Vibro Cav

vlbroCav
Pydrodynamlc vlbraLlon and

CavlLaLlon Lechnology
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2

vlbroCav
Pydrodynamlc vlbraLlon and
CavlLaLlon Lechnology

9*"):;46*,:5

1er verkrl[glng van de graad van docLor
aan de 1echnlsche unlverslLelL uelfL,
Cp gezag van de 8ecLor Magnlflcus prof.lr. k.C.A.M. Luyben,
voorzlLLer van heL College voor romoLles
ln heL openbaar Le verdedlgen op 8 november 2012 om 13.00 uur

door 1homas Walburgls 8akker

Ml[nbouwkundlg lngenleur
geboren Le uen Paag

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3

ulL proefschrlfL ls goedgekeurd door de promoLor:
rof. ur. C.!. WlLkamp

CopromoLor:
ur. lr. P.!.M. kramer

SamensLelllng promoLlecommlssle:
8ecLor Magnlflcus 1u uelfL, voorzlLLer
rof. ur. C.!. WlLkamp 1u uelfL, romoLor
ur. lr. P.!.M. kramer uPu, 1u uelfL, CopromoLor
rof. .k. Currle hu 1u uelfL
rof. ur. .L.!. ZlLha 1u uelfL
rof. ur. lr. u.M.!. Smeulders 1u Llndhoven
ur. k.P.A.A. Wolf uPu, 1u uelfL
lr. !. 8oodenburg CLC Pulsman LqulpmenL
rof. ur. 8.!. 8oersma 1u uelfL, reservelld

rof.dr.lr C.M. van 8osmalen heefL ln belangrl[ke maLe bl[gedragen aan de LoLsLandkomlng
van heL proefschrlfL.

ulL werk ls gedeelLell[k flnancleel ondersLeund vla heL noordell[ke lndusLrle CnLwlkkellng
londs (nlCl), Ler beschlkklng gesLeld door heL Samenwerklngverband noord nederland
(Snn).

rlnLed by: WCP8MAnn 8ln1 SL8vlCL
lS8n: 978-64-6203-207-1
2012 by 1.W. 8akker
All rlghLs reserved. no parL of Lhe maLerlal proLecLed by Lhls copyrlghL noLlce may be
reproduced or uLlllzed ln any form or by any means, elecLronlc or mechanlcal, lncludlng
phoLocopylng, recordlng or by any lnformaLlon sLorage and reLrleval sysLem, wlLhouL wrlLLen
consenL of Lhe publlsher.

rlnLed ln Lhe neLherlands
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4

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3

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
6

<'#)3/'55,38
vlbraLle en cavlLaLle kunnen op vele manleren opgewekL worden en vele nuLLlge doelen
dlenen. ueze sLudle beschrl[fL fyslsche aspecLen van nuLLlge vlbraLle en cavlLaLle voor een
breed specLrum aan Loepasslngen bl[ aLmosferlsche en hogere Legendrukken.
na een beoordellng van beschlkbare apparaLen worden de hydrodynamlsche vlbrerend-
elemenL-ln-buls lnsLrumenLen zoals beschreven ln de paLenLen van lvannlkov geidenLlflceerd
als apparaLen meL een grooL LoepasslngspoLenLleel. Pun werklng ls echLer nog groLendeels
nleL onderzochL. CroLe voordelen van deze lnsLrumenLen zl[n de consLrucLleve eenvoud,
schaalbaarheld, krachLlg effecL en aanLrekkell[k frequenLle berelk voor schoonmaakwerk ln
dlepborlngen. Zelfgenerende vlbraLle waarbl[ heL elemenL boLsL ln de buls meL de bulswand
veroorzaakL wlsselende sLromlng rond heL elemenL meL een acLlef waLerslag effecL daL de
vlbraLle en cavlLaLle versLerkL. Cp deze wl[ze kan cavlLaLle opgewekL worden bl[ lagere
sLroomsnelheden en hogere Legendrukken dan bl[ passleve lnsLrumenLen zoals
vernauwende openlngen. PeL lneensLorLen van cavlLaLle bellen bl[ hoge Legendrukken
veroorzaakL ulLzonderll[k sLerke effecLen, waardoor nleuwe Loepasslngen onLsloLen kunnen
worden. 8l[ Legendrukken waarbl[ zelfs acLleve cavlLaLle nleL meer mogell[k ls bll[fL zeer
sLerke vlbraLle over, heLgeen kenmerkend ls voor omgevlngsdrukken dle ln dlepborlngen
aangeLroffen worden. ulL unleke duale versLerkLe vlbraLle en cavlLaLle gedrag van de
besLudeerde apparaLen ls de sleuLel LoL de vlbrerend-elemenL-ln-buls Lechnologle waarvoor
de nleuwe naam vlbroCav bedachL ls.
ue sLudle rlchL zlch op vlbroCav lnsLrumenLen meL een bal als LrllelemenL, meL ulLzonderlng
van een LesL serle meL een zogenaamd fllp-flop elemenL. verkennende LesLen ln een 330 bar
LesL clrculL ln Assen gaven de aanzeL LoL de consLrucLle van een gesloLen 30 bar laboraLorlum
LesL clrculL daL ln heL 3ML lab ln uelfL werd opgesLeld meL mogell[kheden om efflclenL Le
experlmenLeren LoL 10 bar Legendruk en 40 bar drukval over heL apparaaL. Lr zl[n vele
experlmenLen ulLgevoerd ln heL 30 bar LesL clrculL, aanvankell[k meL ballen dle aan de
onderzl[de gesLeund werden en vervolgens meL hangende ballen ln een buls meL een
conlsche elnd waarbl[ de rulmLe Lussen de bal en de bulswand van bulLenaf lngesLeld kon
worden. ue lnvloed van de waLersamensLelllng, aanwezlgheld van gas en maLerlaal keuze
voor de bal werden geLesL. Len aanLal LesLen bl[ zeer hoge Legendruk werden ulLgevoerd ln
een gesloLen 330 bar LesL clrculL ln urachLen. ln LoLaal werden er 29 veldLesLen op
lndusLrlele schaal ulLgevoerd voor heL schoonmaken van poreuze medla rond waLer en olle
puLLen en 3 veldLesLen om de Lechnologle Le onderzoeken voor heL verwl[deren van
afzeLLlngen ln puLLen.
MeL laboraLorlum experlmenLen meL heL 30 bar clrculL werden verschlllende operaLlonele
LoesLanden van de vlbroCav lnsLrumenLen afgebakend als funcLle van sLromlngsdebleL en
Legendruk dle benoemd kunnen worden als (l) alleen vlbraLle, (ll) acLleve cavlLaLle ulLslulLend
meL vlbraLle, (lll) geen vlbraLle meL passleve cavlLaLle en (lv) geen vlbraLle en geen cavlLaLle.
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vlbraLle werd geconsLaLeerd bl[ de hoogsLe Legendruk dle behaald kon worden en zal
waarschl[nll[k mogell[k zl[n bl[ nog hogere Legendruk, echLer heL vlbreren houdL op bl[ zeer
hoog sLromlngsdebleL en sLerk vernauwde rulmLe Lussen de bal en de wand door heL
verschulven van heL punL waar de sLromlng loslaaL van de bal (zoals voor een bal bl[ een 8e
geLal van ongeveer 3 x 10
3
ln een onbegrensd sLromlngsveld). neL zoals passleve cavlLaLle
wordL onderdrukL door Loenemende Legendruk wordL ook acLleve cavlLaLle onderdrukL, de
hoogsLe druk waarbl[ acLleve cavlLaLle ls waargenomen ls 63 barg. 8l[ een van onder
gesLeunde bal, zoals ln heL hogedruk clrculL gebrulkL ls, wordL een slgnlflcanL deel van heL
sLroompad benedensLrooms van de bal aan heL zlchL onLLrokken zodaL acLleve cavlLaLle
dlchLer bl[ de vernauwlng Lussen de bal en de wand plaaLsgevonden kan hebben. Cp grond
hlervan wordL de verwachLlng ulLgesproken daL cavlLaLle 100 barg Legendruk zou kunnen
overleven.
ue lnvloed van de waLerkwallLelL en aanwezlgheld van gas bleek nleL slgnlflcanL Le zl[n.
LlchLgewlchL ballen dle van onder gesLeund werden lleLen hefLlge vlbraLle en sLerke acLleve
cavlLaLle zlen, maar raakLen snel beschadlgd door de hoge conLacL krachLen Lussen de bal en
de ondersLeunlng. PardsLalen ballen bedden zlch ln een ondersLeunlng van zachLer sLaal ln
omdaL de krachLen de plasLlsche llmleLen van de ondersLeunlng Le boven gaan. ue bal vlakL
af, of breekL, als heL maLerlaal van de bal zachLer ls dan de ondersLeunlng.
ue veldLesLen voor heL schoonmaken van poreuze medla rond puLLen, gecomblneerd meL
een LheoreLlsche analyse leveren waardevolle seml-kwallLaLleve kennls op over de lnvloed
van de LrllfrequenLle, bron dlrecLlvlLelL, bronenergle, puLgeomeLrle en maLe van versLopplng
op de werklngsdlepLe van schoonmaak apparaLen dle meL Lrllllngen werken. ue belangrl[ksLe
golfenergle voor heL schoonmaken van een poreus medlum komL van de langzame 8loL golf
dle als een drukgolf door heL porlen neLwerk loopL. Poe hoger de maagdell[ke permeablllLelL
van heL gesLeenLe en hoe lager de golffrequenLle hoe groLer de werklngsdlepLe zal zl[n.
8eschadlglng van de permeablllLelL door heL versLoppen van de porlen nabl[ de puL
vermlnderL de werklngsdlepLe van de schoonmaakbehandellng en bl[ progressleve
versLopplng kan de beschadlglng bulLen heL berelk van de schoonmaakapparaLen komen Le
llggen.
Len beperkL aanLal veldLesLen voor heL verwl[deren van afzeLLlngen ln puLLen lleLen een
slgnlflcanL poLenLleel zlen van vlbroCav lnsLrumenLen vanwege de gecomblneerde effecLen
van hameren, spulLen, golfenergle en schokgolven van lneensLorLende cavlLaLlebellen.
ue sLudle leverL een gedegen basls voor een weLenschappell[k onderbouwde voorLzeLLlng
van de onLwlkkellng van vlbroCav Lechnologle voor vele Loepasslngsgebleden ln meerdere
lndusLrlele secLoren en ls de voorloper voor een scala van vernleuwende Lechnleken.

