficiently
large to permit expansion (15 - 20%) during eye formation.
12. Store at 10C for 8 - 10 days for cooling and pre-ripening. Then, transfer to the warm
room (23C) for curing and eye formation.
13. When eye development is complete (2 - 3 weeks), place the cheese in the finishing cooler
(2 - 5C) to stop eye development and to firm the cheese in preparation for cutting.
Flavour development continues in the finishing cooler.

135
Acid development and ripening

Drainage in the press is affected by the rate of acid development which in turn is affected by
the curd temperature and the activity of the organisms. At draining, the temperature is too
high for any of the organisms to grow but as soon as the curd cools to about 49C, S.
thermophilus begins to grow. The rods (L. helveticus) begin to grow about 5 h after draining
when the temperature in the cheese is about 45C and growth factors have been provided by
the metabolism of the cocci. The following morning the temperature of the curd should be
about 36C. Too rapid cooling does not allow enough acid development. The pH changes
during curing are:

Time pH
21 hr 5.00 - 5.15
15 days 5.20 - 5.25
30 days (eye formation) 5.30 - 5.35
75 days 5.45 - 5.55
6 months 5.50 - 5.60
9 months 5.60 - 5.90

The numbers of both rods and cocci decrease rapidly during the first 15 - 30 days of curing.
Propioni bacteria multiply rapidly to about 100 million/g during 6 - 8 weeks. Propioni
bacteria ferment lactic acid and produce propionic acid, acetic acid, water and carbon
dioxide. Eyes formed by carbon dioxide production should be 1.9 - 2.5 cm in diameter and
should be spaced 2.5 - 7.6 cm apart. The number of eyes depends on the rate of gas
production. If gas is produced too rapidly the cheese will be overset with many small eyes.
Little or no gas production causes a `blind' cheese. Any factor causing weakness or
brittleness of the curd will result in defective eyes.

Defects
Glasler: brittle curd resulting in defective or too few eyes.
Pressler: pin holes due to contamination with Aerobacter aerogenes or Bacillus polymyxa.
Nissler: Clusters or nests of holes possible due to lactose fermenting Clostridia sp. or an
accumulation of fat in the area.
Late gas formation: due to Clostridium butyricum or Clostridium lentoputrescens, which
especially the latter, produce stinker cheese, and are inhibited at pH<5.3.

136
18. HEAT-ACID PRECIPITATED CHEESE

A. Ricotta Cheese

Ricotta cheese is made from heat-acid precipitation of proteins from whey or whey-milk
blends. The best Ricotta is made from very sweet whey (pH 6.4 - 6.5) without any addition
of milk or acid. During heating whey proteins begin to coagulate at about 70C. The rate of
coagulation increases as the temperature is raised to 90C and a thick layer of curd forms on
the surface of the whey. When coagulation is complete and the curd is firm (after 10 - 20
min. at 90C), the curd is removed with perforated scoops and placed in forms. After
removing the first rise, addition of acid (to about pH 5.9) will induce a second rise of coarser
curd. If the pH is correct the whey should become clear.

It is now uncommon to make Ricotta cheese from whey only because: (1) Sweet whey with
pH > 6.4 is not always available; (2) the traditional hand skimming process of removing the
floating curd is hot and tedious; and (3) yields are low. All of these problems are avoided or
reduced by adding milk or skim milk before heating. Whey pH as low as 6.1 is then
acceptable, the curd can be recovered by mechanical means and the yield is increased. The
following is a procedure for the manufacture of Ricotta cheese from blends of milk and
whey.

Thanks to John van Esch for some fine tuning of the following procedure.

Procedure

1. Collect whey (pH > 6.1) and weigh it into a cylindrical vat. Sweeter whey (pH > 6.4) is
preferred. Immediately heat the whey to 50C to stop culture growth.
2. Add milk or skim milk (up to 25% of the total weight).
3. Heat by direct steam injection from the bottom of the vat to 80-85C with gentle
agitation.
4. Add citric acid (5% solution) or vinegar to induce maximum coagulation of caseins and
whey proteins. The required amount is about 140 g citric acid monohydrate per 1,000 kg
of whey-milk blend. The required amount can be determined exactly by titrating a
sample of the blend to pH 5.9-6.0 at 20C. Alternatively, add the acid slowly until the
whey becomes clear.
5. While adding the acid, continue heating with no or very little agitation to 90-95C.
6. Hold the curd for an additional 10 min. at > 90C. Then scoop the curd into the forms
using perforated ladles. Fill the forms in rotation until they are level full.

137
7. Cover the forms with a clean cloth, place chopped ice on the cloth, and roll the drain
table into a cold room (0 - 4C). When the curd is cool it can be packaged in plastic tubs
or wrapped in wax paper for immediate sale.
Notes: Ricotta cheese may also be creamed and/or pressed before packaging. A cured, dry
Ricotta type cheese called Myzithra is made in Greece.

B. Gryphon Frying Cheese

Introduction

Gryphon frying cheese is a white, semi-soft cheese with a bland, slightly acid flavour and
good sliceability. The cheese can be produced from whole milk or recombined milk by
direct acidification at elevated temperatures. Milk is heated to 85C and held for 5 min
followed by the addition of a citric acid solution. The curd is formed as a result of co-
precipitation of casein and the whey proteins.

Milk for Gryphon cheese is standardized to a protein to fat ratio of up to 1.2. This will
increase the total solids (TS) of milk from about 12% to 14-15% TS and produce yields of
16-18% (16-18 kg cheese per 100 kg milk).

After draining, the curd is salted hot and agitated manually or with forking agitators, hooped,
and pressed. Chilling the curd overnight allows easier handling before packaging. Vacuum
packaging is necessary to prevent mould growth. The cheese is held in refrigerated storage
for about 2-3 days to allow the curd to become firm and sliceable.

Gryphon Frying Cheese contains no added bacterial culture, so it is important to avoid
contamination of the curd. Contamination will result in sour, unclean flavours upon storage.
An alternate packaging system which minimizes contamination is to extrude the hot salted
curd into sausage casings.

Gryphon Frying Cheese normally contains 52-53% moisture, 22-24% protein, 16-18% fat, 2-
3% lactose, 2.5% salt, and has a pH of 5.3-5.5.

