[SOUND].

So, let's now discuss the functional

magnetic resonance imaging.
Perhaps, this is the most popular method
in neuroeconomics.
It's a quite complex method.
That's why I strongly recommend you to
read some specialized books.
Describing the details of the functional
magnetic resonance imaging,
for example, this book, written by Scott
Huettel and colleagues.
So today, I will only focus on the
major aspects of the MRI, of functional
MRI methods.
That will help you to understand the
results of your economic studies.
Briefly speaking, when we will put a
subject inside of the
magnet, his head will be surrounded by a
few different coils.
The first coil, a magnet, produces a very
strong magnetic field.
So why do we need this strong magnetic
field?
Because protons of the brain will be
aligned in line with the strong magnetic
field.
And the field is extremely strong so if
you will put a metallic
coil in front of this camera, it will fly
inside of this camera.
So next we can find a gradient coil inside
of this camera.
This gradient coil, produces a slight
gradient in the magnetic field that
will help to detect the position of the
activation inside of the brain.
And finally, there is a radio frequency
coil that produces radio frequency
magnetic field that activates protons,
excitate protons during the scanning.
So, let's now discuss the basic facts
behind this technique.
So, first of all, when you put a subject
inside the fMRI
scanner, the protons are aligned, in line
with the strong magnetic field.
Next, you apply to the brain the
excitation radio frequency magnetic field.
And this magnetic field activates protons.
When you switch off this magnetic field,
you can
record the magnetic field emitted by the
activated protons.
This emitted magnetic field, will be
slightly different
depending on the tissue that surrounds the
protons.
So, using special algorithms, we can
reconstruct the signal produced by grey
and
white matter, or produced by active brain
regions, or less active brain regions.
So here, we use a quite complicated
device, and I strongly recommend you
to read some literature that would explain
you the details of the fMRI method.
So, as you can see in this picture, MRI
device
is a very strange environment for the new
economic studies.
We use special projectors to project
stimuli inside of the scanner.
We use special devices to record
behavioral responses of the subject.
We avoid any metal inside of these
devices to avoid interference with the
magnetic field.
But we are able to record brain activity
and also record the brain structure of our
subjects to exert specific behavioral
tasks during the decision making process.
So there are two major types of the MRI
studies.
The first type is called the structural
MRI.
So, with this method, with this protocol,
we can
collect a 3D atlas of the brain of our
subject.
But we also can use another protocol
called functional MRI, with this protocol,
with this
sequence of pulses, we can collect the
activations of different brain areas
during the task.
So, using the second approach, so called
functional MRI, we
can record the brain activity during the
decision making process.
So in this case, we put our subject inside
of the scanner,
we put sometimes for example, a small
screen in front of his face.
And we ask subject to make decisions
inside of this camera.
So we record decisions during the scanning
process and we
also record the brain activity during the
decision making task.
The result of the new economic study often
looks like this picture.
So you see an activation inside of the
brain.
So what does activation mean?
[UNKNOWN] can be explained by the very
interesting study conducted 100 years ago
by [UNKNOWN].
He put his subject on the scale
and ask subject to perform active mental
calculations.
As a result, scale turned.
So why do you think that happened?
Basically when we make some calculations,
our
brain is activated, so neurons, need more
energy.
They need more oxygen.
It triggers an inflow of blood to the
brain.
And it changes the weight of the brain.
So, this experiment actually explains the
principle of the fMRI method.
Our brain is penetrated by blood vessels.
So, these blood vessels bring oxygen to
neurons.
And whenever our neurons are active, it
triggers an inflow of
blood, an inflow of, of, oxygenated
hemoglobin an inflow of
energy to this region and this inflow of
oxygenated hemoglobin.
Changes in magnetic properties of the
tissue and
can detected by the magnetic resonance
imaging scanner.
So overall, the functioning magnetic
resonance imaging,
detects the BOLD signal, blood oxygen
level dependency.
So, when the neurons are active, when they
produce a
lot of action potentials, they need a lot
of energy.
So, activity of the neurons triggers an
inflow of blood to this
region, an inflow of oxygenated
hemoglobin, and oxygenated
hemoglobin changes the magnetic property
of the T cell and
can be defective as a MR signal by there
scanner.