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vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon can be generaLed ln many ways and serve many useful purposes.
1hls sLudy descrlbes physlcal aspecLs of useful vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon for a broad specLrum
of appllcaLlons aL aLmospherlc or elevaLed pressures.
AfLer a revlew of avallable devlces, hydrodynamlc vlbraLlng-body-ln-plpe Lools as descrlbed
ln paLenLs by lvannlkov are ldenLlfled as havlng a ma[or poLenLlal and belng largely
unexplored. Ma[or advanLages of Lhese Lools are slmpllclLy of consLrucLlon, scalablllLy,
powerful effecLs and aLLracLlve frequency range for well cleanlng appllcaLlons. Self lnduced
vlbraLlon wlLh a free body collldlng wlLh Lhe plpe wall causes alLernaLlng flow around Lhe
body wlLh a waLer hammer effecL LhaL enhances Lhe vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon. CavlLaLlon can
Lhus be generaLed aL lower flow raLes and aL hlgher backpressures Lhan wlLh passlve Lools
such as orlflces. CavlLaLlonal collapse aL hlgh backpressure creaLes excepLlonally sLrong
effecLs, glvlng access Lo novel appllcaLlons. AL backpressures where even waLer hammer
enhanced cavlLaLlon ceases Lo exlsL, very sLrong vlbraLlons perslsL Lo pressure levels
encounLered ln deep wells. 1hls unlque dual enhanced vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon behavlour of
Lhe Lools ls Lhe key Lo vlbraLlng-body-ln-plpe Lechnology for whlch Lhe new name vlbroCav
was colned.
1he sLudy focuses on vlbroCav Lools wlLh balls, excepL for one serles of LesLs wlLh a so-called
fllp-flop body. LxploraLory LesLs ln a 330 bar LesL clrculL ln Assen lead Lo Lhe deslgn of a 30
bar laboraLory closed LesL clrculL lnsLalled ln Lhe 3ML lab ln uelfL wlLh faclllLles Lo apply up Lo
10 bar backpressure and up Lo 40 bar pressure dlfferenLlals over Lhe Lools. ln Lhe 30 bar LesL
clrculL many experlmenLs were carrled ouL, flrsLly wlLh boLLom supporLed balls ln a sLralghL
plpe and secondly wlLh hanglng balls ln a plpe wlLh a conlcal ouLleL allowlng remoLe
ad[usLmenL of Lhe gap beLween Lhe ball and Lhe plpe wall. 1he lnfluence of waLer
composlLlon, gas conLenL and varlous ball maLerlals was LesLed. SelecLed hlgh backpressure
LesL were carrled ouL wlLh a 330 bar closed LesL clrculL ln urachLen. A LoLal of 29 fleld Lrlals
on an lndusLrlal scale were carrled ouL for cleanlng Lhe porous medla around waLer and oll
wellbores under wldely varylng condlLlons and 3 fleld Lrlals were done Lo evaluaLe Lhe
poLenLlal of Lhe Lechnology for Lhe removal of scale deposlLs ln wellbores.
1he laboraLory experlmenLs wlLh Lhe 30 bar LesL clrculL dellneaLed varlous operaLlonal
modes of Lhe vlbroCav Lools as funcLlon of flow raLe and backpressure wlLh reglmes
deslgnaLed as (l) vlbraLlon only, (ll) acLlve cavlLaLlon always comblned wlLh vlbraLlon, (lll) no
vlbraLlon and passlve cavlLaLlon and (lv) no vlbraLlon and no passlve cavlLaLlon. 1he vlbraLlon
reglme perslsLs Lo Lhe maxlmum backpressure LhaL could be reached and probably Lo much
hlgher pressures, however aL hlgh flow raLe condlLlons and a narrow gap vlbraLlon ceases
when Lhe 8e value lncreases beyond Lhe polnL of drag reducLlon due Lo shlfLlng of Lhe
boundary separaLlon polnL (8e approxlmaLely 3 x 10
3
for unbounded flow). AcLlve cavlLaLlon
ls [usL as passlve cavlLaLlon subdued by lncreaslng backpressure, buL ln Lhls LesL clrculL lL has
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9

sLlll been observed aL a backpressure of 63 barg. WlLh a boLLom supporLed Lool as used ln
Lhls LesL clrculL a slgnlflcanL paLh downsLream of Lhe ball ls obscured and acLlve cavlLaLlon
closer Lo Lhe gap mlghL sLlll exlsL. 1hls ls Lhe basls for Lhe expecLaLlon LhaL for Lhls Lool acLlve
cavlLaLlon may survlve up Lo 100 barg backpressure. 1ools wlLh a hanglng ball, ln whlch
cavlLaLlon ls more clearly vlslble, were noL LesLed aL such hlgh backpressures.
1he lnfluence of waLer quallLy and gas conLenL proved Lo be lnslgnlflcanL. LlghLwelghL balls
showed ln boLLom supporLed Lools vlolenL vlbraLlon and sLrong acLlve cavlLaLlon buL were
easlly damaged by Lhe hlgh conLacL forces beLween Lhe ball and Lhe supporL. WlLh hard sLeel
balls and sofLer sLeel supporLs, beddlng-ln ls observed due Lo conLacL forces beyond Lhe
elasLlc llmlL of Lhe supporL. lf Lhe ball ls sofLer Lhan Lhe supporL, Lhe ball flaLLens, breaks or ls
oLherwlse damaged by Lhe supporL.
1he fleld Lrlals for cleanlng porous medla around wellbores comblned wlLh LheoreLlcal
analysls provlded valuable seml-quanLlLaLlve undersLandlng of Lhe lnfluence of frequency,
source dlrecLlvlLy, source energy, wellbore geomeLry and permeablllLy damage on Lhe
peneLraLlon depLh of sources for vlbraLlon based well cleanlng. 1he mosL slgnlflcanL wave
energy for cleanlng porous medla ls provlded by Lhe slow 8loL wave, whlch ls a
compresslonal wave ln fluld ln Lhe lnLerconnecLed pore neLwork. 1he hlgher Lhe vlrgln
permeablllLy of Lhe rock and Lhe lower Lhe wave frequency Lhe beLLer ls Lhe peneLraLlon
depLh. ermeablllLy deLerloraLlon due Lo pore foullng reduces Lhe peneLraLlon depLh of Lhe
cleanlng LreaLmenL and wlLh progresslve foullng Lhe pore damage may geL ouL of reach of
Lhe cleanlng Lools.
1he llmlLed number of scale removal Lrlals showed slgnlflcanL poLenLlal of Lhe vlbroCav Lools
due Lo Lhe comblnaLlon of physlcal hammerlng, [eLLlng, wave energy and shock waves of
collapslng cavlLaLlon bubbles.
1he sLudy provldes a solld basls for a sclenLlflcally founded conLlnuaLlon of Lhe developmenL
of vlbroCav Lechnology for many areas of appllcaLlon ln several lndusLrlal secLors and should
be regarded as Lhe precursor for a range of lnnovaLlng Lechnlques.
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>32)?
SamenvaLLlng .............................................................................................................................. 6
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 8
lndex ......................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1. CavlLaLlon ...................................................................................................................... 14
1.1.1. CavlLaLlon and lLs characLerlsLlcs ........................................................................... 14
1.1.2. AcousLlc cavlLaLlon ................................................................................................. 16
1.1.3. Pydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ....................................................................................... 17
1.1.4. Pydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon devlces .......................................................................... 23
1.1.3. Consequences of cavlLaLlonal collapse. ................................................................. 27
1.2. vlbraLlon ........................................................................................................................ 31
1.2.1. vlbraLlon sources ................................................................................................... 31
1.2.2. Pydrodynamlc vlbraLlon ......................................................................................... 31
1.2.3. Consequences of propagaLlng waves ..................................................................... 37
1.2.4. CharacLerlsaLlon of lndusLrlally avallable vlbraLlon sources .................................. 42
1.3. Scope of Lhe Lhesls ........................................................................................................ 48
1.4. CuLllne of Lhe Lhesls ...................................................................................................... 49
1.3. 8eferences ..................................................................................................................... 31
ChapLer 2: AppllcaLlons of cavlLaLlon and vlbraLlon ................................................................ 36
2.1. LffecLs of cavlLaLlon ....................................................................................................... 36
2.2. AppllcaLlons of cavlLaLlon .............................................................................................. 38
2.2.1. Mlxlng ..................................................................................................................... 38
2.2.2. Cell dlsrupLlon ........................................................................................................ 39
2.2.3. Chemlcal converslons ............................................................................................. 60
2.2.3. ulslnLegraLlon ......................................................................................................... 61
2.2.6. CrysLalllzaLlon ......................................................................................................... 62
2.3. LffecLs of vlbraLlon ........................................................................................................ 62
2.4. AppllcaLlons of vlbraLlon ............................................................................................... 63
2.4.1. Cleanlng a porous medlum around a wellbore ...................................................... 63
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2.4.2. Cleanlng Lhe wellbore of scale and deposlLs .......................................................... 63
2.4.3. 8eservolr sLlmulaLlon ............................................................................................. 63
2.4.4. lrlcLlon reducLlon ................................................................................................... 63
2.4.3. Lnhanclng Lhe rock desLrucLlon process ................................................................ 67
2.4.6. Wellbore measuremenLs ........................................................................................ 68
2.4.7. uenslflcaLlon ........................................................................................................... 68
2.3. Concludlng remarks ....................................................................................................... 68
2.6. 8eferences ..................................................................................................................... 69
ChapLer 3: ueslgn of a 30 bar LesL clrculL ................................................................................. 74
3.1. ueslgn crlLerla................................................................................................................ 74
3.2. LxploraLory hlgh pressure LesL clrculL ln Assen ............................................................. 73
3.3. uescrlpLlon of Lhe 30 bar LesL clrculL ............................................................................ 77
3.4. uescrlpLlon of Lhe vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon Lools ......................................................... 81
3.3. 8eferences ..................................................................................................................... 83
Appendlx l: Comparlson of LesL condlLlons .......................................................................... 84
ChapLer 4: CavlLaLlon and vlbraLlon by flow along a boLLom supporLed ball ln a 30 bar LesL
clrculL ........................................................................................................................................ 86
4.1. lnLroducLlon ................................................................................................................... 86
4.2. 1ool descrlpLlon ............................................................................................................. 89
4.3. uescrlpLlon of experlmenLs ........................................................................................... 90
4.4. 8esulLs and dlscusslon ................................................................................................... 92
4.4.1. Ceneral behavlour of balls ln a flow for a small gap .............................................. 92
4.4.2. 8esulLs for small balls ............................................................................................. 93
4.4.3 8esulLs for large balls .............................................................................................. 98
4.4.4. nylon and uelrln balls .......................................................................................... 101
4.3. 1ool wear ..................................................................................................................... 103
4.6. lllp-flop ........................................................................................................................ 104
4.7. Concluslons .................................................................................................................. 103
4.8. 8eferences ................................................................................................................... 106
ChapLer 3: CavlLaLlon and vlbraLlon by flow along a hanglng ball ln a conlcal houslng ln a 30
bar LesL clrculL ........................................................................................................................ 108
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3.1. lnLroducLlon ................................................................................................................. 108
3.2. 1ools wlLh a hanglng ball ln a conlcal houslng ............................................................ 110
3.3. 8esulLs and dlscusslon ................................................................................................. 114
3.4. Concluslons .................................................................................................................. 130
ChapLer 6: vlsuallsaLlon and analysls of hydrodynamlcally lnduced movemenL of a ball
hanglng ln a conlcal houslng .................................................................................................. 132
6.1. lnLroducLlon ................................................................................................................. 132
6.2. LqulpmenL ................................................................................................................... 133
6.3.1. LxperlmenL 1 ........................................................................................................ 133
6.3.2. LxperlmenL 2 ........................................................................................................ 137
6.3.3. LxperlmenL 3 ........................................................................................................ 141
6.4. Concluslons .................................................................................................................. 142
ChapLer 7: CavlLaLlon and vlbraLlon by flow along a boLLom supporLed ball ln a 330 bar LesL
clrculL ...................................................................................................................................... 144
7.1. lnLroducLlon ................................................................................................................. 144
7.2 . uescrlpLlon of Lhe 330 bar LesL clrculL ....................................................................... 143
7.4. SLress on ball and supporL ........................................................................................... 132
7.3. Concluslons .................................................................................................................. 138
7.6. 8eferences ................................................................................................................... 138
ChapLer 8: lndusLrlal Lrlals for cleanlng a porous medlum around a wellbore ..................... 160
8.1. loullng of Lhe lnflow horlzon ln wellbores .................................................................. 160
8.2. LffecLs of hydrodynamlc vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon ...................................................... 164
8.3. lndusLrlal Lrlals for wellbore cleanlng ......................................................................... 163
8.4. LqulpmenL and operaLlng procedure .......................................................................... 163
8.3. Analysls of Lhe LreaLmenL ............................................................................................ 168
8.6.1 1rlals ln oll wells .................................................................................................... 169
8.6.2 1rlals ln waLer wells ............................................................................................... 174
8.6.3 1rlals for polluLlon conLrol wells ........................................................................... 179
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13

8.7. Concluslons .................................................................................................................. 182
8.8. 8eferences ................................................................................................................... 183
ChapLer 9: lndusLrlal Lrlals for removlng scale deposlLs ln wells ........................................... 184
9.1. Scale deposlLlon .......................................................................................................... 184
9.2. Scale removal .............................................................................................................. 184
9.3. LffecLs of hydrodynamlc vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon ...................................................... 183
9.4. lndusLrlal Lrlals for scale removal ................................................................................ 183
9.3. LqulpmenL and operaLlng condlLlons .......................................................................... 186
9.6. Analysls of Lhe LreaLmenLs .......................................................................................... 189
9.8. Concluslons .................................................................................................................. 191
9.9. 8eferences ................................................................................................................... 193
ChapLer 10: CuLlook ............................................................................................................... 194
10.1. lnLroducLlon ............................................................................................................... 194
10.2. vlbraLlon .................................................................................................................... 194
10.3. Mlxlng ........................................................................................................................ 193
10.4. CavlLaLlon .................................................................................................................. 196
10.3. Way forward .............................................................................................................. 196
AcknowledgemenLs ................................................................................................................ 198
Currlculum vlLae ..................................................................................................................... 200
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
14