Materials - Raw milk or recombined milk
- Citric acid monohydrate C
6
H
8
O
7
.H
2
O or citric acid C
6
H
8
O
7.

- Calcium chloride dihydrate CaC
2
.2H
2
0 (optional)
- Skim milk powder
- Salt

Procedure

138

1. Standardize milk to a PF of 1.2 using skim milk powder or other sources of non fat milk
solids.
2. Weight out the required citric acid monohydrate. Dilute the required amount of citric acid
monohydrate with hot water (about 80C) to form a 3.0% solution. The dilution helps
ensure gradual acidification (no hot spots), which encourages formation of large
aggregates of proteins, rather than small grainy particles. The required amount of citric
acid monohydrate as a percentage of milk weight can be calculated using the equation
below. For anhydrous citric acid multiply the result by 0.914.
% citric acid monohydrate = 0.09124 + 0.07075 (% milk protein)
3. Heat standardized milk to 85C and hold for 5 min.
4. Slowly pump coagulant solution into the vat with gentle agitation (almost no agitation).
Turn on steam to maintain high temperature. Hold for 10-15 min to allow curd to settle.
5. Open the gate and drain the whey.
6. Trench and stir curd to allow maximum drainage.
7. Salt curd directly in the vat and mix thoroughly for uniform distribution.
Weight of salt = 2.0% of expected yield
Expected % yield = 4.83 (% milk protein) -3.64
8. Hoop while still hot.
9. Press for 3-4 hours at 75 kPa (11 lbs/in
2
)
10. Chill the cheese in the hoops overnight in a 2 - 4C cooler.
11. Vacuum package.

C. Paneer (contributed by Sunil Radhakrishnan, MSc grad, 2004)

Paneer has been made in India for generations, mainly in the home. Milk is coagulated by
lime juice, citric acid solution, sour whey, or lactic cultures. Citric acid solution generally
gives a cleaner flavour to the Paneer than sour whey, which may give off flavours and
odours. Lime juice as a coagulant imparts a good flavour to the Paneer. Paneer made from
6% fat buffalo milk (in India) has the best body, flavour and texture, but it is also made from
cow milk. Paneer pH is typically 5.7 - 6.0 and its composition when made from 6% fat milk
is 57% moisture and 26% fat.

139
Procedure
1. Heat fresh milk to 82C, hold for 5 min and cool to 70C.
2. Prepare coagulant of 2% citric acid solution (generally, 2 - 2.5 g citric acid is required to
coagulate one kg of milk). Heat the coagulant to 70C so the milk and the coagulant are
at the same temperature. The quantity of coagulant added should be sufficient to give a
clear whey separation. Agitate gently, when adding the coagulant to the milk to avoid
breaking up the curds.
3. After the greenish white tinge of the whey is seen (pH 5.7 - 6.0), a final slow stir is given
and the curd is allowed to settle for 5 - 10 minutes.
4. Separate the curd and whey using a muslin cloth. Whey temperature should not fall
below 63C.
5. Fill cloth lined hoops and press for 15- 20 min.
6. Remove pressed Paneer from the hoop, cut into required sizes and immerse in chilled
water (4- 6C) or 5% brine solution (4- 6%) for 2 - 3 hours to make it firm. After chilling
treatment, the Paneer is surface-dried to remove free water and then vacuum-packaged in
HDPE (high density polyethylene) bags.
7. Store at 5 - 8C (refrigeration temperature).

Notes:
Since moisture is high, Paneer is prepared and consumed immediately due to shelf-life
problems. It can be cut conveniently into cubes, fried in oil and added in vegetable salads or
garnished in curry preparations. Some people apply corn flour paste and barbecue it.

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19. FRESH CHEESE

There are four principal types of acid coagulated fresh cheese: Cottage cheese (North
American), Quark types such as Baker's cheese (European), Cream cheese, and heat-acid
precipitated types such as ricotta (Italy), Paneer (India), and Gryphon Frying Cheese
(Guelph). With some qualifications it can be said that these types are all made by acid
coagulation of caseins rather than rennet coagulation. The qualifications are that small
amounts of rennet are used to improve the texture of cottage cheese, and heat-acid
precipitation includes whey proteins in the casein coagulum. Some heat-acid varieties are
described in the previous section. This section describes several varieties that are normally
acidified by lactic acid fermentation.

A. Cottage Cheese - Short Set (Emmons & Tuckey, 1967)

Manufacturing procedures may differ considerably and still yield a high-quality product.
They differ chiefly in temperature of setting and in amounts of starter and rennet. Procedures
differ also in the size of curd, creaming rates, type of cream, the degree of "cottage cheese
flavour" and added condiments.

Procedure

1. Add 5% of starter to pasteurized skim milk at 32C. Stir well for 10-15 min.
2. Add single strength rennet at the rate of 3 ml per 1,000 kg of skim milk at the time the
starter is added, or 1 to 1 hours later. If the A-C test is used to determine the cutting
time, take the A-C test sample before adding the rennet.
3. Determine the cutting time using pH measurements of the curd, the A-C test or titratable
acidity of the whey. Optimum values for pH at cutting depend on the heat treatment and
composition (total solids) of the skim milk. Generally, pH of 4.80 in the curd can be used
for normal skim milk when rennet is used. Use 1.2 cm (3/8") knives.
4. After cutting, the curd is left undisturbed for 15 to 20 min while the water in the jacket is
heated in preparation for cooking.
5. Raise the temperature of the heating water at a rate such that the temperature in the vat
rises 0.5C each 5 min for the first 30 min. After this, the rate may be doubled and
eventually tripled until a final cooking temperature of 54 - 57C is reached about 2 hours
later. Stirring should be gentle to prevent shattering, yet frequent enough to prevent
matting. If both matting and shattering occur, the rate of heating is probably too fast.
6. The proper firmness should be reached after holding 15 to 20 minutes at 54-57C. The
curd should be checked frequently during cooking to ensure that it does not become too
firm. The pH or acidity at cutting is the chief factor influencing the firmness of curd at

141
the final cooking temperature. If curd is consistently too firm at 54-57C, the cutting
acidity should be raised, or the cutting pH should be lowered slightly. If curd is
consistently too soft at 54-57C, the cutting acidity should be lowered, or the cutting pH
should be raised slightly. Judge firmness of curd after cooling in water to 15-20C.
7. After cooking, drain the whey until the whey first disappears below the surface of the
curd mass, and then add the first wash water. If three wash waters are used, the first is at
20-25C, the second at 10C and the third at 1.5-5C. If two wash waters are used, the
first is at 15C and the second at 1.5-5C. The curd should remain in contact with each
wash for 15 to 20 min and should be stirred frequently but carefully.
8. Trench the curd carefully while draining the final wash water. Continue draining until the
free water has completely drained (30-60 min).
9. Add salt (1% of the weight of curd) either directly to the curd or in the cream.
10. Add homogenized cream (18%) to give 4% fat in the creamed curd. If cream of lower fat
content is used it is necessary to increase its viscosity using stabilizers to prevent excess
free cream in the curd.

