AP Psychology

Chapter Two -
Neuroscience
Seth Adler
Table of Contents
2.1 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
GENERATING THE MESSAGE ............................................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
DRUGS ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
NEUROTRANSMITTERS ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
REUPTAKE AND ENZYMES ................................................................................................................................................. 9
2.3 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 10
STEM CELLS ................................................................................................................................................................ 10
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................. 11
THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................................... 11
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................ 11
THE SYMPATHETIC DIVISION ........................................................................................................................................... 11
THE PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION .................................................................................................................................... 11
2.5 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 15
CLINICAL STUDIES ......................................................................................................................................................... 15
THE EEG .................................................................................................................................................................... 15
CT SCANS ................................................................................................................................................................... 15
MRI SCANS ................................................................................................................................................................ 16
PET SCANS ................................................................................................................................................................. 16
FUNCTIONAL MRI (FMRI) ............................................................................................................................................. 16
THE HINDBRAIN ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
PONS ......................................................................................................................................................................... 17
THE RETICULAR FORMATION .......................................................................................................................................... 17
CEREBELLUM ............................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.7 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 18
STRUCTURES UNDER THE CORTEX .................................................................................................................................... 18
LIMBIC SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................................ 18
THALAMUS ................................................................................................................................................................. 19
HYPOTHALAMUS .......................................................................................................................................................... 19
HIPPOCAMPUS............................................................................................................................................................. 19
AMYGDALA ................................................................................................................................................................. 19
THE CORTEX ................................................................................................................................................................ 19
2.8 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 20
THE LOBES AND THEIR SPECIALTIES .................................................................................................................................. 20
OCCIPITAL LOBES ......................................................................................................................................................... 20
PARIETAL LOBES ........................................................................................................................................................... 20
TEMPORAL LOBES......................................................................................................................................................... 21
FRONTAL LOBES ........................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.9 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 21
THE ASSOCIATION AREAS OF THE CORTEX ......................................................................................................................... 21
BROCAS AREA ............................................................................................................................................................ 21
WERNICKES AREA ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.10 ..................................................................................................................................................................... 22
SPLIT-BRAIN RESEARCH ................................................................................................................................................. 22
2.11 ..................................................................................................................................................................... 23
THE PITUITARY, MASTER OF THE HORMONAL UNIVERSE ...................................................................................................... 23
THE PINEAL GLAND ...................................................................................................................................................... 23
THE THYROID GLAND .................................................................................................................................................... 24
PANCREAS .................................................................................................................................................................. 24
THE GONADS .............................................................................................................................................................. 24
THE ADRENAL GLANDS .................................................................................................................................................. 24
MIRROR NEURONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................................... 25
INDEX .................................................................................................................................................................. 27


2.1
Nervous System A network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body

The field of neuroscience is a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and functioning of
the brain and the neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue.
Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1887) was a doctor who first theorized that the nervous system was made of
individual cells
The neuron is the specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages. The parts of
the neuron that receives messages from other cells are called the dendrites (meaning branch). The
dendrites are attached to the cell body, or soma, which is the part of the cell that contains the nucleus
and keeps the cell alive. The axon (Greek: axis) is a fiber attached to the soma to carry messages out to
other cells.



The brain has 10% of it being neurons and the rest are glial cells, which are a structure for the neurons
to develop. Different types include those that get nutrients to the neurons, clean up dead neurons, and
providing insolation to neurons.
Myelin is made up of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes produce myelin in the
brain and spinal cord and the Schwann cells produce myelin in the neurons in the body. Myelin is a type
of glial cell. Myelin wraps around the shaft of the axons to form a protective sheath. The axons do most
of the moving and the somas are near the spinal cord. The axons of those various neurons travel
together without touching each other directly. Its like a power cable. Bundles of myelin-coated axons
travel together in cables called nerves.
Myelin also protects the neuron from damage and speeds up the messages. The places where the
myelin seem to bump into each other are actually small spaces on the axon called nodes which are not
covered with myelin. When the electrical impulse travels down an axon coated with myelin, it jumps
between the sections which makes it faster. The disease called multiple sclerosis damages the myelin
sheath leading to a loss of function in those cells.
Axons of neurons in the body are also coated in a thin membrane called the neurilemma (Schwanns
membrane). This surrounds the axon and the myelin sheath to serve as a tunnel to repair damaged
nerve fibers. This is why a severed toe can regain some function yet the brain and spine cannot because
they are not coated with this.