.6'@5)* AB .'/,5'5,"3 '32 /,-*'5,"3
A%A% .'/,5'5,"3
A%A%A% .'/,5'5,"3 '32 ,5; 46'*'45)*,;5,4;
WhaL ls cavlLaLlon? 8eference LexLs on Lhe sub[ecL of cavlLaLlon [1, 2, 3, 4] generally refraln
from aLLempLlng a conclse deflnlLlon of cavlLaLlon ln a senLence or Lwo, buL raLher focus on
Lhe general feaLures and characLerlsLlcs of Lhe fundamenLal phenomenon. When a llquld ls
elLher heaLed or lLs amblenL pressure ls reduced, a sLaLe ls evenLually reached aL whlch
bubbles, or cavlLles, become vlslble and grow. 1he bubbles may be fllled wlLh elLher Lhe
llquld vapour or a mlxLure of vapour and amblenL or dlssolved gas. Slow bubble growLh may
arlse from Lhe dlffuslon of dlssolved gases lnLo Lhe cavlLy (someLlmes referred Lo as
'degasslng'), or by Lhe expanslon of Lhe gas or vapour conLenL wlLh lncreaslng LemperaLure
or decreaslng pressure. More rapld or 'exploslve' bubble growLh wlll occur under condlLlons
where large quanLlLles of vapour are released qulckly lnLo Lhe cavlLy. Where Lhls ls caused by
LemperaLure rlse, we call Lhe condlLlon 'bolllng'. AlLernaLlvely, lL may be broughL abouL by a
dynamlc reducLlon ln pressure aL a nomlnally consLanL LemperaLure. 1hls ls Lhe condlLlon
known as 'cavlLaLlon'.
PlsLory descrlbes cavlLaLlon as a desLrucLlve phenomenon, and unLll recenLly mosL
lnvesLlgaLlons and sclenLlflc sLudles on Lhe sub[ecL have been prlmarlly concerned wlLh lLs
prevenLlon [1]. As wlLh shlp propellers, cavlLaLlon along Lhe edge and Lhe Llp of Lhe blades
causes sllppage and a reducLlon ln propulslon effecL, and conLlnulng cavlLaLlon may serlously
erode Lhe blade's meLal. Slmllarly, ln Lhe modern use of ulLrasound for medlcal dlagnosLlcs,
cavlLaLlon of body flulds musL be avolded slnce Lhe creaLlon of gas bubbles ln vlvo can be
exLremely dangerous Lo healLh.
An lnLeresL ln acLlvely explolLlng cavlLaLlon and lLs lmmedlaLe consequences has, however,
become apparenL ln Lhe lasL Lwo Lo Lhree decades, as demonsLraLed by a marked lncrease ln
sclenLlflc publlcaLlons dedlcaLed Lo lLs sLudy. 1hese have covered Lhe ways ln whlch lL may be
generaLed, buL have focused prlnclpally on undersLandlng lLs lmmedlaLe consequences and
Lhe physlcal phenomena vla whlch Lhese end effecLs are medlaLed. loremosL of Lhese ls Lhe
phenomenon of cavlLaLlonal collapse, whereby cavlLaLlonally creaLed bubbles become
unsLable ln an osclllaLlng or oLherwlse changlng pressure fleld and lmplode, Lhereby
releaslng hlghly locallzed 'hoL spoLs' of energy.
AlLhough Lhere are a number of ways of creaLlng cavlLaLlon ln Lhe laboraLory for
experlmenLal purposes, only hydrodynamlc and acousLlc cavlLaLlon can currenLly produce
lnLenslLles LhaL are sufflclenL and susLalned enough for physlcal and chemlcal processlng
appllcaLlons [1]. AcousLlcally generaLed cavlLaLlon has a longer hlsLory of use LhaL largely
arlses from work ln Lhe 1980s and earller on 'sonochemlsLry' and 'sonoprocesslng'. lnlLlally
aL leasL, Lhese comprlsed Lhe appllcaLlon of power ulLrasound Lo brlng abouL beneflLs ln
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
13

speclflc chemlcal reacLlons (sonochemlsLry) and oLher process appllcaLlons LhaL generally
lnvolved mlxlng, dlsperslon or fragmenLaLlon. ulLrasound was also observed Lo generaLe
radlcals ln polar solvenLs such as waLer [1].
1he appllcaLlon of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon Lo chemlcal processlng has occurred only very
recenLly. lurLhermore, Lhe appllcaLlons of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon appear quallLaLlvely
dlfferenL Lo Lhose Lo whlch acousLlc cavlLaLlon has been applled. Pydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon
has for example been applled Lo enhance Lhe anaeroblc dlgesLlon of acLlvaLed sludge [1], for
reflnlng vegeLable and anlmal olls ln Lhe producLlon of blodlesel [1], and for breaklng up
solld maLerlal ln Lhe froLh floLaLlon of phosphaLe ores [1]. 1hese are all large-scale bulk
processlng appllcaLlons, conLrasLlng wlLh Lhe small-scale flne chemlcals appllcaLlons of
acousLlc cavlLaLlon. 1hls dlfference probably reflecLs Lhe dlfferenL Lypes of Lechnlques and
dlfferenL scales of equlpmenL Lo whlch Lhe Lwo meLhods of generaLlon are besL adapLed,
alLhough large scale acousLlc and small scale hydrodynamlc appllcaLlons are emerglng.
lL ls useful aL Lhls polnL Lo lnLroduce brlefly some of Lhe common feaLures of acousLlc and
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon, ln relaLlon Lo Lhe general requlremenLs of creaLlng and explolLlng
cavlLaLlon. llgure 1.1 shows ln very slmple and general Lerms how Lhe phenomenon of
cavlLaLlon leads Lo mosL of lLs chemlcal and physlcal effecLs. LssenLlally Lwo Lhlngs have Lo
happen:
- A vold or cavlLy has Lo be creaLed, normally by lmposlng a very low or negaLlve
pressure. 1he cavlLy Lhen fllls wlLh vapour of Lhe llquld and/or gas dlssolved ln Lhe
llquld.
- 1he cavlLy ls compressed and reduced ln slze by a subsequenL lncrease ln pressure.
An lncrease ln pressure may render Lhe cavlLy unsLable, ln whlch case lL can collapse
releaslng energy. lL ls Lhls locallzed and lnLense energy release LhaL dlrecLly accounLs
for Lhe observed end-effecLs.
As wlll be dlscussed below, lnLense concenLraLlons of mechanlcal energy are creaLed and
dlsslpaLed aL Lhe hlghly locallzed slLes aL whlch cavlLaLlonal collapse occurs, whlch can glve
rlse Lo lnLense LemperaLure and pressure LranslenLs or 'hoL spoLs'. 1hese concluslons have
been supporLed by Lhe observaLlon of sonolumlnescenL phoLons of energy above 6 ev from
an osclllaLlng acousLlc pressure fleld of average energy denslLy 2.22 !.m
-3
, whlch represenLs
an energy enhancemenL of 12 orders of magnlLude aL an lndlvldual slLe of phoLon emlsslon
[1].

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
16

Nucleation
Growth Collapse
Nucleation
Growth Collapse

4,56)% 7879 :%;6%#<% => %?%#*3 =<<6)),#5 @6),#5 <"?,*"*,=#8 0A% >,)3* %?%#* ,3 *A% <)%"*,=#
>=&&=B%@ CD 5)=B*A "#@ *A%# <=&&"E3% => " ?=,@ F<"?,*DG 6#@%) )%3E%<*,?%&D &=B *= #%5"*,?%
"#@ E=3,*,?% &,;6,@ E)%336)%38 0A% <=&&"E3% => ?=,@3 &%"@3 *= ,#*%#3% C6* ?%)D &=<"&,H%@ )%&%"3%3
=> %#%)5D8

A%A%C% D4"=;5,4 4'/,5'5,"3
AcousLlc cavlLaLlon can be lnduced by Lhe use of ulLrasonlc devlces also called Lransducers or
sonoLrodes LhaL creaLe ulLrasonlc waves ln a llquld volume. ulLrasonlc waves are longlLudlnal
sound waves wlLh frequencles above 20 kPz LhaL propagaLe Lhrough a llquld as elasLlc
waves. 1he resulLlng pressure fleld of Lhe ulLrasonlc wave manlfesLs lLself as a slnusoldal
alLernaLlon of compresslon and rarefacLlon:
( ) ( ) cos 2
a
p t p ft t u = +
(1.1)
where E
"
ls Lhe maxlmum acousLlc pressure, > ls Lhe frequency of Lhe wave, * Lhe Llme and 0
Lhe phase. AL low lnLenslLy of Lhe acousLlc wave Lhls pressure wave only causes a mlxlng
effecL wlLhln Lhe llquld LhaL ls called acousLlc sLreamlng. AL an acousLlc lnLenslLy whereby Lhe
pressure around Lhe anLl-node ln Lhe rarefacLlon phase of Lhe cycle falls below Lhe vapour
pressure p
v
of Lhe llquld mlnuLe cavlLaLlonal bubbles can be nucleaLed lf Lhe drlvlng force for
nucleaLlon sufflces. 1he bubbles grow as long as Lhe LoLal pressure remalns below
v
. A
furLher lncrease ln acousLlc lnLenslLy generaLes local negaLlve LranslenL pressures wlLhln Lhe
llquld, whlch sLlmulaLe Lhe growLh of Lhe bubbles and produce new bubbles.
uue Lo Lhe Llme varlance of Lhe acousLlc pressure fleld LhaL ls superlmposed on Lhe sLeady
amblenL pressure, a subsequenL compresslon of Lhe bubbles Lakes place. 1wo Lypes of
bubbles can be dlsLlngulshed, sLable bubbles LhaL osclllaLe ln slze for many perlods of Lhe
sound fleld, and LranslenL bubbles LhaL exlsL for less Lhan one or someLlmes for only a few
cycles. uurlng LranslenL cavlLaLlon Lhe expanslon of Lhe bubble ls very fasL up Lo a radlus LhaL
ls much larger Lhan LhaL of a sLable bubble. 1he hlgh klneLlc energles generaLed by
compresslon of such LranslenL bubbles become concenLraLed ln very small volumes, and
cause hlgh local LemperaLures of Lhousands of
o
C and local pressures up Lo Lhousands of bars
upon Lhelr collapse. Slnce acousLlc waves can peneLraLe porous maLerlal fllled wlLh a fluld,
cavlLaLlonal bubbles can form and consequenLly collapse ln Lhe pores.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
17

8ecause cavlLaLlonal collapse ls essenLlally a process LhaL releases energy, lLs acLuaLlon
needs a sLeady energy lnpuL. lnpuLs can be measured as Lhe power per unlL volume of Lhe
worklng llquld (kW.m
-3
). lor acousLlc cavlLaLlon, energy lnpuL ls ofLen callbraLed ln Lerms of
elLher Lhe ulLrasonlc Llp ampllLude or Lhe energy lnpuL Lo Lhe Lransducer, elLher of whlch
may be dlrecLly monlLored (and ad[usLed) aL Lhe Lransducer drlver unlL. Lxperlence wlLh
ulLrasonlc sysLems shows LhaL Lhere ls a Lhreshold value of lnLenslLy or energy lnpuL below
whlch cavlLaLlon wlll noL occur. 1hls Lhreshold depends on Lhe physlcal properLles of Lhe
llquld, such as vapour pressure and vlscoslLy, buL as a rule-of-Lhumb for aLmospherlc
amblenL pressures energy lnpuLs ln excess of 33 kW.m
-3
are usually recommended [1]. AL
hlgher amblenL pressures hlgher power lnpuLs are requlred Lo reach pressures around Lhe
anLl-nodes LhaL fall below Lhe vapour pressure of Lhe llquld.
!"#$%&'()* *%+)#%#)'( ,-+)*-&
Plelsher ulLrasonlcs [3] ls a ma[or suppller of lndusLrlal ulLrasonlc processlng equlpmenL for
many appllcaLlons, such as dlsperslon, de-agglomeraLlon, emulslflcaLlon, weL-mllllng, cel
dlsrupLlon, dlslnfecLlon and chemlcal converslon uslng 18 kPz - 20 kPz lndusLrlal vlbraLlon
devlces wlLh power raLlngs of 0.3 Lo 16 kW. A seL of four of Lhe largesL devlces (4 x 16 kW)
processes ln flow-Lhrough mode approxlmaLely 1 m
3
/hr for cell exLracLlon for algae
producLlon and up Lo 30 m
3
/hr for blodlesel LransesLerlflcaLlon. AnoLher producer of
ulLrasonlc equlpmenL ls rosonlc [6].
A%A%E% 012*"213'#,4 4'/,5'5,"3
ln hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon Lhe flow fleld ls Lhe orlgln of Lhe pressure flucLuaLlon LhaL brlngs
abouL Lhe processes of cavlLaLlon and collapse deplcLed ln llgure 1.1. ln any flowlng sysLem
LhaL ls noL aL a perfecL sLeady sLaLe, Lhe llquld flow wlll be sub[ecL Lo local acceleraLlons and
perLurbaLlons of Lhe flow paLLern.
.%+)#%#)'( )( &#$-%/")(-, '$)0)*-& '$ %"'(1 &#$-%/")(-, 2',)-&
lor a sLreamllned body, where Lhe dlsrupLlon Lo Lhe fluld flow ls mlnlmal, Lhe flow
sLreamllnes follow Lhe conLours of Lhe surface as far as posslble. ressure varlaLlons wlll be
parLlcularly marked where Lhe llquld acceleraLes by flowlng Lhrough a consLrlcLlon such as a
venLurl Lube or a sLreamllned orlflce or along a sLreamllned body conflned ln a Lube. AL Lhe
polnLs of hlgh fluld veloclLy, low sLaLlc pressures wlll occur, and here mlnuLe alr- or vapour-
fllled bubbles may form [2], LhaL wlll Lhen be carrled on Lo a reglon of hlgher pressure where
conLracLlon and posslbly collapse of Lhe Lravelllng bubbles wlll occur.
1he flow veloclLy across Lhe consLrlcLlon or orlflce ls relaLed Lo Lhe pressure proflle. lL Lhus
depends on p
up
, p
down
and