Expected yield: 6 x casein content or about 14 - 16%.

The A-C Test

1. Add starter to the skim milk in the vat. Mix well.
2. Place a sample of the well-mixed starter and skim milk in the A-C test beaker. Cover and
take precautions against cooling.
3. Add rennet to the skim milk in the vat immediately after taking the A-C test sample. Mix
well.
4. Immediately suspend the A-C test beaker in the vat so that the surface of the skim milk in
the beaker is a little below that in the vat. Cover the vat.
5. Periodically check the vat for coagulation. After it is coagulated begin to check the A-C
beaker for coagulation with a spatula or thin knife with as little disturbance of the skim
milk as possible.
6. As soon as coagulation in the A-C beaker is first detected, cut the coagulating skim milk
2 or 3 times with the spatula and repeat the operation at 5 min intervals.
7. Observe the surface of the A-C test samples for the appearance of fine lines of whey in
the cuts made previously with a spatula. The A-C end-point is that time when the fine
lines of whey first appear and usually occurs 10 - 20 min after coagulation is first
detected.

Reference
Emmons, D.B. and Tuckey, S.L. 1967. Pfizer cheese Monographs -7. Cottage cheese and

142
other cultured products. Pfizer & Co. New York, N.Y.

B. Quark

Quark (sometimes called European style cottage cheese or quarg) represents a group of soft
fresh cheese of varying moisture and fat contents. The procedure described below produces a
relatively firm, granular curd structure. If a smooth textured product (such as Baker's cheese)
is desired, the pH at the time of breaking the curd should be 4.5 to 4.4 and no cooking is
required. The soft smooth curd must then be separated in cloth bags or by a centrifuge. In
Europe the majority of Quark and Cream type cheese are produced using ultra filtration to
concentrate skim milk protein either before or after ripening.

Procedure

1. Pasteurize the skim milk at 62C for 30 min.
2. Cool the skim milk to 32C.
3. Add a low temperature cheese starter (Streptococcus lactis or cremoris) at the rate of 5%.
Let milk set for 4-6 h until a soft gel is formed. The pH should be about 4.8 and clear
whey should appear when the curd is cut with a spatula. Alternatively 1% of culture may
be used with a setting time of 12-18 hours.
4. Stir gently to break up the curd and heat slowly to 52C. Initial heating rate should not
exceed 0.5C in 5 min. Hold at 52C until the curd is firm (about 1.5 h from the time
of breaking the curd).
5. Drain most of the whey and replace it with 10C water to leach the acid flavour from the
curd. Washing may be omitted if you prefer an acid cheese. It may be convenient to
drain the curd in a cloth bag, in which case, it could be washed by soaking the whole bag
in cold water for 15 min.
6. Add cream or cream dressing to the curd according to taste. Suggestion: 4 - 8% using
18% homogenized cream.

C. Cream Cheese

Cream cheese according to the Food and Drug Directorate is the cheese made from cream or
milk to which cream has been added. It may contain not more than 0.5% stabilizer and shall
not contain more than 55% moisture and not less than 30% milk fat.

The following procedure is a cold pack method. For greater shelf life and smoother texture,
cream cheese or Neufchatel cheese can be blended with 50% cream, heated, homogenized

143
and hot-packed. Neufchatel cheese is similar to cream cheese, but has a lower fat content.
Cream cheese is now frequently made by ultra filtration procedures.

Conventional Procedure

1. Standardize: Cream should be 11-20% fat. Cream of 11% fat is required to make a legal
cheese.
2. Pasteurize the cream (70C, 30 min).
3. Homogenize at 1000-1500 psi (6900 - 10300 kPa) at 63C and cool to 30C.
4. Add 30 kg (lb) starter and 1 ml of single strength rennet per 1000 kg (lb) of cream.
5. When the acidity increases to 0.6 -.75 (pH 4.6) stir the curd thoroughly to remove lumps.
Add water at 76C directly to the curd until the temperature is 51C. Curd should be
smooth and creamy. Coarse or mealy texture at this stage is due to low fat or lack of acid
development.
6. Pour the hot curd and whey into draining bags. Sterilize the bags in boiling water before
use.
7. Allow the whey to drain freely for about 2 h. After the correct consistency is obtained,
salt the curd with 0.75% salt.
8. Pack the cheese in appropriate sized moulds lined with Saran, press lightly, and chill to
2C.

Yield: 2.7-3.1 kg of cheese per kg of fat.

Flavouring: Many flavouring materials may be used such as olives, nuts, mayonnaise,
pickles, relish and pimento.

Ultra filtration Procedure For Cream Cheese

The following procedure was developed by Maubois of France and is described along
with other UF cheese making procedures by Glover (1985).

1. Pasteurize 11% cream.
2. Add 1% lactic starter.
3. Ultrafilter 3.3x based on fat content. This provides 30 kg of pre-cheese per 100 kg 11%
cream. The pre-cheese will contain 36.5% fat (11 x 3.3), about 11% protein and about
48% total solids.
4. Ripen to pH 5.6.

144
5. Add 0.16 kg salt per 100 kg original cream.
6. Add 0.16 kg locust bean gum per 100 kg original cream.
7. Heat to 54C.
8. Homogenize.
9. Package.

Reference

Glover, F.A. 1985. Ultra filtration and Reverse Osmosis For the Dairy Industry. Technical
Bulletin 6. National Institute for Research in Dairying, Reading, England.

