Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham H. Maslow felt as though conditioning theories did not adequately acapture the complexity of human
behavior. In a 1943 paper called A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow presented the idea that human actions
are directed toward goal attainment. Any given behavior could satisfy several functions at the same time; for
instance, going to a bar could satisfy ones needs for self-esteem and for social interaction.
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented in a hierarchial pyramid with five levels. The four levels
(lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs, while the top level of the pyramid is considered growth
needs. The lower level needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior. The levels are as
follows (see pyramid in Figure 1 below).
Self-actualization includes morality, creativity, problem solving, etc.
Esteem includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc.
Belongingness includes love, friendship, intimacy, family, etc.
Safety includes security of environment, employment, resources, health, property, etc.
Physiological includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards homeostasis, etc.
Deprivation Needs
The first four levels are considered deficiency or deprivation needs (D-needs) in that their lack of satisfaction
causes a deficiency that motivates people to meet these needs. Physiological needs, the lowest level on the
hierarchy, include necessities such as air, food, and water. These tend to be satisfied for most people, but they
become predominant when unmet. During emergencies, safety needs such as health and security rise to the
forefront. Once these two levels are met,belongingness needs, such as obtaining love and intimate relationships or
close friendships, become important. The next level, esteem needs, include the need for recognition from others,
confidence, achievement, and self-esteem.
Growth Needs
The highest level is self-actualization, or the self-fulfillment. Behavior in this case is not driven or motivated by
deficiencies but rather ones desire for personal growth and the need to become all the things that a person is
capable of becoming (Maslow, 1970).
Criticisms
While a useful guide for generally understanding why students behave the way that they do and in determining
how learning may be affected by physiological or safety deficiencies, Maslows Hierarchy of Needs has its share of
criticisms. Some critics have noted vagueness in what is considered a deficiency; what is a deficiency for one is
not necessarily a deficiency for another. Secondly, there seem to be various exceptions that frequently occur. For
example, some people often risk their own safety to rescue others from danger.
Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It states that individuals
behaviour is a function of its consequences. It is based on law of effect, i.e, individuals behaviour with positive
consequences tends to be repeated, but individuals behaviour with negative consequences tends not to be
repeated.
Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of individual, i.e., the inner feelings and drives of
individuals are ignored by Skinner. This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes
some action. Thus, according to Skinner, the external environment of the organization must be designed
effectively and positively so as to motivate the employee. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling
mechanism for individuals behaviour. However, it does not focus on the causes of individuals behaviour.
The managers use the following methods for controlling the behaviour of the employees:

Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows positive and
required behaviour. For example - Immediately praising an employee for coming early for job. This will
increase probability of outstanding behaviour occurring again. Reward is a positive reinforce, but not
necessarily. If and only if the employees behaviour improves, reward can said to be a positive reinforcer.
Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a behaviour. It must be noted that more spontaneous is the
giving of reward, the greater reinforcement value it has.

Negative Reinforcement- This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative / undesirable
consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used for increasing desirable / required
behaviour.

Punishment- It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the probability of repeating
undesirable behaviour in future. In other words, punishment means applying undesirable consequence for
showing undesirable behaviour. For instance - Suspending an employee for breaking the organizational rules.
Punishment can be equalized by positive reinforcement from alternative source.

Extinction- It implies absence of reinforcements. In other words, extinction implies lowering the probability of
undesired behaviour by removing reward for that kind of behaviour. For instance - if an employee no longer
receives praise and admiration for his good work, he may feel that his behaviour is generating no fruitful
consequence. Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable behaviour.
Vroom's expectancy theory
...assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize
pleasure and minimize pain. Together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Victor Vroom suggested that the
relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first imagined by other
scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individuals factors such as personality,
skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.
The theory suggests that although individuals may have different sets of goals, they can be motivated if they
believe that:
There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,
Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
The rewardwill satisfy an important need,
The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.
The theory is based upon the following beliefs:

Valence
Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes [rewards]. The depth of the
want of an employee for extrinsic [money, promotion, time-off, benefits] or intrinsic [satisfaction] rewards).
Management must discover what employees value.

Expectancy
Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of doing.
Management must discover what resources, training, or supervision employees need.

Instrumentality
The perception of employees as to whether they will actually get what they desire even if it has been promised by
a manager. Management must ensure that promises of rewards are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that.
Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence interact psychologically
to create a motivational force such that the employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid pain.



Adams Equity Theory
Balancing Employee Inputs and Outputs
Adams' Equity Theory calls for a fair balance to be struck between an employee's inputs (hard work, skill level,
tolerance, enthusiasm, and so on) and an employee's outputs (salary, benefits, intangibles such as recognition,and
so on).
According to the theory, finding this fair balance serves to ensure a strong and productive relationship is achieved
with the employee, with the overall result being contented, motivated employees.
Understanding the Theory
Adams' Equity Theory is named for John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, who developed
his job motivation theory in 1963. Much like many of the more prevalent theories of motivation (such as Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs and Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory ), Adams' Equity Theory acknowledges that subtle and
variable factors affect an employee's assessment and perception of their relationship with their work and their
employer.
The theory is built-on the belief that employees become de-motivated, both in relation to their job and their
employer, if they feel as though their inputs are greater than the outputs. Employees can be expected to respond
to this is different ways, including de-motivation (generally to the extent the employee perceives the disparity
between the inputs and the outputs exist), reduced effort, becoming disgruntled, or, in more extreme cases,
perhaps even disruptive.