on Lhe geomeLry of Lhe sLreamllned consLrlcLlon.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
18

lor lnvlscld flow lL ls besL vlsuallzed by applylng 8ernoulll's equaLlon Lo Lhe flow upsLream
and aL locaLlon x of Lhe obsLrucLlon.

2 2
1 1
2 2
up up x x
p v p v C + = + = (1.2)
where v ls Lhe llquld veloclLy aL Lhe subscrlpLed polnL, ls Lhe llquld denslLy, and C ls a
consLanL value. A pressure below Lhe vapour pressure of Lhe llquld p
v
ls Lhe condlLlon under
whlch cavlLles wlll form ln Lhe llquld and expand.
1he above analysls enables Lhe deflnlLlon of a I<"?,*"*,=# #6+C%)J, o, a dlmenslonless
parameLer LhaL characLerlzes Lhe propenslLy of a flow Lo cavlLaLe [1, 2]. 8ernoulll's equaLlon
(1.2) dlfferenLlaLes Lhe sLaLlc pressure p from a dynamlc pressure Lerm
2
1
2
v whlch
represenLs Lhe pressure drop due Lo Lhe flow of Lhe llquld. lf we correcL Lhe sLaLlc pressure
Lerm for Lhe vapour pressure of Lhe llquld p
v
, Lhen we express Lhe cavlLaLlon number as Lhe
raLlo of Lhe sLaLlc and dynamlc pressure conLrlbuLlons:

2
1
2
up vapor
water up
p p
v
o
= (1.3)
1he cavlLaLlon number baslcally represenLs Lhe reslsLance of Lhe flow Lo cavlLaLlon, Lhe
hlgher Lhe cavlLaLlon number, Lhe less llkely cavlLaLlon ls Lo occur. CavlLaLlon wlll appear lf
Lhe cavlLaLlon number o falls below mlnus Lhe pressure coefflclenL C
p
.

2
1
2
x up
p
water up
p p
C
v
= (1.4)

.%+)#%#)'( 2-3)(, 2"400 2',)-& 5$'#$4,)(1 0$'/ % &4$0%*-
1he anLonym of a sLreamllned body ls a 'bluff body', whlch ls a generlc Lerm for a body
obsLrucLlng and dlsrupLlng a fluld flow as shown ln flgure 1.2.
When a flowlng llquld becomes deLached from lLs guldlng surface, usually because of an
obsLrucLlon or a sharp devlaLlon ln Lhe ducL or flow conLalnmenL >,K%@ <"?,*,%3L are formed.
lf we conslder Lhe slmple case of llnear flow pasL a spherlcal obsLrucLlon of radlus r, see
flgure 1.2a, Lhere comes wlLh lncrease ln r a polnL aL whlch Lhe flow llnes wlll deLach on Lhe
downsLream slde. ln Lerms of fluld dynamlcs [1] flow ls drlven by pressure, wlLh a hlgher
pressure on Lhe upsLream slde of Lhe obsLrucLlon Lhan on Lhe downsLream slde. lf we
assume LhaL llquld cannoL supporL a Lenslle sLress (or, more reallsLlcally, LhaL Lenslle sLress ls
llmlLed Lo Lhe sLrengLh of Lhe llquld), Lhen a polnL wlll be reached aL whlch Lhe pressure on
Lhe downsLream slde of Lhe obsLrucLlon falls Lo zero, and Lhe sLreamllnes wlll separaLe from
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
19

Lhe surface. 1hls separaLlon of Lhe boundary layer wlll creaLe an empLy space, or a cavlLy,
beLween Lhe llquld flow and Lhe guldlng surface, whlch wlll evenLually flll wlLh vapour. 1he
subsequenL Lra[ecLory of Lhe cavlLy wlll depend on Lhe pressures ln Lhe llquld flow, buL aL
perfecL sLeady sLaLe Lhe cavlLy wlll remaln sLaLlc.
ln Lhe case of an obsLrucLlon wlLh a sharp edge, see flgure 1.2.b, radlus r becomes effecLlvely
zero beyond Lhe edge and Lhe maln flow wlll separaLe, leavlng a llquld-fllled reglon posslbly
wlLh an eddy downsLream (as shown). lf Lhe maln flow veloclLy ls hlgh enough, Lhe pressure
ln Lhe separaLed reglon wlll drop Lo zero and a vapour-fllled cavlLy wlll form. ln boLh cases, as
ln flgure 1.2a and b, lnLroduclng a gas flow lnLo Lhe separaLed reglon may also creaLe a gas-
fllled pockeL, a condlLlon deslgnaLed as venLllaLed flow. 1he formaLlon of a flxed cavlLy ls
ofLen followed by sheddlng, whereby small cavlLles deLach from Lhe maln flxed cavlLy and
are carrled downsLream ln Lhe flow.

Cavity p < p
vapor
r
Cavity p < p
vapor
r

Cavity p < p
vapor
Cavity p < p
vapor

4,56)% 78M9 N)%"*,=# => " >,K%@ <"?,*D @=B#3*)%"+ => " >&=B =C3*)6<*,=#8 F"G 4&=B @%*"<A+%#*
,# *A% B"/% => " 3EA%),<"& =C3*)6<*,=# C%&=B *A% <),*,<"& )"@,63- FCG " 3A")E%@5%@ =C3*)6<*,=#
B,*A " <,)<6&"*,#5 %@@D <6))%#* @=B#3*)%"+8
Also cyllnders, spheres and dlscs can acL as bluff bodles wlLh downsLream flxed cavlLles. 1he
dlscusslons above show LhaL Lhe flow of llquld along or around a bluff body, or Lhrough an
orlflce or narrow channel may lead Lo hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon. 1hls cavlLaLlon can elLher
resulL from deLachmenL of sLreamllnes due Lo Lhe shape of Lhe bluff body, buL can also resulL
from pressure drop due Lo consLrlcLlon of Lhe flow as has earller been descrlbed for
sLreamllned bodles. CavlLaLlon can also resulL from a comblnaLlon of Lhe shape of Lhe bluff
body and Lhe consLrlcLlon of Lhe fluld flow. lor bodles movlng freely ln elLher unbounded or
bounded flows Lhe causes for pressure drops LhaL conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe occurrence of cavlLaLlon
become more complex and wlll be LreaLed below.
.%+)#%#)'( )( #3- 6%7- '0 2"400 2',)-&
MaLhemaLlcal descrlpLlons of fluld flow around bodles wlLh slmple and symmeLrlcal
geomeLrles lncludlng cyllnders, spheres and dlscs LhaL move freely ln an unbounded or
bounded flow have been exLenslvely addressed, and are wldely relevanL ln Lhe fleld of
hydrodynamlcs and aerodynamlcs.
Cne way of descrlblng Lhe flow behavlour when a body ls movlng relaLlve Lo a llquld ls by
conslderlng Lhe drag forces on Lhe body. 1hese can be dlvlded lnLo Lwo caLegorles. lrlcLlonal
drag orlglnaLes from Lhe frlcLlon beLween Lhe llquld and Lhe surface over whlch lL ls flowlng,
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
20

pressure drag from Lhe eddylng moLlons seL up ln Lhe llquld aL Lhe passage of Lhe body.
When Lhe LoLal drag ls domlnaLed by Lhe frlcLlonal componenL, Lhe body ls sald Lo be
sLreamllned, where Lhe pressure componenL domlnaLes Lhe body ls bluff. Cne aspecL of Lhe
pressure drag componenL ls boundary layer separaLlon and Lhe formaLlon of a wake
downsLream of Lhe bluff body. A wake conslsLs of a Lraln of eddles exLendlng downsLream
from an ob[ecL or obsLrucLlon Lo Lhe polnL aL whlch fully developed undlsLurbed flow ls re-
esLabllshed. 1he formaLlon of such eddles, vorLlces and wakes plays a deLermlnlng role ln Lhe
creaLlon of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon. Cyllnders and spheres are consldered bluff bodles
because Lhelr drag ls domlnaLed by Lhe pressure losses occurrlng ln Lhe wake. 1hese are
medlaLed by Lhe separaLlon of Lhe boundary layer from Lhe body, whlch ls shown ln flgure
1.3 for a ball ln a waLer Lunnel uslng hlgh speed phoLography [7].

4,56)% 78O9 N"?,*"*,=# ")=6#@ "#@ ,# *A% B"/% => " C"&& ,# >&6,@ >&=B PQR8

A LreaLlse on llquld flow around clrcular cyllnders [8] dlfferenLlaLes Lhe 5=?%)#,#5
parameLers for an ldeallzed, dlsLurbance-free flow, and Lhe ,#>&6%#<,#5 parameLers LhaL
represenL and characLerlze a wlde varleLy of dlsLurbances LhaL wlll always occur ln pracLlcal
slLuaLlons and wlll very ofLen deLermlne Lhe ouLcome. WlLhln Lhls framework, Lhe prlnclpal
governlng parameLer ls Lhe 8eynolds number of Lhe flow, and maLhemaLlcal soluLlons have
been obLalned for flow around an unbounded clrcular cyllnder

[8, 9], and for flows around a
dlsk and a sphere ln dlfferenL slzes of solld-walled Lunnels [10]. lnfluenclng parameLers
lnclude free-sLream Lurbulence, surface roughness, wall blockage, end effecLs, and
osclllaLlon of Lhe body ln Lhe flow. 8eyond Lhreshold ampllLude, Lhese laLLer osclllaLlons may
overrlde all oLher dlsLurbances ln deLermlnlng Lhe naLure of Lhe flow [8].
Conflnlng a bluff body wlLhln a ducL or oLher bounded enclosure can exerL a dramaLlc effecL
on Lhe flow ln Lhe wake, and hence on Lhe lnducLlon of cavlLaLlon. 1he blockage raLlo (or gap
raLlo) and Lhe 8e number have been ldenLlfled as key parameLers ln deLermlnlng how Lhe
boundlng affecLs Lhe flow fleld downsLream of Lhe body, and wheLher flxed or sheddlng
cavlLles are formed.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
21