Neuroanatomy Function
Dendrites
Branching fibers or extensions of the neuron that
receive information from sensory receptors or other
neurons. Also conducts impulses toward the soma.
Soma (also known as the cell
body)
Central area of the neuron that contains the nucleus
and other structures common to all cells such as
mitochondria. It tells the neuron whether to fire or
not.
Axon
Single, long fiber that extends from the soma to the
terminal buttons. Information passes down the axon
to other neurons or gland cells.
(Bundles of axons coming from many neurons are
what we call nerves)
Myelin Sheath
Layer of fatty tissue (lipids) that insulates and
protects the axon, and speed up neural impulses.
Terminal Buttons (also
known as axon terminals,
synaptic knobs, or axon
buds)
The branches at the end of the axon, which contain
the neurotransmitters, release them, and send them
across the synapse.
Vessicles
Small, bubbly sacs located inside the terminal buttons
that house the neurotransmitters and suck up excess
neurotransmitters during the process of reuptake.
Synapse (also known as
synaptic gap or synaptic
cleft)
The space in between each neuron.
Remember: neurons never touch.
Nodes of Ranvier
Gaps between the myelin sheath where sodium and
potassium ions pass through during an action
potential. Location where "electrical" conduction takes
place.


Generating the Message
A neuron thats at rest is electrically charged. The inside of the cell is a semiliquid solution with charged
particles. The semiliquid surrounding the outside of the cell also has ions. The ions in the cell are mostly
negative while the ions outside are positive. The cell membrane is semipermeable, meaning some
substances can enter through tiny openings. Outside the cell are positively charged sodium ions that are
unable to enter the cell when it is at rest. Since the ions are attracted to each other, the sodium ions
will cluster around the membrane making electrical potential.
When a cell is resting (resting potential), the sodium ions are outside the cell. They cannot enter
because their gates have not opened yet. When the cell receives are strong stimulation from another
cell (the dendrites are active), the cell membrane opens the gates one after another. This causes the
cell to become positive. This electrical charge reversal will start at the part of the axon closest to the
soma and provide to another axon in a chain reaction. This is called the action potential and each
sequence can take 2 to 270 miles per hour.
Since the cell is positively charged, it needs to become negative again. After the action potential
sequence has passed, the gates to allow the sodium ions immediately close. The cell membrane starts
to pump the positive sodium ions back out with positively charged potassium ions inside the neurons to
speed up the process. Since the cell is negatively charged again, it is capable of firing off another
message.

Each neuron is receiving many signals from other neurons, some which cause the neuron to fire and
others to prevent it. If the fire messages are great enough, the threshold is crossed and the neuron fires
in an all-or-none fashion. Like a light switch, on or off, no in between. A strong message will cause the
neurons to fire repeatedly and more neurons involved (more pain).



2.2

The end of the axon fans out into several shorter fibers called axon terminals. The tip of each terminal
has a little knob on it, called the synaptic knob (terminal button), that is not empty. Is has saclike
structures called synaptic vesicles. Inside each synaptic vesicle are chemicals in fluid, which are
molecules of substances called neurotransmitters. Between the knob and the dendrite of another
neuron is a fluid-filled space called the synapse or the synaptic gap. The vesicles at the end of the axon
contain the molecules of neurotransmitters while the surface of the dendrite contain locks called
receptor sites. These have a unique shape to only a certain neurotransmitter. To get across the gap,
the neurotransmitters float across the synapse and into the receptor sites, activating the next cell.