145
20. PROCESSED CHEESE

20.1. Introduction

Processed cheese originated in Germany in 1885. Independent development in U.S. resulted
in an American patent in 1917 by J.L. Kraft. The process offers the opportunity to 'engineer'
and preserve cheese products.

20.2. Standards: Canadian Regulations

Processed cheese must be made from cheese in which the maximum content of moisture is
less than 40%. Maximum moisture is 3% more than the maximum for the cheese variety
used. Minimum fat is 2% less than the minimum for the variety used. If more than one
variety is used the standards are calculated on the basis of the mean standards for the
varieties used.

Processed cheese food must contain 51% cheese, not more than 46% moisture and not less
than 22% fat.

Processed cheese spread must contain 51% cheese, not more than 60% moisture and not less
than 20% fat.

Processed cheese product may contain non dairy fat and other non dairy solids.

20.3. Ingredients

Cheese
Any type of natural cheese is permitted . In U.S. and Canada, the cheese base is usually
Cheddar or Cheddar types where a 3 month blend (some old cheese with young cheese for an
average age of 3 months) is preferred. Most Cheese used in processing is prepared especially
for processing, usually stirred curd Cheddar or cheese base prepared by ultra filtration.
Processing is an outlet for trimmings and 2nd grade cheese, but these represent a small
portion of total process cheese volumes.

Younger cheese is now more frequently used. Flavour is supplemented with spices and/or
Cheddar flavour preparations (e.g. enzyme modified Cheddar). Too much young cheese
gives a corky firm texture to the processed cheese because with aging the proteins are broken
down to shorter chains which have less interaction with each other and less elasticity, water
holding capacity and emulsification capacity

Non-cheese Non Fat Milk Solids (NFMS)

146

Any type of milk non-fat solids (skim milk powder, milk protein concentrates, whey protein
concentrate (usually 35% protein), whey powder, sodium caseinate) can be used with the
following qualifications:
Caseinates bind water strongly and contribute sheen. Too much caseinate makes the
batch too firm and gummy.
Denatured whey proteins contribute water holding capacity, but too much whey
protein will impair meltability. My educated guess of an upper limit is about 1.5% of
the batch.
The amount of non fat milk and whey solids is limited by lactose content. More than
15% of lactose as a percentage of processed cheese moisture will cause crystallization
during cold storage.

Fat

From cheese or added as cream, butter or butter oil.
Cheese fat is generally present in fat globules with intact fat globule membranes.
If butter or butter oil is used artificial membranes composed mainly of casein are
formed during processing, however,
The fat source is apparently of little consequence except for moisture considerations.

Melting Salts
Also called, emulsifying salts, but are not emulsifiers in the true sense.
Commonly used salts are: sodium citrate, sodium aluminium phosphate (SALP),
Monosodium phosphate (MSP), Disodium phosphate (DSP, Trisodium phosphate
(TSP), and various polyphosphates.
Most common are sodium citrate and MSP.
Functional role is to bind calcium, so calcium associated with casein is replaced by
sodium. The resulting sodium caseinate is more soluble and has increased water
holding and emulsification capacities. The physical effects are: the proteins swell
with increased hydration, product viscosity increases, and the oil in water emulsion is
stabilized.
Emulsifying salt blends are designed for specific products. For example process
cheese slices require a different texture than process cheese

Acid
Citric acid is used to adjust pH. Melting salts raise the pH or at least increase the
buffer capacity of the cheese.
pH should be < 5.6 to prevent germination and growth of anaerobic spores. The risk is
probably greater with high moisture cheese spreads.
Low pH: crumbly, firm texture, de-emulsification.

147
High pH: protein bonding and solubility improve and the cheese more elastic and
smooth with better emulsification; there is also more risk of germination of Clostridia
spores.

Emulsifiers

Mono- and diglycerides may be added in small quantities but may actually interfere with
emulsification by preventing protein-fat interactions

Preservatives

Sorbic acid is commonly used as mould inhibitor. Inverting jars for a minute or two after
filling also helps to control mould by destroying mould spores in the head space.

Colour

Various water dispersable and heat stable formulations of annatto, Beta-carotene and Apo-8-
Carotenol are available to colour process cheese. Annatto preparations used to colour natural
cheese are not stable in process cheese.

Moisture

When heated by direct steam injection, about 10% of batch weight is incorporated as
condensate for most systems. Additional moisture is added as required.

20.4. Process Systems

Stephan cookers are convenient for small scale production. Reducing, heating and
blending are completed in one operation.
Larger scale processes use continuous lay down cookers.
The basic process is:
Cheese selection and analysis
Formula calculation
Trimming, shredding (reducing), blending and heating
Homogenization (optional for process cheese but advised for spreads)
Packaging and cooling
Quality control (pH, moisture, fat, shelf stability using high temp storage),

20.5. Microbiology

148

Process cheese is a medium acid food with relatively high moisture content, which means
that strictly speaking it should be sterilized before storing and distributing at ambient
temperature. However, the product has been "grandfathered" in and few incidents of food
poisoning have been associated with process cheese products. Some precautions are:
Use sanitized packaging
Make sure the pH is not more than 5.6.
Use phosphates in the blend of emulsifying salts to inhibit germination of
Clostridium spores.

20.6 Calculations

Suppose a processor wishes to make process cheese food of legal composition (46%
moisture, 22% fat). To allow for error he decides to set his target composition at 43%
moisture and 24% fat. The ingredients on hand are Colby cheese (42% moisture, 29% fat),
Cheddar cheese (39% moisture, 30 % fat), butter (16% moisture, 80% fat), whey powder
(70% lactose, <1% fat, 4% moisture) and a commercial blend of emulsifying salts. Calculate
the formula required for a 10 kg batch given that the weight of condensate added is 10% of
the batch and the amount of cheese added is 70% of the batch of which 75% is Cheddar
(75% of 70). See the composition control sheet and follow these steps:

1. Enter the final cheese composition and batch weight in the `Total' row.
2. Enter the composition of the ingredients.
3. Enter the total amounts (as percentage values) of Cheddar (75% of 70) and Colby (25%
of 70) in the 'Total' column.
4. Calculate the amounts (in percentages) of fat, moisture and NSF contributed by the
cheese. For example, the fat contributed by Cheddar is 30% of 52.6.
5. Calculate the percentage of fat required to bring the total fat to 24%, i.e., 24 - (5.1 + 15.8)
= 3.1 and enter this value in the `Fat' column opposite 'Butter'.
6. Calculate the total amount (% of batch) of butter required (3.1 x 100/80 = 3.9). The
amount of moisture (16% of 3.9) and solids-non-fat (4% of 3.9) contributed by butter can
now be calculated.
7. Enter the required percentage amounts of the various additives. Calculate the amount of
additional NSF required to bring the total SNF to 33%. Enter this amount in the NSF
column for whey protein concentrate. Note, any combination of whey powder, skim milk
powder or whey protein concentrate can be used to adjust NSF providing the total
amount of lactose is less than 15% of the cheese moisture.
8. Enter the amount of water contributed by condensate and calculate the amount of

149
additional water required.
9. Determine the totals of each column and row to check your calculations.
10. Calculate the amounts of ingredients required per batch.
Note: The example given above is relatively simple and requires only simple arithmetic.
However, consider the case where a manufacturer has quantities of high moisture
cheese which he wishes to utilize in processing. He may then need to calculate the
maximum amount of this cheese that can be used to replace Cheddar without
exceeding the legal moisture content. In this and similar cases the various unknowns
must be defined in terms of required amounts of fat, NSF and moisture and the
resulting equations solved simultaneously.

20.7. Procedure

1. Select and analyze (moisture and fat) cheese for processing. Normally a three month
blend is preferred for processed Cheddar.
2. Calculate the formula.
3. Add all ingredients into the cooker.
4. Mix thoroughly (3 min at high speed).
5. Remove a sample for pH analysis. If the pH is higher than 5.6, add more acid.
6. Blend and heat with vacuum applied to 70C. Then turn vacuum pump off and continue
heating to 85C. Hold at 85C for 2 min.
7. Package process cheese hot in boxes. Spreads should be homogenized while still hot and
packaged in sanitized jars.
References

Price, W.V. and Bush, M.A. 1974. The process cheese industry in the United States: A
review. I. Industrial growth and problems. J. Milk and Food Technol. 37: 135 - 152. II.
Research and development. Ibid 37:179 - 198.

150
Table 20.1. Process Cheese Composition Control
Example

Ingredient Composition
%w/w
Ingredient Contribution
to Batch %w/w
Total
%
Batch
Kg
Ingredient
Fat H
2
O NFS Fat H
2
O NFS
Cheese A
(Colby)

29

42 29 5.0 7.4 5.0

17.4 1.74
Cheese B (6 mo
Cheddar)

30

39 31 15.8 20.5 16.3

52.6 5.26
Butter

80

16 4 3.2 0.6 0.2
4.0
0.40
Whey powder

nil

4 96 0.4 9.3

9.7 0.97
Emulsifying
Salts

100 1.0

1.0 0.10
Salt

100 1.0

1.0 0.10
Acidulant

100 0.2

0.2 0.020
Preservative

Colorant (mL)

100

30 ml
Water

100 4.1

4.1 0.41
Condensate

100 10.0

10.0 1.00
Target Processed Composition
24 43 33

100 10.0

151
Table 20.2. Process Cheese Composition Control

Ingredient Composition
%w/w
Ingredient Contribution
to Batch %w/w
Total
%
Batch
Kg Ingredient Fat H
2
O NFS Fat H
2
O NFS
Cheese A

Cheese B

Butter or
Butter oil
Skim or
Whey powder
Emulsifying
Salts
Salt

Acidulant

Preservative

Colorant (mL)

Water

Condensate

Target Processed Composition

152
21. LOW FAT CHEESE

21.1. Importance of Fat in Cheese

Contributes lubrication and creamy mouth feel.
Contributes flavour and acts as a reservoir for other flavours.
Fat globules disperse light and suppress translucence making the cheese appear
darker.
Fat globules occupy space in the protein matrix and prevents the formation of a
dense matrix, which produces a hard, corky cheese.

21.2. Current Status of Low-fat Cheese

Low-fat process cheese slices are well established in the market place.
One third reduced fat Cheddar (20% fat vs 31% full fat) is available in most
supermarkets.
Low-fat Cheddar, more than two thirds fat reduction (10% fat vs 31% full fat)
requires fat substitutes. The most successful substitutes to date are protein based
beads designed to imitate fat globules.
Starch is also being used to replace fat

21.3. Effects of Reduced-Fat On Cheese Composition

To maintain yield and avoid hardness, low-fat cheese requires higher moisture.
Typical target moisture for low fat Cheddar ranges from 42 - 48%.
Lower moisture (near 42%) can achieve 6 - 9 month aging and may have
some typical medium Cheddar flavour, but texture is hard.
Higher moisture (towards 48%) gives softer body, but causes gumminess
and shorter shelf life.
More moisture means increased moisture in the non-fat substance (MNFS) and
reduced salt in moisture (SM). To achieve SM for curing (SM > 3.6%) salt
content may need to exceed 2%, which gives too much salty flavour.
More moisture also means more lactose retention, which causes higher acidity.
Some manufacturers have used a washing step to leach out the excess lactose, but
washing causes a coarser texture and bland flavour.

21.4. Defects

Rubbery and flaky due to lack of lubricity and the tight protein matrix.
Gummy and chewy.
Bitterness caused by hydrophobic (fat soluble) peptides (protein fragments) which

153
result from curing. The amount, or at least the perceived amounts of these
peptides, is increased in low-fat cheese, perhaps because these hydrophobic
peptides are normally absorbed by the fat and are more available for tasting in low
fat cheese. Certain cultures have the ability to further break down these peptides
and reduce bitterness so that bitterness in low-fat cheese often peaks after a few
weeks and then decreases with further ripening.
Astringency is common in low fat cheese. It is distinct from bitterness, but often
confused with bitterness. It is not detected by the taste buds, but, rather is a
textural/physical perception at the back of the mouth. The perception may be
related to interaction of saliva with cheese components, probably certain peptides.
Meaty/brothy flavour is typical of low fat cheese. This is related to interaction of
amino acids (from protein breakdown) with alpha-dicarbonyls.
Unclean flavours related to non-starter bacteria are more pronounced in low fat
cheese. They can be reduced by microfiltration to remove most bacteria before
cheese manufacture.
Gas formation, probably due to non-starter bacteria encouraged by low SM, causes
slits. Again, this can be controlled by microfiltration of the milk.