845-$*%+)#%#)'(
ln flxed cavlLles, Lhe lengLh of Lhe cavlLy lncreases as cavlLaLlon becomes very sLrong. vapour
or gas fllled S36E%)<"?,*,%3L can resulL from Lhe growLh of such flxed cavlLles unLll Lhelr
lengLh ls very large compared wlLh Lhe body dlmenslons. SupercavlLles can someLlmes be
creaLed by venLllaLlng Lhe low pressure zones of a wake [11].
Clven LhaL cavlLaLlonal collapse ofLen glves rlse Lo deleLerlous effecLs, supercavlLaLlon can
provlde a deslrable alLernaLlve because lL glves sLeadler flow condlLlons and ls less prone Lo
sheddlng Lhan a convenLlonal flxed cavlLy [2]. 1he phenomenon of supercavlLaLlon has been
recognlsed ln Lhe deslgn of propellers [12], supercavlLaLlng pumps [13], hlgh-speed
underwaLer pro[ecLlles [14] and vehlcles [13].
.%+)#%#)'( 29 6%#-$ 3%//-$
AnoLher source of cavlLaLlon ls Lhe waLer hammer effecL LhaL occurs when flow ls suddenly
cuL off [16, 17, 18, and 19]. 1he followlng descrlpLlon ls based on lranzlnl eL al. [20], where
Lhe flow of a llquld, generally waLer, Lhrough a plpellne from a reservolr wlLh a consLanL
llquld level ls sLopped by compleLe and lnsLanLaneous closure of valve n (see flgure 1.4a).
8efore closure of Lhe valve Lhe hydraullc grade llne PCL ln Lhe plpe ls sloplng because Lhe
sLaLlc energy reflecLed by Lhe pressure helghL aL Lhe lnleL of Lhe plpe M ls lowered by
converslon lnLo klneLlc energy of v
2
/2g per llquld mass due Lo frlcLlon aL Lhe plpe wall h
L
.
upon closure of Lhe valve Lhe waLer ln fronL of Lhe valve wlll be compressed by Lhe upsLream
column of llquld LhaL ls sLlll flowlng Lowards Lhe valve unLll lL ls broughL Lo a resL by Lhe
reLurnlng pressure wave bullL up by Lhe compresslon.
1he compresslon of Lhe llquld depends on Lhe compresslblllLy of Lhe llquld and on Lhe
elasLlclLy of Lhe sLreLchlng plpellne. 1he veloclLy of a pressure wave for a llquld such as waLer
ln an elasLlc plpe ls compared Lo LhaL of a free wave ln waLer reduced by sLreLchlng of Lhe
plpe walls and equals:
1
combined
pipe
pipe
liquid pipe pipe
E g
C
D
E t E
= =
| |
+
|
|
\ .
(1.3)
where L
plpe
ls modulus of elasLlclLy of plpe maLerlal, L
comblned
ls bulk modulus of Lhe
comblned elasLlclLy of Lhe llquld and plpe, and u
plpe
and L
plpe
are Lhe dlameLer and wall
Lhlckness of Lhe plpe.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
22

Time
Time
D
C
B
A
Time
Time
D
C
B
A

4,56)% 78T "G U)%336)% A%,5A* ,# " E,E%&,#% C%*B%%# " )%3%)?=,) "#@ " ?"&?% $ B,*A >),<*,=#-
CG V"*%) A"++%) E)%336)% A%"@ "* $ "3 " >6#<*,=# => *,+% >=) ,#3*"#*"#%=63 ?"&?% <&=36)%
B,*A=6* @"+E,#5 "#@ <G B,*A @"+E,#5 "#@ ,#<)%"3%@ E)%336)% A%"@- @G V"*%) A"++%)
E)%336)% A%"@ "* $ "3 " >6#<*,=# => *,+% >=) ?"&?% <&=36)% ,# " >,#,*% *,+% *
<
B,*A=6* @"+E,#5
PMWR
1he Lravel of Lhe pressure wave backwards from n Lo M ls deLermlned by a LranslenL
hydraullc grade llne parallel Lo Lhe orlglnal flow grade llne aL a helghL of Ap
lmpulse
/ above
Lhe normal PCL, where Ap
lmpulse
ls Lhe waLer hammer pressure, and Lhe speclflc welghL of
Lhe llquld.
1he lnsLanLaneous pressure generaLlon aL compleLe closure of Lhe valve equals:
impulse pipe
p c v A = (1.6)
ln case of parLlal closlng of Lhe valve:
impulse pipe
p c v A = A (1.7)
SubsLlLuLlng numerlcal values for a llquld veloclLy of 1 m/s, c
p
= 1233 m/s, glves a pressure
LranslenL of 1.23 Ma, equlvalenL Lo around 12.3 aLmospheres, occurrlng on Lhe rapld
closure of a waLer Lap.
When Lhe pressure wave reaches Lhe lnleL M Lhe enLlre waLer column wlll be aL resL, buL aL
an excess of pressure of a helghL of Ap
lmpulse
/. 1herefore some waLer wlll sLarL Lo flow back
lnLo Lhe reservolr. 1hls reverse flow wlll cause a sucLlon or pressure drop aL n LhaL wlll
wlLhouL damplng be [usL as far below Lhe normal sLeady-flow pressure as Lhe pressure was
above lL an lnsLanL before (see flgure 1.4b). 1hen a wave of low pressure Lravels back from n
Lo M.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
23

1he Llme for a round Lrlp of Lhe pressure wave from n Lo M and backwards Lo n ls:
2
r
pipe
L
T
c
= (1.8)
wlLh L as Lhe acLual lengLh of Lhe plpe. So Lhe pressure head ln n changes ln Llme as
presenLed ln flgure 1.4.b.
A sllghL lncrease ln pressure head over Lhe value of Ap = p c
p
v for LoLal lnsLanLaneous
closure was found Lo exlsL experlmenLally. As Lhe wave fronL moves Lowards M, polnL C on
Lhe LranslenL PCL llne moves wlLh lL and Lhe pressure head aL n becomes 8S larger (see
flgure 1.4.a). So ln flgure 1.4.c where Lhe pressure head aL n ls ploLLed ln Llme Laklng boLh
plpe frlcLlon and damplng lnLo accounL, Lhe llne ab ls shown as sloplng upwards and Lhe llne
ef as sloplng downwards.
ln a real slLuaLlon lnsLanLaneous closure ls noL feaslble, buL for closure Llmes L
close
below 1
r
a
maxlmum waLer hammer pressure head of Ap/ ls reached beLween L
close
and 1
r
(see flgure
1.4c).
!usL as Lhe pressure goes up ln fronL of Lhe valve upon lLs lnsLanLaneous closure, Lhe
pressure drops aL Lhe downsLream slde of Lhe valve, because Lhe llquld conLlnues lLs flow
paLLern, and a low-pressure LranslenL PLC exlsLs. 1he pressure head versus Llme funcLlon ls
Lhus opposlLe for boLh sldes of Lhe valve. As wlLh oLher hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon
phenomena, vapour cavlLaLlon occurs due Lo waLer hammer effecLs when Lhe LranslenL
pressure ln Lhe llquld falls below Lhe llquld vapour pressure (p
v
). 1he chance Lo produce
cavlLaLlon ls larger dlrecLly behlnd Lhe valve Lhan ln fronL of Lhe valve lf damplng ls noL
neglecLed. CavlLaLlon can occur as a slngle, large vapour cavlLy, whlch can lead Lo a column
separaLlon, or as dlsLrlbuLed small cavlLles or clouds of cavlLles ln Lhe llquld flow.
lf an ob[ecL such as a cyllnder or a ball rapldly vlbraLes ln a flow, and ln parLlcular when Lhls
rapld osclllaLlng behavlour of Lhe ob[ecL ls comblned wlLh bounclng agalnsL Lhe walls of Lhe
ducL, Lhe sLream llnes of Lhe flow become suddenly and frequenLly dlsrupLed, and slmllar
effecLs are provoked as descrlbed above for Lhe sudden closure of a valve. So Lhe osclllaLlng-
bounclng behavlour conLrlbuLes Lo Lhe pressure drop ln Lhe llquld LhaL ls requlred Lo lnduce
cavlLaLlon.
.'/2)(-, %*'4&#)* %(, 39,$',9(%/)* *%+)#%#)'(
A recenL publlcaLlon [21] descrlbes a slngle 'reacLor' sysLem LhaL lncludes generaLlon of
acousLlc and hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon as complemenLary Lo each oLher. 1hls ls shown
schemaLlcally ln flgure 1.3, and ls lnLeresLlng because lL enables a comparlson of Lhe drlvers
LhaL are requlred for boLh generaLlon modes, and also Lhe sLrengLhs and weaknesses of each
ln operaLlon. Pydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ls lnduced by forclng Lhe clrculaLlng llquld Lhrough an
orlflce aL hlgh pressure. CavlLaLlon occurs downsLream of Lhe orlflce ln Lhe low pressure
reglon (p
2
), and Lhls may be relnforced by acousLlcally lnduced cavlLaLlon from Lhe ulLrasonlc
Lransducer. llgure 1.3 shows LhaL hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon wlll be creaLed conLlnuously
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
24

whenever Lhere ls sufflclenL flow, and lLs characLerlsLlcs wlll depend on Lhe naLure of Lhe
orlflce and Lhe pressure drop across lL. ulLrasonlc cavlLaLlon, on Lhe oLher hand, may be
swlLched on and off aL wlll, and lLs lnLenslLy may be alLered exLernally by ad[usLlng Lhe
power lnpuL Lo Lhe Lransducer. 1hese dlfferences are probably whaL underlle Lhe dlfferenL
Lypes of appllcaLlon, hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ls beLLer sulLed Lo large-scale, conLlnuous
processes where a flow condlLlon can be seL and malnLalned, whlle ulLrasonlc cavlLaLlon ls
easlly conLrollable over shorL Llmescales, and Lhus sulLed Lo small-scale baLch processes
where Lhe condlLlons need Lo be monlLored and conLrolled carefully over relaLlvely shorL
perlods.

F))2)*
5'3(
.""7)*
0,86
@*);;=*)
@=#@
G*,:,4)
@7'5)
H)5=*3
I75*';"3,4
5*'3;2=4)*
.'/,5'5,"3
*)8,"3
@
C
@
A
, @

4,56)% 78X9 N=+C,#%@ I)%"<*=)J 3D3*%+ B,*A >"<,&,*D *= 5%#%)"*% <"?,*"*,=# C=*A
AD@)=@D#"+,<"&&D "#@ "<=63*,<"&&D PM7R8

Lnd-effecL measuremenLs for Lhe generaLors ln flgure 1.3 were carrled ouL uslng a sallcyllc
acld doslmeLer, whlch dlrecLly measures Lhe hydroxyl radlcal yleld from an aqueous soluLlon.
lor hydrodynamlcally lnduced cavlLaLlon, radlcal ylelds lncreased wlLh Lhe pressure
upsLream of Lhe orlflce (p
1
) ln Lhe range 13.8 - 27.3 Ma. 8elow 0.7 Ma zero radlcal ylelds
were obLalned. Applylng ulLrasound aL Lhe maxlmum upsLream pressure (p
1
= 27.3 Ma) aL a
power lnpuL level of 420 W ampllfled Lhe cavlLaLlon effecL by an addlLlonal radlcal yleld of
13 [21]. 1he addlLlon of Lhe ulLrasonlc componenL Lhus enabled Lhe condlLlons of
cavlLaLlon Lo be ad[usLed or enhanced Lo sulL Lhe appllcaLlon.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
23

A%A%J% 012*"213'#,4 4'/,5'5,"3 2)/,4);
Pydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon can be generaLed ln varlous ways by creaLlng local hlgh dynamlc
energy peaks LhaL lower Lhe sLaLlc pressure Lo below Lhe vapour pressure of Lhe fluld. A
selecLlon of avallable devlces ls descrlbed below:
- A hlgh pressure homogenlzer ln whlch fluld ls forced aL a hlgh pressure of 30 Lo 300
bar Lhrough a narrow consLrlcLlon and pro[ecLed onLo a downsLream plaLe. 1hls
meLhod ls energy lnLenslve due Lo Lhe hlgh feed pressure [22].
- A hlgh speed homogenlzer where hlgh dynamlc energy ls creaLed aL Lhe Llps of a fasL
splnnlng blade ln a roLor and sLaLor conflguraLlon, also aL Lhe expense of a loL of
energy [22],
- llow consLrlcLlons ln Lhe form of an slngle or mulLlple hole orlflce plaLe or a venLurl
fed by consLanL flow, needlng less energy Lhan Lhe aforemenLloned homogenlzers,
wlLh orlflce plaLes generally provldlng more lnLense cavlLaLlonal condlLlons Lhan
venLurl devlces [22],
- 1he annular space of a sLaLlc ouLer houslng wlLh a fasL splnnlng (3000 - 3600 rpm)
pock-marked lnner cyllnder ln a Lool markeLed by Pydro uynamlc lnc. as Lhe Shock
Wave owered 8eacLor or S8. 1hls meLhod ls descrlbed as very energy efflclenL [23],
- A llquld whlsLle Lool, whereby a llquld [eL creaLed ln a shaped nozzle lmpacLs upon a
sLeel blade LhaL vlbraLes due Lo lnsLablllLles ln Lhe [eL sLream. 1he cavlLaLlonal
performance of such devlces can be lnfluenced by ad[usLlng Lhe dlsLance beLween
Lhe blade and Lhe nozzle ouLleL [24]. ln vlew of Lhe presence of a nozzle Lhe energy
efflclency ls expecLed Lo be comparable Lo LhaL of a nozzle devlce, and
- A roLary pulsed apparaLus [23], whereby a closely flLLlng cyllndrlcal roLor and sLaLor
boLh provlded wlLh axlal sloLs ln Lhe ouLer wall spaced such LhaL Lhe fluld flow ls
lnLerrupLed lf Lhe sloLs do noL colnclde, lmparL sLrong pulses lf fluld ls pumped
Lhrough Lhe devlce whlle roLaLlng Lhe roLor [26]. 1he energy efflclency ls expecLed Lo
be comparable Lo Lhe shock wave reacLor devlce.
Cf all avallable devlces, an orlflce and a venLurl provlde a flexlble, slmple and aLLracLlve
meLhod for cavlLaLlon generaLlon [22].
CavlLaLlon can also be generaLed by Lhe 'vlbraLlng-body-ln-plpe' Lool of lvannlkov [27]
conslsLlng of a Lube llke houslng and a body, mosLly a ball, LhaL ls resLralned ln axlal
dlrecLlon, buL can freely move Lransversely as lllusLraLed ln llgure 1.6.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
26