Neurons also need to be turned off. Just like muscle can contract and relax, glands are told to secrete or
stop secreting chemicals. The neurotransmitters found at various synapses (around 100 of them) can
either turn cells on ( excitatory effect )( excitatory synapses ) or off ( inhibitory effect )( inhibitory
synapses ).
Drugs
agonists are chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effect of neurotransmitters on receptors.
This will result in an increase or decrease in the activity of the receiving cell, depending on whether the
original neurotransmitter was excitatory or inhibitory. There are drugs that bind to receptors in the
heart muscle (called beta receptors) that can increase the action causing the contraction of heart valves
to increase. Digoxin is an example.
antagonists are chemical substances that block the cells response to actions caused by
neurotransmitters, whether they are inhibitory or excitatory. The antagonist blocks the inhibitory
effect.

Neurotransmitters
The first neurotransmitter to be identified was acetylcholine. It is found between neurons and muscle
cells and cause the skeletal muscles to contract but also slows contractions in the heart. If their
receptor sites are blocked by antagonist, then the muscles become paralyzed. That is what happens in
the drug, curare, used in Indian blow darts. The nervous systems major excitatory neurotransmitter is
glutamate, which is involved in learning and memory. GABA (gamma-aminobutyic acid) is the most
common neurotransmitter that produces inhibition to the brain. It can calm anxiety. Alcohol is an
agonist for GABA. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter associated with sleep, mood, and appetite.
Dopamine is found in the brain and if there is too much, it causes schizophrenia, and too little causes
Parkinsons disease. Neural regulators or neural peptides are neurotransmitter that control the release
of other neurotransmitters. Endorphins are pain-controlling chemicals in the body that sends
neurotransmitters when there is pain. Some drugs, like morphine and heroin, cause the body to stop
producing endorphins so everything hurts. This is called withdrawal.


Reuptake and Enzymes
Since the neurotransmitter have to get out of the receptors for the next stimulation, some diffuse and
others end up back in the synaptic vesicles in a process called reuptake in a suction manner. Cocaine
will block this process. Because acetylcholine is responsible for muscle activity and needs to be cleared
fast, enzymes will break apart the acetylcholine in a process called enzymatic degradation.
If not enough serotonin is produced, then people become depressed. Most drugs to treat this are called
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors). They block the reuptake of serotonin leaving more of it
available to bond with the receptor sites.








2.3
The brain
Core of the nervous system
The Spinal Cord
A long bundle of neurons that serves 2 functions for the system
The outer part is made of myelinated axons and nerves
o White
o Purpose is to carry messages from and to the body and the brain
The inner part is made of neurons
o Gray
The Reflex ARC: Three Types of Neurons
Inside of the spinal cord is like a primitive brain
Reflexes
afferent (sensory) neurons carry messages from the body to the spinal cord
efferent (motor) neurons carry messages from the spinal cord to the muscles
interneurons connect the afferent and efferent neurons
o Make up most of the brain and spinal cord
Afferent neurons access the spinal cord, efferent neurons exit.
neuroplasticity the ability to change the structure and function of cells in response to trauma.
Dendrites grow and synapses are formed in some areas of the brain as we learn things
throughout life.

Stem Cells
stem cells can become other cells, such as blood, nerve, or brain cells. Many are obtained from human
embryos. They can help make cures for Parkinsons and Alzheimers. President George W. Bush (2001)
said that federal funding will fund stem cell research using existing cell lines. In 2004, the House
proposed a bill called the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act, which would allow researchers to use
donated embryos. In 2006, President Bush vetoes it. President Barack Obama (2009) reversed the
2001 limitations on stem cell lines. Stem cells are also found in bone marrow. Stem cells that are
embryotic are more like plastic.