21.5. Low-fat Cheddar Make Schedule

General Principles

Adjust each stage to include more moisture.
Keep pH higher at each stage relative to normal Cheddar.
Reduce nonstarter bacteria to a minimum and use highly active nonbitter cultures.

Standardization

Standardize to obtain about 35% FDM or about 20% fat in the cheese assuming 45%
moisture

Pasteurization

Normal HTST (72.5C, 16 s) is recommended.
There may be some advantage in higher temperature to denature whey proteins and
increase moisture retention.

Culture

154
Use normal levels of highly active, non bitter mesophilic LAB.
Culture adjuncts such as Lactobacillus bulgaricus or attenuated LAB cultures may be
used to enhance ripening.

Calcium Chloride
Recommended, especially if higher pasteurization temperatures are used.

Cutting
Larger than normal Cheddar to promote more moisture retention.

Cooking Temperature
Lower than normal, 37C versus 39C.

Draining
High pH, near 6.4.
Shorter cooking time

Stirring Out
Once or none.

Washing
May be necessary for high moisture cheese to reduce lactose content.

Salting
Normal, about 2.5% of expected yield.

Curing
Normal temperatures (5 - 10C).
Shorter time, especially for high moisture.

155
22. CHEESE MAKING FROM ULTRAFILTERED MILK

22.1. Terms and Principles

See Figure 5.1.

Reverse Osmosis (RO). RO is a pressure driven process where small molecules (molecular
weight less than 100 daltons, eg., water) are separated from larger molecules by a semi-
permeable membrane. In practice the term describes a concentration process where water is
removed to increase total solids content of a liquid. For example desalination can be
accomplished using (RO). It is appropriate to think of RO and the related membrane
processes, UF and nanofiltration, as chemical filters where the separation characteristics are
determined by the pore size of the membrane and the chemical interactions between the
product and the membrane. The most common RO membrane material is cellulose acetate
with operating pH of 5 -7. Dairy applications include supplementation of milk evaporators,
whey concentration, and waste treatment.

Ultra filtration (UF). UF is a membrane process similar to RO where semi-permeable
membranes are used to separate large molecules (molecular weight greater than 10,000) such
as proteins from small molecules such as sugars. Common membrane materials are
polysulfone (operating pH 2 - 12) and ceramic (pH 2-12, retort sterilizable).

Nanofiltration (NF). NF is a membrane process with separation characteristics intermediate
between RO and UF. It is designed to separate small minerals and ions from larger
molecules such as sugars. It is used to demineralise cheese whey as an alternative to ion
exchange and electrodialysis processes.

Microfiltration MF). MF is a membrane filtration process designed to separate particles
greater than 0.2 M. Principal dairy applications are spore removal from milk to prevent late
gas defect in cheese and to extend the shelf life of pasteurized milk.

Permeate and Retentate. Material passing through the membrane is called permeate, while
material retained by the membrane is retentate. For example, UF milk permeate is composed
of water, sugar, some minerals and non-protein nitrogen compounds. UF retentate is a
concentrate of milk fat and protein, including both caseins and whey proteins.

Component processing. Developments in membrane processing combined with other
conventional and emerging technologies make it possible to isolate and recombine milk
components in new ways to produce new products, process conventional products more
efficiently, or reduce waste.

156

22.2. Benefits of UF in the Dairy Industry

Countries most active in the study of the properties and processing of UF milk retentates are
France, U.S.A., Holland, England and Australia. The earliest and currently the largest dairy
applications of UF are for production of functional (i.e., undenatured) whey protein
concentrates and milk protein concentrates. Reverse osmosis is also used in whey
processing. Potential benefits of membrane processing are:

Reduced Farm Feed Costs. Permeate which could be removed at the farm contains lactose,
minerals and some nitrogen.

Reduced Cheese Manufacturing Costs. Reduced cooling and heating costs, lower rennet
needed, reduced capital equipment costs, and increased yield from better retention of whey
proteins in the cheese.

Reduced Transportation Costs. On farm UF would reduce milk volume by a factor of at
least 2, and UF-thermized milk could be picked up less frequently.

Economic Benefits to the Farmer of performing UF on the farm, are savings in both transpor-
tation and feed costs and the opportunity to market a value added product.

Product Standardization. It is possible to standardize the protein, fat and non-fat solids of all
dairy products. For example fluid milk is now skimmed to a legal minimum of 3.25% fat so
that on average about 6.0 kg of fat is removed per 1,000 kg of milk. UF makes it possible to
skim protein in the same way as we now skim fat. This practice will be increasingly
attractive as the value of milk protein relative to milk fat increases.

New Products. New cheese varieties, dairy spreads, high protein milks, milk based meal
supplements.

22.3 Properties of UF Milk Retentates

Composition. UF retains all milk fat and protein. Lactose permeates freely through the
membrane. Mineral retention is dependent on the association with proteins and decreases
with acidification.

Physical Properties. Fat globules are slightly reduced in size, indicating that some
homogenization takes place in the UF system. Casein micelles and whey proteins are
unaltered. Buffer capacity of UF retentates increases exponentially with total solids due to
the concentration of proteins and salts

157

Lactic Fermentation. Culture growth is normal but more acidity is required to reduce pH
because of the high buffer capacity of UF milk retentate..

Rennet Coagulation. If rennet is added proportional to milk volume rather than weight of
protein, rennet coagulation time (RCT) is unaffected by UF concentration. This means that,
relative to the amount of protein present, less rennet is required for coagulation. However,
the structure and properties of the gel are quite different than in normal milk, and for aged
Cheese there is insufficient rennet to promote ripening. Concentration by UF has the
remarkable effect of restoring rennetability to over pasteurized milk.

Milk Quality. UF activates the natural milk lipase and concentrates bacteria. However, UF
retentates have superior freeze-thaw stability, less oxidative rancidity, and greater
microbiological stability.