So with functional MRI method, we record
an inflow of oxygenated hemogloblin.
Those are active regions in the brain.
So this picture illustrate that the result
of the study normally
the combination of two, two muscles with
structural MRI.
We can collect the anatomical information
about the brain of our subject.
It takes normally eight 15 minutes, and
you collect
the 3D atlas of your brain of your
subject.
And next you ask person to perform a task,
and
during this task you record functional
data using functional FMRI.
So next you analyze your data, and you
visualize it.
As the result of the statistical analysis.
So, this yellow color indicates a
significant change
in the activity of the brain region
triggered by the certain task.
So, actually this activation has nothing
to do with real activity of the brain.
This is a result of a statistical test.
And the lighter the color is the more
significant is
modulation of activity in this brain
region by the task.
So once again, functional MRI is sensitive
for both
signal, so it actually capture the change
in the
concentration of the oxygenated hemoglobin
in the brain.
Since oxygenated hemoglobin is
diamagnetic, it actually
increases the MR signal from the brain and
that can be detected by the MR scanner.
So, overall, neuronal activity triggers
the local blood flow and
an increase in the concentration of the
oxygenated hemoglobin.
If changes in magnetic properties of the
region that can
be detected as a large MR signal by the
scanner.
So with the functional MRI method.
We detect the activity of the brain during
the task.
Basically, what do we see?
The inflow of oxygenated hemoglobin to the
brain, that correlates with activity of
the neurons.
So this picture illustrates the signal
detected by the functional MRI method.
The inflow of oxygenated hemoglobin to the
brain is very small process.
So, it takes few seconds before oxygenated
hemoglobin will arrive to this active
brain region.
So that's why MRI scanner actually
sensitive to
the very slow change in the brain
activity.
And it is not sensitive to very fast
changes in the decision making process.
It has relatively bad temporal resolution.
So, if I will over weigh the bolt signal,
the MRI signal, and the actual neural
activity, you will
see that neural activity take place first
and with some
delayed triggers and inflow of oxygenated
hemoglobin to this region.
So, actually MRIs signal is delayed
relative to the neural activity.
So, with MRI, this functional MRI, we
record the inflow of oxygenated
hemoglobin to the region, so we record the
neural activity indirectly.
This MRI signal is proportional to the
neural activity.
But this is not direct measure of the
neuron.
So once it gave as functional MRI
technique, we record
some maps characterizing the inflow of
oxygenated hemoglobin to the
brain we can statistically analyze these
maps and find their
changes in the activations of the brain
related to the task.
So, normally this results are overlayed
with the structural MRI images.
So what do you normally see in the
neuroeconomics papers?
This kind of statistical maps, and color
here indicates the level of the
significant effect.
How significant is the change of the
activity in the certain task.
So whenever you see this kind of picture
in the neuroeconomics
paper, or in media, you do not see the
actual activity.
You see the outcome of the statistical
analysis and color here indicates
the level of statistical significance of
the observed effect.
So, how do we get the statistical maps?
We can simply record the brain activity in
condition A
and condition B, and subtract condition A
from condition B.
So, we can see here on this graph the
difference
in the activation of the brain in
condition A and B.
So, we can make this same calculation for
many subjects.
And apply group statistics, and show that
this difference is reliable across
different standards.
So the results of the statistical analysis
can be presented differently.
So it can be visualized as a slice of the
brain, as a 2D image,
where statistical map is overlaid with
anatomical slice.
It can be visualized as a 3D image.
So the minimum unit here is the voxel.
And a voxel is similar to a pixel in
digital photos.
The voxel is a 3-D unit.
So once again, whenever you see an
activation of the brain, you see activated
voxels.
They represent the results of the
statistical analysis.
If you would like to see the actual
activity of this region, that is behind
the statistics, you can visualize it,
using special programs.
So for example, here, I show you the BOLD
signal in this particular voxel.
As you can see, the signal is stronger in
condition one compared to condition two.
So, this difference is represented in a
statistical
map as a result of the statistical
analysis.