2.4
The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of all the nerves and neurons not in the brain or spine.
This system is divided into the somatic nervous system (thought controlled) and the autonomic nervous
system (ANS) (reflexes).
The Somatic Nervous System
The somatic nervous system is made up of the sensory pathway, which is all the nerves carrying
messages from the senses to the central nervous system, and the motor pathway, the nerves carrying
messages from the central nervous system to the voluntary muscles (skeletal). The involuntary muscles
(heart, stomach) are controlled by nerves near the spinal cord, call the autonomic nervous system.

The Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic
division.
The Sympathetic Division
Located on the middle of the spinal column.
Fight or flight response
Deal with stress
Pupils dilate and the heart and lungs pump faster.


The Parasympathetic Division
Eat-drink-and-rest system
The neurons are located at the top and bottom of the spinal cord
Restores the body to normal functioning after a stressful event
Slows the heart rate and breathing an constricts pupils
Feel hungry
Day-to-day functions



Nervous System
Central Nervous
System
Brain Spine
Afferent (to) and
Efferent (away)
neurons
Peripherial
Nervous System
Somatic Nervous
System (thought)
Sensory Pathway
(from the senses)
Motor Pathway
(to voluntary
muscles)
Autonomic
Nervous System
(reflex)
Sympathetic
Division (fight or
flight)
Parasymphathetic
Division (relax)


2.5
French surgeon Paul Broca (1861) performed autopsies and located the speech center of the brain.

Clinical Studies
One way to get an idea about various areas of the brain is to study animals with damages to those areas.
After the animal is anesthetized, a thin wire is surgically inserted into the brain. If the goal is to destroy
the part of the brain, then a strong electrical current is passed though. This is called deep lesioning. If
the goal is to stimulate the area, then a milder current is passed though causing the neurons to react.
This is called electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB).
The EEG
A harmless way to study the activity of the living brain is to record the electrical activity of the cortex
just below the skull by using an electroencephalograph (EEG). Small metal disks electrodes are placed
on the scalp using a jelly like substance to conduct electrical messages from the cortex just below. These
electrodes are connected to an amplifier and then to a computer to view the information.
Beta waves are fast and irregular and indicate waking activity. Slower waves are called alpha waves and
are a sign of relaxation. Theta waves are associated with drowsiness and delta waves, which are the
longest, indicated deep sleep.
Scientists have developed a new technique involving the way EEG recordings are interpreted. This
process, called Independent Component Analysis (ICA), allows identification of individual signals coming
from different areas of the brain. It allows for a more detailed interpretation. Another technique,
known as event-related potentials (ERPs), that average the results of multiple presentations of a
stimulus to remove the variations in random brain activity. They are being used to follow the
progression of Alzheimers disease and lie detection.

CT Scans
The EEG only allows researchers to look at the activity on the surface of the brain. CT scans, which stand
for computer tomography (or mapping slices) , can look inside the brain by taking a series of X-rays of
the brain. They can show stroke damage, tumors, injuries, and abnormal brain structure.


MRI Scans
A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides more detail of the brain than a CT scan. The person gets
in a machine that generate a magnetic field, which then creates a 3D image.
PET Scans
A PET scan (position emission tomography) will show a brain in action. A person is injected with a
radioactive glucose (a kind of sugar) that the computer detects to find the activity of the brain cells by
looking at which cells are using up the glucose. The computer uses colors to indicate the activity level; a
light color will indicate active activity and a dark blue color the opposite.

Functional MRI (fMRI)
A technique called functional MRI (fMRI) is when the computer tacks the changes in the oxygen levels of
the blood. They are usually clearer than regular MRIs. By placing this picture of where the oxygen goes
in the brain on top of a picture of the brains structure, researchers can tell what areas of the brain are
active.