4,56)% 78Y9 Z"),=63 %+C=@,+%#*3 => <"?,*"*,=# 5%#%)"*,#5 ?,C)"*,#5C=@D,#E,E% *==&3
E)=E=3%@ CD 2?"##,/=? [27]

lvannlkov clalms LhaL Lhe Lool wlll generaLe very sLrong, waLer hammer ampllfled cavlLaLlon
lf Lhe worklng body occuples more Lhan 0.8 of Lhe cross secLlonal area of Lhe plpe and LhaL
Lhe acLlon ln Lhe Lool ls so powerful LhaL Lhe cavlLaLlon wlll survlve Lhe amblenL pressure
condlLlons encounLered ln deep wells.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
27

A%A%K% ."3;)L=)34); ": 4'/,5'5,"3'7 4"77'@;)%
lor acousLlc cavlLaLlon a slngle bubble can be quasl sLable or LranslenL. A sLable bubble
osclllaLes ln slze for many cycles by growlng and subsequenLly shrlnklng durlng Lhe
rarefacLlon and compresslon phase of Lhe acousLlc pressure, whlle a LranslenL bubble grows
beyond a Lhreshold slze ln mosLly one cycle and collapses durlng compresslon. lor
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon Lhe Lravelllng cavlLles grow ln slze when LransporLed by Lhe flow as
long as Lhe pressure remalns below Lhe vapour pressure, and beyond a cerLaln slze Lhe
bubble becomes unsLable, and collapses aL lncreaslng pressure of Lhe flow.
Models LhaL descrlbe Lhe bubble dynamlcs reflecLed by Lhelr growLh and collapse due Lo Lhe
changlng pressure ln Lhe llquld are all based on Lhe 8aylelgh-lesseL (8) equaLlon, LhaL ls
derlved from Lhe conservaLlon of mass and Lhe navler-SLokes equaLlon for moLlon ln Lhe
dlrecLlon of Lhe bubble radlus [1].
2
( ) ( ) 3
2
wall
water
p R p t
RR R

+ =

(1.9)
where p
wall
(8) equals Lhe pressure aL Lhe bubble wall and p(L) Lhe Llme dependenL pressure
surroundlng Lhe bubble.
2
( ) ( ) 4
wall g water
R S
p R p R
R R
q =
(1.10)
where p
g
ls Lhe gas pressure ln Lhe bubble, ! Lhe surface free energy of Lhe bubble and
water
q
Lhe dynamlc llquld vlscoslLy.
3
0
0
0
2
( )
k
g v v
R S
P R p p p
R R
| |
| |
= + +
| |
\ .
\ .
(1.11)
wlLh p
v
as Lhe vapour pressure of Lhe llquld, p
0
as Lhe lnlLlal surroundlng pressure, 8
0
as Lhe
lnlLlal radlus of Lhe bubble, and k as Lhe lsoLhermal/adlabaLlc facLor.
lrom Lhe 8 equaLlon Lhe mlnlmum bubble radlus 8
mln
as well as Lhe correspondlng
maxlmum pressure of Lhe spherlcal bubble can be calculaLed. 1he maxlmum or collapse
pressure ls glven by:
( )
3
0
0
min
k
collapse g
R
P P R
R
| |
=
|
\ .
(1.12)

1he mlnlmum value of 8
mln
ls Lhe van der Waals hard core and LhaL ls abouL 8
0
/10.
ln pracLlce however, bubbles never develop as slngle enLlLles, buL clusLers of cavlLles are
formed. 1hese cavlLles are smaller Lhan a slngle bubble and Lhe vold fracLlon ls also small
and ofLen Laken ln Lhe order of 0.02. lf Lhe vold fracLlon were Loo large Lhe separaLe
bubbles would coalesce. 1he ouLer cavlLles near Lhe clusLer boundary grow fasLer Lhan Lhose
closer Lo Lhe cenLre, and collapse flrsL aL ralslng bulk pressure. 1hese collapslng cavlLles glve
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
28

some parL of Lhelr poLenLlal energy as shock waves Lo Lhe surroundlng llquld, buL 23 Lo 30
of Lhls energy ls Lransferred lnwards Lo Lhe surroundlng sLlll un-collapsed cavlLles. So
Lowards Lhe cenLre of Lhe clusLer Lhe cavlLles have sLored more energy and Lhelr collapse
pressure ls hlgher.
A flrsL aLLempL Lo accounL for Lhe exlsLence of clusLers lnsLead of slngle bubbles Lo descrlbe
Lhe clusLer dynamlcs was made by lncludlng Lhe vold fracLlon and Lhe energy Lransfer
fracLlon (0.23 < < 0.3) ln Lhe 8 equaLlon [28, 29].
( )( )
2
( ) 3 1
1 1
2 2
v
cluster cluster cluster
water
p t p
R R R |
|
| |
+ =
|
\ .

(1.13)

ln anoLher approach Lhe effecL of all cavlLles ln Lhe clusLer on Lhe growLh of an lndlvldual
cavlLy l ls Laken lnLo accounL by a summaLlon Lerm over all oLher cavlLles [ wlLh radll 8
[
aL
dlsLances r
l[
beLween Lhe cavlLy cenLres. 1hls Lerm LhaL can be seen as Lhe pressure
generaLed by Lhe surroundlng cavlLles modlfles Lhe 8 equaLlon for Lhe dynamlcs of 8
l
lnLo
[30]:
2 2
2
2
( ) ( ) 3
2
j i j j
wall i
i i i
j i
water ij
R R R R
p R p t
R R R
r
=
+
+ =

(1.14)

1hls equaLlon was valldaLed by Lwo dlmenslonal experlmenLs, where Lhe growLh and
collapse of a hexagonal clusLer of bubbles was measured. ln pracLlce Lhe nucleaLlon of
cavlLles or bubbles ls always heLerogeneous, on a solld surface nucleaLlon ls mosLly lnlLlaLed
by Lhe presence of Llny adsorbed gas bubbles, whlle nucleaLlon ln a llquld ls faclllLaLed by Lhe
presence of elLher Llny gas bubbles or forelgn solld lmpurlLles. ln Lhe 2-u experlmenLs
hydrophoblc mlcro-cavlLles were eLched on a slllcon plaLe LhaL acLed as gas Lraps. A pressure
pulse ls generaLed by a plezoelecLrlc Lransducer, and Lhe measured Llme evoluLlon of Lhe
radll of Lhe slx cavlLles maLched well wlLh Lhe bubble dynamlcs predlcLed by Lhe modlfled 8
equaLlon (1.14). 1he ouLer bubbles grow ouL flrsL Lo larger slzes, whlle shleldlng Lhe lnner
bubbles from Lhe acousLlc fleld. upon Lhelr collapse a [eL of llquld ls dlrecLed Lowards Lhe
cenLre and noL Lowards Lhe wall as ls common for Lhe cavlLaLlon of bubbles close Lo a solld
boundary.
ln anoLher paper [31] 8remond eL al. sLudled Lhe dynamlc behavlour of a row of bubbles on
a solld surface. 1he wall acLs as a mlrror, and Lhelr muLual lnfluence depends on Lhe lnLer-
spaclng. Weak lnLeracLlons occur where Lhe separaLlon dlsLances of Lhe bubbles exceed Lhe
bubble radll and spherlcal symmeLry ls malnLalned. AL closer separaLlon dlsLances, and
lncreased Lenslle sLress, sLrong lnLeracLlons arlse ln whlch bubbles flaLLen and form llquld
fllms beLween each oLher. 1hese fllms can rupLure, and Lhe symmeLry breaklng beLween
ad[acenL bubbles can lead Lo Lhe formaLlon of mlcro[eLs. lf Lhls spaclng becomes Loo small
Lhe bubbles coalesce.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
29

1he adapLed 8 equaLlon where Lhe lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe cavlLles ln Lhe clusLer ls
descrlbed by Lhe vold fracLlon and Lhe energy Lransfer fracLlon has been used by
kanLhale eL al. [29] Lo sLudy Lhe lnfluence of Lhe fracLlon of energy Lransfer , Lhe lnlLlal
clusLer radlus r
0
and Lhe recovery pressure or backpressure
r
on Lhe flnal collapse pressure
of Lhe clusLer ln case of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon. lrom numerlcal slmulaLlons Lhe followlng
emplrlcal expresslon was obLalned for Lhe collapse pressure ln cavlLaLlng orlflce flow wlLh
dlameLer d
0
:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2.604
0.972 0.714 0.539 0.9316
min
0
0
0.3023
cluster
collapse r cluster o
cluster
R
p p R d
R
| |
=
|
\ .
(1.13)
lL was found LhaL an lncrease ln backpressure also ralsed Lhe collapse pressure and Lhus Lhe
vlolence of Lhe bubble collapse. 1hls was conflrmed by Arro[o and 8enlLo [32]. ln comparlng
acousLlc wlLh hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon Lhey emphaslzed LhaL Lhe mosL slgnlflcanL dlfference
ls Lhe Llme scale of Lhe processes. ln hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon Lhe deslgn of Lhe cavlLaLlon
chamber plays an lmporLanL role, and Lhe Lhreshold values for collapse of Lhe bubbles are
lower Lhan for acousLlc cavlLaLlon. 8esldes, shleldlng of Lhe elecLrlcal fleld aL hlgh bubble
denslLles does noL occur ln case of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon. 1he bubble denslLy for
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ls Lherefore ln general hlgher Lhan for acousLlc cavlLaLlon, buL can
be reduced by lncreaslng of Lhe backpressure lf needed.
1he physlcal and chemlcal consequences of cavlLaLlonal collapse underlle Lhe use of
cavlLaLlon ln a large number of appllcaLlons. 1he mechanlcal energy lnpuL ls concenLraLed aL
hlghly locallzed slLes where Lhe collapse occurs. undersLandlng Lhe magnlLude of Lhls energy
concenLraLlon and Lhe effecLs of lLs dlsslpaLlon lnLo Lhe surroundlng llquld medlum ls Lhe key
Lo ldenLlfylng and quanLlfylng Lhese consequences. AL Lhe spoL of Lhe collapslng bubble a
LranslenL A,5A E)%336)% 3A=</B"?% ls creaLed, LhaL also causes 3*)=#5 *6)C6&%#<%. uue Lo
adlabaLlc compresslon Lhe LemperaLure aL Lhe collapse spoL lncreases Lo Lhousands of
degrees kelvln, wlLh a LemperaLure spread due Lo Lhermal dlffuslon LhaL ls much slower Lhan
Lhe shockwave propagaLlon. CalculaLlons were carrled ouL for Lhe dlsslpaLlon of LemperaLure
and pressure from Lhe polnL source of an lmplodlng slngle cavlLy [33]. 1emperaLure proflles
were calculaLed uslng lourler's second law from a polnL source of consLanL LemperaLure
4000k, represenLlng an exLreme case (l.e. Lhe hlghesL LemperaLure enhancemenL) because
Lhe calculaLlon lncluded no coollng of Lhe source wlLh Llme. 1he pressure proflle was
calculaLed uslng Lhe 1alL equaLlon of sLaLe for a shockwave from Lhe lmplodlng cavlLy aL an
lnlLlal pressure of 97 Ca, Lravelllng aL an lnlLlal veloclLy of 11,200 m.s
-1
. 1hese calculaLlons
lndlcaLed LhaL Lhe pressure ls reduced Lo 0.1 Ma (1 bar) aL 313 m from Lhe source afLer
113 ns, whlle Lhe correspondlng LemperaLure proflle aL Lhe same Llme falls Lo amblenL aL
0.33 m.
8ecenL developmenLs ln undersLandlng ulLrasonlc cavlLaLlon and Lhe assoclaLed
phenomenon of sonolumlnescence, however, suggesL LhaL Lhese calculaLlons unreallsLlcally
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
30

overesLlmaLe Lhe core LemperaLure and pressure aL cavlLaLlonal collapse. lnvesLlgaLlons of
slngle-bubble sonolumlnescence (S8SL) have been exLenslve, Lhe use of a slngle bubble
allows observaLlon ln deLall [34], and also preserves Lhe spherlcal symmeLry of Lhe collapse
such LhaL analysls can be carrled ouL based on Lhe 8aylelgh - lesseL equaLlon [33].
Shock waves have been observed experlmenLally from slngle bubbles undergolng perlodlc
cavlLaLlonal collapse uslng a SLreak camera wlLh hlgh Llme resoluLlon [36], and Lhelr lnlLlal
veloclLy of propagaLlon has been esLlmaLed from Lhe lmages. 1hls lnlLlal veloclLy was 3 Llmes
lower Lhan Lhose calculaLed wlLh Lhe 1alL equaLlon. CLher lmporLanL facLors ln llmlLlng Lhe
lnLenslLy of Lhe collapse response lle ln Lhe naLure and composlLlon of Lhe llquld and gaseous
phases.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
31