So, sometimes during this course, you will
see statistical maps.
Please remember that this is a outcome of
the statistical analysis.
Sometimes you will see the actual
activations of those regions, both
responses.
So here you see the time course of the
activity inside of those regions.
And you clearly see that in the condition
one
this activity is stronger than in the
condition two.
So, the bigger message can be relatively
short today.
So, whenever you see the statistical
maps, these activations during the certain
tasks,
please remember that color here indicates
the level of significance of the effects.
So how reliable their activity in this
region
is modulated by certain aspects of
decision making.
So these results is a combination of the
functional MRI and structural MRI.
So you can collect structural and
functional data during separate sessions.
So it takes seven to 12 minutes to collect
structural data.
That can take you from ten to 40 minutes
to collect functional data.
So you will analyze the functional data,
and you visualize the results of the
analysis.
The results of the statistical analysis,
and the statistical
map as presented at the bottom of this
slide.
So the results of the neuroeconomic
studies can be presented very differently.
Traditionally, in neuroeconomics papers
and also
in cognitive neuroscience papers, you will
see three major ways of presenting the
outcomes of the fMRI studies.
You will see coronal, sagital, and
horizontal slices.
So don't be surprised by different slices
presented in their neuroeconomics papers.
So, for example, here, you see the
sagittal and the coronal slice of the
brain.
So, each cluster, each, statistical
cluster
in the brain is called the activation.
So normally, these pictures are
supplemented by the tables so in
the table you can find the name of this
brain region.
You can find the cords and eighths of this
region.You also can find the size of this
activation the number of boxals of this
activations
and also the level of significations of
this activation.
So don't be surprised when you will see
this kind of picture.
So on the left, you see the statistical
map.
On the right, you see the extra activation
of this region.
So here, we present to you the activity of
the ventral
striatum that is related to the expected
magnitude of the monetary outcome.
So the statistical map shows us that
activity in this region is significantly
modulated by the expected monetary outcome
by their magnitudes of this outcome.
On the right, you actually see the
activity inside of this region.
And you clearly see this activity is
particularly
strong when a person expects to get five
dollars.
It is less active when a person expects to
get one dollar.
And actually, this region is deactivated
when a
person expects to get 0 dollars, so don't
be
stressed by these pictures, and I hope
that now
you will be able to read these
neuroeconomics results.
So, overall, fMRI method is the most
popular method in neuroeconomics.
It is non invasive so we do not damage the
brain during the scanning.
It has a relatively good 3D resolution.
Unfortunately this is an indirect method,
so
we do not measure directly, the neural
activity.
We measure the BOLD signal, we measure
the inflow of oxygenated hemoglobin to
these regions.
It is quite noisy, it produces a lot of
acoustic noise.
And some groups of subjects are restricted
from these studies, for
example, pregnant people normally are not
allowed to be scanned.
So, this graph represents the
main neuroscience methods used in
neuroeconomics.
We use two axis here.
So, one axis represents a spatial
resolution
and the second one represents a temporal
resolution.
As you can see, infirmary method has
relatively
bad temporal resolution, but relatively
good spatial resolution.
MEG and ERP methods have quite nice
temporal resolution, but very bad spatial
resolution.
That's why we have to combine different
masses to characterize different aspects
of decision making.
If we would like to use MEG or EEG,
we can study the dynamic of the decision
making process.
If we would like to localize the decision
making process inside those
are green, we also have to use fMRI masses
and other masses.
So normally we combine different masses
to understand different aspects of
decision making.
Unfortunately normally we have to repeat
the task many times.
We cannot study the single decision.
To extract, to analyze the brain activity
during the decision
making process, we have to repeat the same
decision many times.
So, we need quite complex statistics.
Normally, we report the group data.
So, we report the results for 20, 25, 30
subjects.
Unfortunately, these techniques require
laboratory experiment.
That's why, we cannot sometimes conduct
studies of real life decisions.
Hopefully, after this lecture, you will be
able
to read the results of the neuroeconomic
studies.
You will be able to understand pictures
like this.
Next week we will start our journey into
neuroeconomics.
We will discuss the major concept of
neuroeconomics.
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