2.6

The Hindbrain
The medulla is located at the top of the spinal column. It controls life sustaining functions, such as
heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing. Here, the sensory nerves from both sides of the body cross over.
Pons
The pons is the larger swelling above the medulla. This term means bridge. It brings the messages from
the brain to the body and allows for the movements. This also influences sleep and dreaming.
The Reticular Formation
The reticular formation (RF) is an area of neurons located between the medulla and the pons. The RF
allows people to ignore constant information, like the air conditioning noise, and notice if something
stops, like the air conditioner turns off. The RF also controls the alertness in people. The reticular
activating system (RAS) is part of the RF that stimulates the upper part of the brain. People with ADHD
usually have a problem with this. If the RF is electrocuted, the person awakes. If it is destroyed, the
person goes into a coma



Cerebellum
The cerebellum is located below the main part of the brain and looks like a little brain. This part of the
brain controls all involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement. This controls all the little muscles allowing a
person to sit upright. Also controls walking, typing, diving, and speech. Learned reflexes and skills are
also stored here, making them a habit. A disease called spinocerebellar degeneration affects the
cerebellum and symptoms include tremors, unsteady walk, slurred speech, and muscle weakness.

2.7
Structures under the Cortex
Limbic System
The limbic system includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. This system is
involved in emotions, motivation, and learning.

Thalamus
Triage is the process of sorting injured people into groups based on their need for immediate medical
treatment. The thalamus is like a triage nurse. It sorts incoming sensory information before sending it
where it needs to go. Damage to this part may result in the loss of the senses. The sense of smell is
unique in that it does not pass though the thalamus, but goes directly to the olfactory bulbs.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, sleeping and waking, sexual activity, and
emotions. It is right above the pituitary gland and controls it, regulating the hormones in the body.
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is a Greek word for seahorse and is located on each side of the brain. The
hippocampus also forms long-term memories. Acetylcholine is also involved in the memory function of
the hippocampus. People who have Alzheimers have lower levels of acetylcholine in the hippocampus
and the drugs given to these people boost the levels of acetylcholine. Deterioration in the hippocampal
area may spread and affect other areas, like the parahippocampal gyrus, which is where memories of
the locations of objects are stored. This area is used when planning a trip of finding a parked car.
Amygdala
The amygdala is located near the hippocampus responsible for fear and fear responses. In 1939,
researchers found that when it is removed from moneys, they do not become afraid of snakes or
humans. This effects is known as the Kluver-Bucy syndrome.
The Cortex
The cortex is the outermost part of the brain. It is the wrinkled part that most people think of. It is
pinkish-grayish and is 1/10 of an inch thick. It is made up of tightly packed neurons. It is wrinkled to
allow for more area of cortical cells to exist in the small space. As the brain develops before birth, a
smooth outer covering on all the other brain structures start for form and that is the cortex. As it gets
more wrinkled, that is called corticalization, and is the measure of human intelligence.
2.8
The Lobes and Their Specialties
The cortex is divided into 2 sections called the cerebral hemispheres, which are connected by a thick,
tough band of neural fibers (axons), called the corpus callosum.

Occipital Lobes
The occipital lobe is located at the back of the brain and at the base of the cortex. This area processes
visual information from the eyes in the primary visual cortex and the part of the brain that identifies the
visual information is the visual association cortex. Oliver Sacks once had a patient who had a tumor in
his right occupational lobe. He could still see objects, but just did not know what they were. If a person
gets hit in the back of the head, he could see stars.
Parietal Lobes
The parietal lobes (parietal: wall) are at the top and back of the brain. This area contains the
somatosensory cortex, an area of neurons that are responsible for processing information from the skin
and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position. The cells are arranged opposite
than you would think. The cells at the top of the brain receive information from the bottom on the body
and vice versa.
Temporal Lobes
The temporal lobes (temporal: near the temples) are found just behind the temples of the head. These
lobes contain the primary auditory cortex and the auditory association area. If a person gets hit in the
side of the head, he can hear ringing sounds. The temporal lobe also contains the area for language and
sense of taste.
Frontal Lobes
The frontal lobes are at the front of the brain. This is where all the higher mental functions take place.
Controls planning, personality, memory storage, decision making, emotions. The frontal lobes also
contain the motor cortex, which are a band of neurons located at the back of each lobe that control the
movement of voluntary muscles.