22.4. Development of UF Applications in the Cheese Industry

MMV Process. (Maubois et al., 1969) Concentrate to 5 - 7 x original milk protein content,
add both starter and rennet, incubate until both coagulation and lactic fermentation are
complete, and ripen. MMV is most successful for some fresh and soft-ripened cheese
varieties which have relatively low total solids and do not require rigorous pH control. It has
been most successful for Feta cheese. The chief difficulty is that the MMV process produces
close textured cheese which has led to two types of Feta: (1) Structured or conventional
Feta and;and (2) UF or cast Feta. The MMV process can also be used to manufacture cheese
base to extend young Cheddar in process cheese formulations. The amount of UF retentate in
process cheese products is limited by the presence of whey protein in the retentate which
impairs meltability of the cheese.

The LCR Process. LCR stands for low concentrated retentate. Milk is concentrated 1.5 - 2 x
original milk protein content. Cheese is made using minor modifications to traditional
procedures. LCR is now the principal process used in French Camembert providing the
advantages of slightly higher yields, labour savings, facilitation of continuous cheese
making, and increased plant capacity. Most types of hard cheese have been made by LCR
principles with varying degrees of success.

UF retentates in the mid range of concentration (2 - 5 x original protein content) have not
been successful with the possible exception of Feta. It is possible to produce higher yields of
Feta than via conventional means by heat treating retentate at sufficient levels to denature
whey proteins. Normally this would impair rennet function, but UF treatment restores
rennetability. The result is that denatured whey proteins are incorporated into the rennet gel,
thus increasing cheese yield. This permits manufacture of a structured Feta, similar to

158
traditional products, while realizing significant yield improvement. This practice has been
successful for Feta but not for most rennet cheese because the whey proteins impair
meltability and produce a coarse textured cheese.

TABLE 22.1. Ultra filtration of whole milk: typical composition of concentrate and
permeate (polysulfone membrane, tubular configuration, operation at 50C (Glover, 1985).

Concentrate
Volume
concentration Total
factor solids Fat Protein NPN Lactose Ash
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

x1 12.9 3.9 3.1 0.18 4.7 0.77
3 28.6 12.6 9.8 0.18 4.1 1.3
5 43.3 21.8 16.1 0.18 3.2 1.9

Permeate

x1 5.7 0 <.01 0.18 4.8 0.53

3 6.1 0 0.06 0.19 5.1 0.53

5 6.7 0 0.49 0.19 5.2 0.54
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

159
23. CHEESE SUBSTITUTES

23.1. Why:

Cost
Control functionality.
Nutrition: reduced cholesterol and saturated fats.
Longer shelf life.

23.2 Threat or Opportunity

Dairy manufacturers in US believe the market effect of substitutes is additive
because:
Their use as extenders (e.g., on pizza) lowers price and increases consumption
by cost sensitive consumers.
Some people using substitutes for dietary reasons would not consume natural
cheese.
It is the dairy companies producing substitutes not other food manufacturers

23.3 Varieties currently available in US

Cheddar - most popular
Mozzarella - industrial purposes, 60% used in pizza.
Others: Swiss, Colby, Gouda, Provolone, Process, Cream Cheese, Cheese Spreads

23.4 Types of Substitutes

Filled Cheeses
Skimmed milk and vegetable oils or blends of butter and vegetable oils.
Unpopular because you must work with low solids raw material.

Cheese Analogues
Synthetic: soya protein + soya oil + stabilizer/emulsifier + flavour
Partial Dairy: casein + soya oil + stabilizer/emulsifier + flavour
Dairy: casein + butter oil + stabilizer/emulsifier + flavour

160
23.4. Cheddar Cheese Substitute

Typical Formula

Ingredient % by weight
Sodium caseinate 13.0
Calcium caseinate 10.0
Vegetable oil 25.0
Lactic Acid 1.0
Stabilizer/emulsifier 1.0
Salt 1.5
Flavour (Enzyme modified cheese) 1.5
Water 34.0
Cheddar Cheese 13.0

Process

1. Melt the fat (eg., a partly hydrogenated coconut oil of melting point 37C) raise the
temperature to 70C.
2. Add the stabilizer system. Proprietary blends are available from several suppliers.
3. Blend the water into the oil with rapid agitation to form an emulsion.
4. Slowly, add the calcium caseinate to the oil/water emulsion while the temperature is
maintained at 70C. Then, blend in the sodium caseinate. Cheese texture will begin to
develop.
5. Blend in the Cheddar cheese and salt and then add the enzyme-modified cheese.
6. Add the acid together with a little annatto for colouring. The drop in pH has a dramatic
effect on texture development.
7. Fill moulds, cool to 5C and store overnight for flavour equilibration.

161
24. WHEY PROCESSING

Whey Composition

Cheese whey from full fat cheese is typically about 0.3% before separation
Fat: 0.04 to 0.06% after cream separation
Protein: 0.7% including nonprotein nitrogen
o About 0.5% can be recovered by heat precipitation
o About 0.6% can be concentrated by ultrafiltration
Lactose: 4.8%
Total solids: about 6%

Other whey properties

Dilute
Acid whey: pH < 5.0
o Cottage cheese, cream cheese, quark
o High mineral content
o Difficult to process; uses are limited
Sweet whey: pH > 5.0
o Most rennet coagulated varieties
o Utilization in Canada is near 100%
o Heating required to inactivate cultures and coagulating enzymes

General Processing Options

Non-BOD (biological oxygen demand) yielding processes
o Feed
o Whey concentrates: evaporation or RO
o Whey powders
BOD yielding processes
o Protein concentrates
o Whey permeate is the most important dairy waste

Figure 24.1 illustrates a typical whey handling scenario. Figure 24.2 summarizes a wide
range of whey handling options.