A%C% +,-*'5,"3
A%C%A% +,-*'5,"3 ;"=*4);
uellberaLe vlbraLlon, as opposed Lo unwanLed vlbraLlon, has a mulLlLude of lndusLrlal
appllcaLlons. 1he mosL common appllcaLlon ls a loudspeaker LhaL produces sound waves ln
Lhe alr. 1hls sLudy focuses on vlbraLlon sources used ln a fluld envlronmenL aL elevaLed
amblenL pressures as encounLered ln well bores.
As such Lhere ls a famlly of acousLlc vlbraLors or sonoLrodes usually based on a plezo-
elecLrlcally acLlvaLed membrane and a horn Lo focus Lhe wave energy aL frequency levels of
10 kPz up Lo MPz values, Lhese vlbraLors requlre a slgnlflcanL amounL of elecLrlcal energy
ofLen ln excess of whaL can be supplled ln deep well appllcaLlons and work Lherefore
someLlmes ln a pulsed mode ln comblnaLlon wlLh a condenser sysLem Lo llmlL Lhe energy
feed Lo Lhe lnsLrumenL.
8aLher Lhan havlng Lo supply hlgh power elecLrlcal energy lL ls easler Lo supply hydraullc
energy Lo a vlbraLlon lnsLrumenL ln a deep well slLuaLlon. Among Lhe vlbraLors LhaL are
drlven by Lhe fluld sLream lLself are nozzle Lype lnsLrumenLs LhaL use an acousLlc reflecLor
upsLream of an organ-plpe Lube as an acousLlc chamber creaLlng rlng vorLlces ln Lhe exlLlng
[eL sLream when Lhe exclLaLlon frequency of Lhe fluld [eL maLches Lhe exclLaLlon value of Lhe
nozzle, Lhese Lools have no movlng parLs and can be deslgned Lo operaLe aL frequencles of
several hundred Pz Lo several kPz.
CLher lnsLrumenLs use Lwo ouLflow channels and a shorL-clrculL bypass Lo osclllaLe flow from
one slde Lo Lhe oLher and Lhus generaLe fluld pulses. 1hls mechanlsm ls called fluldlc
osclllaLlon. 1he Lools also have no movlng parLs and operaLe aL Lyplcally 230 Pz.
ln Lhe low frequency range Lools exlsL LhaL generaLe powerful pressure pulses by sudden
release of pressure bulld up beLween unequally slzed Landem plsLons LhaL are axlally
reclprocaLed Lyplcally operaLlng aL 6 Pz and purely mechanlcally acLlng lmpacL hammer
Lools.
An lnsLrumenL wlLh an osclllaLlng and bounclng axlally resLralned ball as descrlbed by
lvannlkov [27] ls also known Lo produce sLrong vlbraLlon.
A characLerlsaLlon of Lhe above vlbraLlon sources wlll be glven ln secLlon 1.2.4.
A%C%C% 012*"213'#,4 /,-*'5,"3
:"'6 )(,4*-, +)2$%#)'( )( 4(2'4(,-, 0"'6
llow lnduced vlbraLlons of sLrucLures/bodles are generally classlfled accordlng Lo Lhe Lype of
flow (sLeady flow, unsLeady flow and Lwo-phase flow) and a conslderable number of
vlbraLlon mechanlsms have been ldenLlfled [37]. vlbraLlons lnduced by Lhe perlodlc sheddlng
of vorLlces are Lhe mosL frequenLly occurrlng ln pracLlce, and are of lnLeresL Lo many flelds of
englneerlng where a loL of efforL ls puL lnLo avoldlng Lhelr occurrence LhaL ofLen leads Lo
dlsrupLlon of Lhe sLrucLure [38]. ueLalled revlews on vorLex lnduced vlbraLlon (vlv) have
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
32

been wrlLLen by Wllllamson & Covardhan [39] and by Sarpkaya [40]. 1hese sLudles are
prlmarlly concerned wlLh vlbraLlons of elasLlcally mounLed bluff bodles such as cyllnders
resLralned Lo move only Lransverse Lo Lhe flow LhaL can be regarded as unbounded. AL 8e >
40 Lwo sLaggered rows of vorLlces, so-called von krmn vorLlces, develop from elLher slde
of Lhe bluff body lnLo lLs wake. 1he perlodlc force on Lhe bluff body by Lhe sheddlng of Lhe
vorLlces has a llfL componenL ln Lhe Lransverse dlrecLlon wlLh Lhe same frequency as Lhe
vorLex-sheddlng f
vs
and a drag componenL wlLh Lwlce Lhe sheddlng frequency. 1he
ampllLudes of Lhe cross flow vlbraLlons are larger Lhan Lhose of vlbraLlon ln Lhe sLream-wlse
dlrecLlon. As Lhe flow raLe u lncreases, a condlLlon ls reached where Lhe vorLex-sheddlng
frequency f
vs
of Lhe body ln moLlon

approaches Lhe body's naLural frequency f
n
close enough
for Lhe unsLeady pressures from Lhe wake vorLlces Lo lnduce Lhe body Lo respond. 1hls
phenomenon of self-lnduced vlbraLlon ls referred Lo as resonance or lock-ln. 1hls
synchronlsaLlon effecL acLs Lo lncrease Lhe range of flow raLes over whlch vlbraLlons of hlgh
ampllLude occur. ln Lhe lock-ln range f
vs
becomes lncreaslngly smaller Lhan Lhe vorLex
sheddlng frequency of a body aL resL [41]. 1hls frequency aL resL, Lhe so-called SLrouhal
frequency f
sL
ls unlquely relaLed Lo Lhe veloclLy of Lhe flow and Lhe characLerlsLlc slze of Lhe
body u Lhrough Lhe SLrouhal number SL = f
sL
u/u, where u ls Lhe sLeady amblenL raLe of Lhe
unlform flow.
1he lock-ln effecL ls also observed when a cyllnder ls forced Lo osclllaLe slnusoldally ln a
unlform sLream. 1hls happens when Lhe lmposed frequency ln Lhe Lransverse dlrecLlon
approaches Lhe naLural vorLex sheddlng frequency of Lhe cyllnder or when Lhe drlvlng
frequency ln Lhe sLream-wlse dlrecLlon approaches Lwlce Lhe naLural sheddlng frequency.
1he average flow raLes ln Lhe wake were remarkably slmllar Lo Lhose for self-lnduced
vlbraLlons.
1he varlous vorLex-sheddlng paLLerns for dlfferenL reglmes of 8e numbers are already
quoLed by 8levlns [37]. 1wo Lypes of vorLex sheddlng paLLerns were observed dependlng on
Lhe exclLaLlon condlLlons. 1he 2S mode comprlses Lwo slngle vorLlces per cycle of moLlon,
whlle Lhe 2 mode comprlses Lwo palrs of counLer-roLaLlng vorLlces per cycle (see flgure
1.6). ln case of forced osclllaLlons also a +S mode exlsLs.

4,56)% 78Q9 M: "#@ MU +=@%3 ,# ?=)*%K 3A%@@,#5 PO[R
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
33

A schemaLlc ploL of Lhe normallzed ampllLude A* (= y
0
/u, wlLh y
0
=maxlmal response
ampllLude) of Lhe Lransverse vlbraLlon versus Lhe normallzed flow raLe u* (=u/(f
n
u) of Lhe
sLream shows a hysLereLlc behavlour aL a crlLlcal frequency close Lo Lhe SLrouhal frequency.
A [ump ln phase and ampllLude occurs aL Lhe change ln vorLex mode beLween Lhe lnlLlal and
upper branch aL Lhe naLural frequency ln Lhe fluld medlum (f
n - waLer
)(see flgure 1.8). AnoLher
[ump occurs lf Lhe frequency ln Lhe fluld medlum passes Lhrough Lhe naLural frequency ln
vacuum (f
n - vacuum
).

4,56)% 78\9 0A)%% C)"#<A%3 ,# ?=)*%K +=@%3- "#@ *B= 16+E3 =#% ,# ?=)*%K EA"3% "#@ =#% ,#
*=*"& EA"3% ,# #=)+"&,H%@ "+E&,*6@% ?%)363 >&=B )"*% E&=* PO[R8

LxperlmenLs of Carberry eL al [41] wlLh osclllaLlng cyllnders provlde dlrecL evldence LhaL Lhe
phase angle and Lhe llfL force lncrease slgnlflcanLly wlLh 8e lncreaslng from 2300 Llll 9100 for
a glven A/u [40]. leng demonsLraLed LhaL aL hlgh 8e numbers (10
4
-3x10
4
) only Lwo branches
exlsL, Lhe lnlLlal and Lhe lower branch [42].
8ecenLly Lhe phenomenologlcal modelllng of vlv of an elasLlcally mounLed cyllnder ln a
sLeady fluld flow has been lmproved. 1wo models LhaL are ofLen used are Lhe force-
decomposlLlon model, where measured fluld forces are dlrecLly used as forclng Lerms ln Lhe
equaLlon of moLlon of Lhe cyllnder, and Lhe wake osclllaLlon model LhaL couples Lhe equaLlon
of moLlon wlLh a non-llnear osclllaLor equaLlon LhaL descrlbes Lhe cross-flow fluld force.
AL very hlgh upsLream 8e numbers Lurbulence-lnduced or random vlbraLlon occurs [43]. 1he
random exclLaLlon fluld force orlglnaLes from Lhe LurbulenL flow due Lo upsLream flow
Lurbulence and due Lo Lurbulence generaLed by Lhe sLrucLure ln cross flow. 1hls LurbulenL
flow lncludes vorLlces.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
34

vorLex sheddlng from spheres has also been lnvesLlgaLed over a large range of 8e numbers.
Achenbach [43] sLudled flows pasL spheres ln waLer aL 8e numbers up Lo 3000 by varylng Lhe
flow veloclLy and Lhe sphere dlameLer, and ln Lhe upper 8e range from 6000 Llll 3x10
6
flows
pasL spheres ln a hlgh pressure wlnd Lunnel. 1he alm was Lo obLaln lnformaLlon abouL Lhe
perlodlc boundary-layer separaLlon and Lo flnd ouL how Lhe vorLlces were dlscharged from
Lhe sphere. ln waLer Lhe rolllng up of Lhe shear layer was followed by lnLroduclng a dye ln
Lhe layer, and Lhe frequency of boundary layer separaLlon ln Lhe alr flow was deLecLed by
means of hoL wlres. AL abouL 8e = 400 Lhe separaLed shear layer perlodlcally forms lnLo
vorLex loops LhaL break away. AL lncreaslng 8e number Lhe loops lose Lhelr lndlvldual
characLer ln Lhe vorLex sLreeL by merglng lnLo compllcaLed conflguraLlons, and Lhe vorLlces
come closer Lo Lhe sphere. AL Lhe hlgh 8e range Lhe slgnals from Lhe hoL wlres also showed a
perlodlclLy of Lhe evenLs lndlcaLlng vorLex release wlLh a sheddlng frequency. AL Lhe <),*,<"&
8e number of 3 x 10
3
Lhe pressure drag coefflclenL drops rapldly because of a downsLream
shlfL of Lhe boundary-layer separaLlon polnL. 1hls layer undergoes LranslLlon from lamlnar Lo
LurbulenL aL a poslLlon LhaL depends on Lhe 8e number. Also for a cyllnder ln a flow Lhe
pressure drag coefflclenL drops rapldly aL abouL Lhe same <),*,<"& 8e number and lncreases
agaln aL hlgher 8e numbers.