2.9
The Association Areas of the Cortex
The association areas are made of neurons that are devoted to making connections between sensory
information coming into the brain and stored memory and knowledge. Association help people make
sense of incoming sensory input.
Brocas Area
In the left frontal lobe of most people is an area devoted to the production of speech. This is called
Brocas Area after Paul Broca (1800) first studied people with damage to this area. Damage to this area
causes a person to be unable to speak fluently. They understand what to say, it just doesnt come out.
This is called Brocas aphasia. Aphasia refers to an inability to use written or spoken language.
Wernickes Area
In the left temporal lobe is an area called Werniches area, named after Carl Werniche who first studied
problems from damage to this area. This area is involved in understanding the meaning of words. A
person with Werniches aphasia would be able to speak fluently but use incorrect words. Oh, thats so
Saturday hard.

Spatial neglect is when a person has a stroke on one side of the brain (mostly the right) and it causes
them not to notice the opposite (left) side of their body. They understand when you point it out but
they are not blind.


2.10
The cerebrum is the upper, larger part of the brain with two hemispheres
Split-Brain Research
Roger Sperry was a pioneer in the field of hemisphere specialization. He won a Nobel prize for his work
in showing that the left and right hemispheres are different when he was looking for a cure for epilepsy.
Springer and Deutsch (1998) found that the left hemisphere processes information in sequences and is
good at breaking things down or performing analysis. The right hemisphere, by contrast, looks at things
at a whole and processes information all at once.



2.11
The Pituitary, Master of the Hormonal Universe
The pituitary gland is located in the brain, just under the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is the
master gland and controls all of the other endocrine glands. Hormones include producing milk and
growing.
The Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is located near the back of the brain. It secretes a hormone called melatonin at night to
influence the sleep cycle.
Left
Hemisphere
Right
Hemisphere
Left Hand
Holistic view
Facial recognition
Artistic
Right hand
Analysis
Break down
Math
The Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is located in the neck and secretes a hormone called thyroxin to regulate metabolism
(how fast the body burns energy).
Pancreas
The pancreas controls the level of blood sugar by secreting insulin and glucagons. If too little insulin is
secreted, it results in diabetes. If there is too much insulin, it results in hypoglycemia, or low blood
sugar, which causes a person to always feel hungry.
The Gonads
The gonads are the sex glands. They regulate sexual behavior and reproduction.
The Adrenal Glands
The two adrenal glands (renal:kidney) are located on top of the kidneys and contain two sections, the
adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
to aid when people are under stress. The adrenal cortex produces over 30 different hormones, called
corticoids or steroids. They regulate salt intake, control stress reactions, and provide some sex
hormones. Cortisol is released when the body experiences stress.

Mirror Neurons
Monkey see, monkey cortex do. Giacomo Rizzolatti wanted to examine neural activity in monkeys
and wanted to determine which neurons controlled movements in the hands. The same neurons fired
when the monkey picked up food and when they saw humans pick up food. These premotor cortex
neurons, which fire when someone does something and sees the same thing performed by another, are
called mirror neurons.
These are why we feel pain if someone gets hit or we are happy when other people are happy. This is
why babies imitate the facial expressions of adults. If a person has a stroke, some studies find that when
they need to relearn a motor skill, watching another person perform that skill can help. Autism may be
because of a fault in the mirror system. They cannot emphasize with other people and do not feel what
they feel.

Summary
How the nervous system, nerves, and neurons relate to one another.
Parts of the neuron.
How and when a neuron fires.
Neural communication (Action potential and the process)
Presynaptic vs. Postsynaptic neurons.
Neurotransmitters.
Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters.
Agonists vs. Antagonists
How the brain and spinal cord interact.
The two functions of the spinal cord.
The three types of neurons.
The parts of the nervous system:
o CNS
o PNS
o Somatic
o Autonomic
o Sympathetic
o Parasympathetic
Neuro-imaging methods:
o EEG
o PET scan
o CAT scan (CT scan)
o MRI
o fMRI
Brain structures and what they do:
o Lower
o Midbrain
o Limbic System
o Cerebral cortex
o Wernickes and Brocas area
o Association areas
How the left brain differs from the right.
Endocrine system:
o Glands
o Hormones (released into blood stream)