162

Figure 24.1. An example of sweet whey processing.
Whey cream
Spray drying
35% protein concentrate
Retentate 3.1% protein
Cleaning water
Permeate
Feed Further Processing
Lactose concentrate
Reverse Osmosis
Permeate 4.8% lactose
Ultrafiltration
Defatted Whey
Centrifuge Fines used in feed
Clarification to remove fines
Cheddar Whey 0.3% fat, 0.7% protein

163

Total Utilization, No BOD
Beverages
Mysost
Fertilizer
Animal feed
Whey powder
Lactose lick block
Ammonium lactate feed
Lactosyl urea feed
Ricotta
Lactalbumin
Centri-whey
Co-precipitates
Deproteinated
whey
Demineralized
whey
WPC
Demineralized
WPC
Minerals
Minerals
Demineralized
whey powder
Alcohol
Single cell protein
Methane
Penicillin
Lactic acid
Lactic cultures
Baker's yeast
Milk
Membrane
processes
UF ED,NF
IE
Demineralization
NF,ED,IE
Crystalization
Lactose
Decolorizing
Hydrolysis
Glucose/galactose
Beverages
Lactose lick block
Ammonium lactate feed
Lactosyl urea feed
Legume fertilizer
Animal feed
Fertilizer
Delactosed
Deproteinated
ED, IE, NF Hydrolysis
Decolorizing
LEGEND
End products
Intermediate products
Waste and products
WPC - Whey protein concentrate
UF - Utrafiltration
ED - Electrodialysis
IE - Ion exchange
NF - Nanofiltration
WPI - Whey protein isolates
BOD - Biological oxygen demand
WPI
UF

IE
Table salt
substitute
Wood binding adhesives
Polyurethane
Lactulose
Lactitol
Polysaccharide Gum
Figure 24.2 Whey processing & utilization
Table salt
Substitute

164
Appendix 1. Some Common Unit Conversions

Temperature

C = (F - 32)/1.8 F = 9/5 C + 32

C F C F C F
0 32.0 34 93.2 68 154.4 Weight
1 33.8 35 95.0 69 156.2 1 kg = 2.20462 lb
2 35.6 36 96.8 70 158.0 1 g = 0.0322 oz
3 37.4 37 98.6 71 159.8
4 39.2 38 100.4 72 161.6 Volume
5 41.0 39 102.2 73 163.4 1 litre = 0.2642 US gal
6 42.8 40 104.0 74 165.2 1 ml = 0.0338 US fl oz
7 44.6 41 105.8 75 167.0
8 46.4 42 107.6 76 168.8 Pressure
1 kPa = 0.1450 psi
Note: the SI unit for pressure
is Nm
-2
; 1 P = 1 Nm
2

9 48.2 43 109.4 77 170.6
10 50.0 44 111.2 78 172.4
11 51.8 45 113.0 79 174.2
12 53.6 46 114.8 80 176.0
13 55.4 47 116.6 81 177.8
14 57.2 48 118.4 82 179.6

15 59.0 49 120.2 83 181.4
16 60.8 50 122.0 84 183.2
17 62.6 51 123.8 85 185.0
18 64.4 52 125.6 86 186.8
19 66.2 53 127.4 87 188.6
20 68.0 54 129.2 88 190.4
21 69.8 55 131.0 89 192.2
22 71.6 56 132.8 90 194.0
23 73.4 57 134.6 91 195.8
24 75.2 58 136.4 92 197.6
25 77.0 59 138.2 93 199.4
26 78.8 60 140.0 94 201.2
27 80.6 61 141.8 95 203.0
28 82.4 62 143.6 96 204.8
29 84.2 63 145.4 97 206.6
30 86.0 64 147.2 98 208.4
31 87.8 65 149.0 99 210.2
32 89.6 66 150.8 100 212.0
33 91.4 67 152.6

165
Appendix 2. Measurement of Titratable Acidity

Method
1. Mix sample thoroughly by pouring it from one container to another. The
temperature of the sample should be near 20
0
C.
2. Pipette 17.6 ml of milk or cream into a white cup.
3. Add six drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to milk, 10 drops if the
product is cream.
4. Titrate the sample with the N/10 sodium hydroxide solution (0.1 Normal
NaOH) while stirring the sample with the glass rod. Look for the
appearance of a faint pink colour which signals the endpoint. Add another
drop or half a drop of NaOH if the pink colour does not persist for 30 s.
5. Record the number of ml of NaOH used to reach the endpoint. This value is
called the 'titre'. Titratable acidity as % lactic acid = 0.5 x titre
Application notes:
1. You are looking for a measurable increase in TA to confirm that the culture
is active. For example, if the initial TA taken immediately after the culture
was added is 0.183% lactic acid and the TA after one hour of ripening is
0.194 % lactic acid, the change in TA is 0.194 - 0.183 which is 0.011%.
2. Different people will interpret the coloured endpoint differently, so it is
important that the same person takes both the initial and final TA
measurements.
3. Carefully performed, it is possible to reliably measure a change in TA of
0.005% lactic acid, so if the TA increase is greater than 0.005% you can
conclude that the culture is active. In most cases TA increases in the range of
0.005% to 0.010% are obtained after about 45 minutes of ripening (that is,
45 minutes after adding the culture).
4. It is critical to take the initial TA reading after the culture is added, because
the culture (especially the bulk culture) is acidic.

166
Appendix 3. pH Measurement

The pH of cheese milk, whey and soft cheese can be measured directly. Firm
and hard cheese must be fragmented before analysis. The electrode is able to
measures the activity of hydrogen ions in the moisture phase of the cheese, but
it is more difficult than with liquids. When ever possible, take time to do two
readings. That is, measure the cheese pH; then reposition the electrode in the
cheese and take another reading.

Please handle the electrode carefully. Its fragile. You may be used to using
electrodes protected by a perforated plastic sleeve. We cant use a protected
electrode for cheese.

1. Check to be certain that the pH meter is properly calibrated. For cheese
process control, the meter should be calibrated with pH 4.0 and 7.0 buffers.
2. If the electrode has been stored in buffer, rinse it with de-ionized or distilled
water. Blot the electrode dry with a suitable wipe (e.g., Kimwipes) but do not
rub the electrode. If the electrode has been in milk or cheese of similar pH,
there is no need to rinse it between samples.
3. Place the fragmented cheese in a 30 ml vial or small beaker and gently push
the electrode into the cheese ... too much haste is likely to break the
electrode on the bottom of the beaker. To ensure good contact, press the
cheese around the electrode with your fingers.
4. Be patient. Give the electrode up to 30 seconds to equilibrate with the cheese
and deliver a stable signal to the pH meter. If the reading will not stabilize
the electrode may need to be cleaned.
5. Store the electrode in pH 4.0 buffer.

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