Index
A
acetylcholine, 8, 9, 20
action potential, 5, 6
adrenal cortex, 25
adrenal glands, 25
adrenal medulla, 25
afferent, 10
agonist, 8
agonists, 7
alpha waves, 16
Alzheimers, 11, 16, 20
amygdala, 19, 20
antagonist, 8
antagonists, 8
association areas, 22
auditory association area, 22
autonomic nervous system, 11, 12
axon, 3, 4, 5, 7
axon terminals, 7
B
Beta waves, 16
brain, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 19,
20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27
Broca, Paul, 16, 22
Brocas aphasia, 22
Brocas Area, 2, 22
C
cerebellum, 19
cerebral hemispheres, 21
cerebrum, 23
corpus callosum, 21
cortex, 16, 20, 21, 26, 27
corticalization, 20
corticoids, 25
Cortisol, 25
CT scans, 16
D
deep lesioning, 16
dendrites, 3, 5
Deutsch, 23
Dopamine, 8
E
efferent, 10
electrical stimulation of the brain,
16
electroencephalograph, 16
enzymatic degradation, 9
epinephrine, 25
event-related potentials, 16
excitatory, 7, 8
F
fMRI, 1, 17, 27
frontal lobes, 22
G
GABA, 8
glial cells, 4
glucagons, 25
glutamate, 8
gonads, 25
H
hippocampus, 19, 20
hypothalamus, 19, 20, 24
I
Independent Component Analysis,
16
inhibitory, 7, 8
insulin, 25
interneurons, 10
K
Kluver-Bucy syndrome, 20
L
limbic system, 19
M
medulla, 18
melatonin, 24
mirror neurons, 26
motor cortex, 22
motor pathway, 11
MRI, 1, 17, 27
multiple sclerosis, 4
Myelin, 4, 5
N
nerves, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 18, 26
nervous system, 3, 8, 10, 26
Nervous System, 1, 3, 11, 12
neural peptides, 8
neurilemma, 4
neuron, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 26
neuroplasticity, 10
neuroscience, 3
neurotransmitter, 7, 8
neurotransmitters, 5, 7, 8
nodes, 4
norepinephrine, 25
O
occipital lobe, 21
olfactory bulbs, 20
oligodendrocytes, 4
P
pancreas, 25
parahippocampal gyrus, 20
parasympathetic division, 12
parietal lobes, 21
Parkinsons, 8, 11
peripheral nervous system, 11
PET scan, 17, 27
pineal gland, 24
pituitary gland, 20, 24
pons, 18
President Barack Obama, 11
President Bush, 11
President George W. Bush, 11
primary auditory cortex, 22
primary visual cortex, 21
R
receptor sites, 7, 8, 9
resting potential, 5
reticular activating system, 18
reticular formation, 18
reuptake, 5, 8, 9
RF, 18
Rizzolatti, Giacomo, 26
S
Santiago Ramon y Cajal, 3
Schwann cells, 4
sensory pathway, 11
serotonin, 9
Serotonin, 8
soma, 3, 5, 6
somatic nervous system, 11
somatosensory cortex, 21
Spatial neglect, 23
Sperry, Roger, 23
spinal cord, 4, 10, 11, 12, 26
spinocerebellar degeneration, 19
Springer, 23
Stem Cell Research Enhancement
Act, 11
stem cells, 11
sympathetic division, 12
synaptic gap, 5, 7
synaptic knob, 7
synaptic vesicles, 7, 8
T
temporal lobes, 22
thalamus, 19, 20
Theta waves, 16
thyroid gland, 25
thyroxin, 25
Triage, 20
V
visual association cortex, 21
W
Werniche, Carl, 22
Werniches aphasia, 22
Werniches area, 22
withdrawal, 8