4,56)% 78[9 ])"5 <=%>>,<,%#* N
]
>=) " C"&& "3 >6#<*,=# => *A% ^%D#=&@3 #6+C%) ,# 6#C=6#@%@
>&=B

F7"M ,32=4)2 /,-*'5,"3 '2N'4)35 5" ' M'77
WlLh regard Lo wall effecLs, 1sahalls [46] has reporLed for Lhe lower 8e range LhaL Lhe
resonanL ampllLudes decrease when Lhe dlsLance from an ad[acenL wall becomes slgnlflcanL
small, whlle klng and !ones [43] have reporLed LhaL perlodlc vorLex sheddlng dlmlnlshes
when Lhe dlsLance from an ad[acenL wall falls below half Lhe dlameLer of Lhe cyllnder.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
33

8ecenLly experlmenLal sLudles on Lhe effecL of wall blockage on Lhe flow behavlour pasL
conflned cyllnders and spheres become more common and numerlcal sLudles become more
accuraLe wlLh Lhe lncrease ln compuLaLlonal resources. 1he llfL forces on a cyllnder or sphere
and Lhe vorLex sheddlng frequencles ln dependence of Lhe raLlo /u of Lhe gap were
addressed [48, 49]. 1he problem bears slmllarlLy Lo LhaL of a flow pasL a cyllnder or a sphere
and an ad[acenL flaL wall aL a varlable dlsLance [30, 31, 32, and 33]. MosL experlmenLs were
performed aL low 8e numbers, and someLlmes aL Lhe subcrlLlcal 8e reglme below 10
4
. 1he
SLrouhal number (calculaLed for unbounded flows Lo be abouL 0.2) was found Lo be more or
less consLanL for gap raLlos beyond 0.3 and hlgh 8e, however aL small gaps Lhe vorLex
sheddlng was suppressed. A nearby wall also lnduces an asymmeLrlcal paLLern ln vorLex
formaLlon.
Sahln and Cwens [48] compuLed over a large range of blockage raLlos Lhe effecL of wall
proxlmlLy on Lhe drag and flow sLablllLy for flows pasL a cyllnder conflned beLween Lwo
parallel planes aL 8e up Lo 280. AsymmeLrlc vorLex sheddlng lnduced by a wall effecL leads Lo
Lhe developmenL of llfL forces and ulLlmaLely conLrlbuLes Lo an osclllaLlng behavlour. Zeng
and al. [49] numerlcally sLudled aL 8e numbers up Lo 300 Lhe forces lnduced by a flaL wall on
a sphere movlng parallel Lo Lhe wall, and compared Lhelr resulLs wlLh Lhe experlmenLal daLa
from 1akemura [30]. 1he sphere experlences a wall-normal llfL force as a resulLanL of Lwo
compeLlng mechanlsms. 1he vorLlclLy generaLed aL Lhe surface of Lhe sphere dlffuses
downsLream and becomes asymmeLrlcal. 1he effecLlve llfL force Lhen pushes Lhe sphere
away from Lhe wall. Powever, Lhe flow along Lhe sphere wlll acceleraLe fasLer ln Lhe gap
beLween Lhe sphere and Lhe wall, and Lhe resulLlng lower pressure ln Lhe gap wlll dlrecL Lhe
sphere Lowards Lhe wall (see flgure 1.8).

4,56)% 787W9 :*)%"+&,#%3 => *A% >&=B "&=#5 *A% 3EA%)% "* *A% 3D++%*)D E&"#% >=) ^%_MWW "#@
`]_W8QX PT[R8
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
36

A non-unlform cross-flow wlll ofLen lead Lo a roLaLlon of Lhe sphere LhaL also causes a llfL
force. 1hls force ls however, small and ls ofLen lgnored. ?ang eL al. [31] experlmenLally
deLermlned Lhe vorLex sheddlng ln Lhe wake flow of a cyllnder nexL Lo a flaL plane boundary
up Lo hlgh 8e numbers.
:"'6 )(,4*-, +)2$%#)'( 0'$ (%$$'6 1%5 &);-& 6)#3 2'4(*)(1
Compared Lo Lhe case of an unbounded flow where Lhe vorLex sheddlng and Lhe exclLaLlon
of a cyllnder or a ball ln Lhe Lransverse dlrecLlon are lnduced by Lhe flow force pasL Lhe
ob[ecL, Lhe slLuaLlon for a ball ln a plpe ls more complex due Lo Lhe exlsLence of aL leasL Lwo
above menLloned addlLlonal wall normal llfL forces. 8ecenLly experlmenLal sLudles were
performed by karllkov eL al. for hlghly consLrlcLed flows, l.e. aL gap slzes narrow enough for
bounclng of Lhe vlbraLlng ball agalnsL Lhe plpe wall Lo occur. Slnce bounclng lmplles lmpacLs
on Lhe lnner plpe wall Lhe normal componenL of Lhe lmpacL force represenLs an addlLlonal
llfL force, whlle Lhe sllp force conLrlbuLes Lo Lhe roLaLlon of Lhe ball along an axls near
parallel Lo Lhe plpe axls.
lor bounded flows and a gap raLlo S = /u
ball
= (d
plpe
-u
ball
)/ u
ball
, where u
ball
= ball dlameLer
and d
plpe
= lnLernal plpe dlameLer, below abouL 0.33, vlbraLlon ls more llkely Lo be caused by
low sLaLlc pressure due Lo hlgh dynamlc pressure ln Lhe gap. karllkov eL al. [34, 33 and 36]
sLudled Lhe acousLlc frequency aL laLeral self-exclLed vlbraLlon of balls wlLh a narrow gap
raLlo beLween 0.10 and 0.33 for a flow Lhrough a cyllndrlcal plpe flxed aL Lhe upper end ln a
masslve supporL. 1he 8e numbers of Lhe flows ln Lhe sLudles of karllkov eL al. varled from 10
4

Lo 10
3
. ln a plpe of a varlable lengLh balls of varlous slzes and denslLles were suspended on a
long fllamenL whlch permlLLed free laLeral movemenL of Lhe ball [34, 33]. A waLer flow was
run Lhrough Lhe plpe aL lncreaslng flow raLes unLll aL a cerLaln flow raLe Lhe self-exclLed
vlbraLlon of Lhe ball sLarLed, accompanled by perlodlc lmpacLs of Lhe ball agalnsL Lhe lnner
wall of Lhe plpe. When Lhe naLural frequency of Lhe vlbraLlons of Lhe ball colnclded wlLh LhaL
of Lhe plpe by ad[usLlng Lhe free lengLh of Lhe plpe, a resonance mode commenced, where
Lhe ampllLudes of Lhe acousLlc waves were sharply ampllfled and hence easlly Lo measure.
1hls naLural frequency f aL a glven plpe lengLh was measured Lo be dlrecLly proporLlonal Lo
Lhe mean flow raLe u (= 4C/nu
plpe
2
wlLh C = flow ln m
3
/s). Such measuremenLs were only
exLended Lo flow raLes where nelLher acLlve nor passlve cavlLaLlon emerged. 1he frequencles
f were ploLLed for varlous lengLhs of Lhe plpe wlLh dlameLer d agalnsL Lhe flow C, and
resulLed ln sLralghL llnes Lhrough Lhe orlgln of Lhe ploL. 1he slope of each llne depended on
boLh Lhe gap raLlo /u
ball
and Lhe normallzed mass of Lhe ball p
ball
/p
waLer.

1o relaLe Lhe self-exclLed vlbraLlon frequency f wlLh oLher parameLers a dlmenslonless Sh
number was lnLroduced deflned slmllarly Lo Lhe SLrouhal number as
fD
Sh
V
= , alLhough noL
coupled wlLh a vorLex sheddlng frequency. lrom Lhe slopes of Lhe llnes ln Lhe ploL lL followed
LhaL:

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
37

( )
1.5 0.2 0.2
1.5
0.07 0.2 1
ball ball
ball water water
Sh B
D
o

| | | | | |
~ ~
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

(1.16)
wlLh ( = blockage raLlo. Slnce Lhe :A numbers or Lhe frequencles showed no dependence on
8e, Lhe hlgh gradlenL flow ln Lhe gap and Lhe LurbulenL naLure of Lhe flow were malnly held
responslble for Lhe laLeral vlbraLlon raLher Lhan vorLex sheddlng and Lhe formaLlon of a
vorLex wake.
ln a subsequenL paper karllkov eL al. [33] measured Lhe force exerLed by Lhe flow on a ball ln
a plpe reLalned by a supporL. lrom Lhls force Lhey calculaLed wheLher Lhe average hydraullc
reslsLance coefflclenL of Lhe plpe ln Lhe presence of a ball (= 2 Ap / p
waLer
v
2
) and Lhe drag
coefflclenL of Lhe ball (= 8 l/ p
waLer
v
2
n u
2
) were affecLed by Lhe laLeral movemenL of Lhe ball
for small gap slzes. Cnly for llghL balls as for plasLlc, laLeral movemenL of Lhe ball causes a
30 lncrease ln Lhese coefflclenLs.
A seL of slmllar sLudles was conducLed wlLh cyllnders of dlfferenL mass and slze osclllaLlng
laLerally ln a plane channel of recLangular cross-secLlon wlLh narrow gap raLlos beLween 0.1
and 0.3 aL 8e numbers from 1.7 x 10
4
Lo 7.2 x 10
4
[34]. 1he measured Sh number depended
agaln on Lhe gap raLlo ((/u)
-1
) as well as on Lhe normallzed mass of Lhe ball ((p
ball
/p
waLer
)
-0.17
),
buL also marglnally on 8e. 1he same counLed for Lhe cyllnder drag coefflclenL.
1hese experlmenLally observed self-osclllaLlons of Lhe cyllnders were slmulaLed by
kharlamov [33] by poslLlonlng dlpoles aL Lhe cenLre of Lhe cyllnder wlLh Lhelr axls along Lhe
movemenL of Lhe cyllnder.
1he ldea of a laLerally free movlng body, mosLly buL noL necessarlly a sphere ln a cyllndrlcal
or conlcal houslng, consLralned elLher by a rod aL Lhe end of Lhe houslng or oLherwlse by
hanglng of Lhe body on a rod or sLrlng for a blockage raLlo of less Lhan 0.80 was paLenLed by
lvannlkov [27]. 1he acLlon of Lhe Lool conslsLlng of Lhe body ln a houslng was elLher Lo lnduce
pressure waves ln Lhe surroundlng medlum or cavlLaLlon or a comblnaLlon of Lhe Lwo. 1he
Lool was supposed Lo malnLaln lLs vlbraLlonal and cavlLaLlonal acLlon up Lo hlgh surroundlng
pressures, also referred Lo as backpressures.
A%C%E% ."3;)L=)34); ": @*"@'8'5,38 M'/);
Waves, regardless lf generaLed by Lransducers, sonlc hammers, pulsaLors or by bounclng of
balls agalnsL a plpe wall as ln hydrodynamlc vlbraLlon Lools, propagaLe from Lhe source lnLo
Lhe surroundlng medlum, where Lhe waves are used ln oll, gas or waLer wells for selsmlc
sLlmulaLlon or cleanlng of Lhe formaLlon near Lhe wellbore, Lhe perforaLlon Lunnels or Lhe
wellbore lLself. ln Lhe llquld around Lhe Lool only longlLudlnal pressure or compresslonal
waves
l
(prlmary wave ln llquld) are LransmlLLed. 1hese waves may have Lo pass several
sLeel walls and ofLen a cemenL layer before Lhey reach Lhe porous medlum around Lhe
wellbore. AlLernaLlvely Lhey reach Lhe formaLlon vla perforaLlon Lunnels. 1he wave energy
LhaL ls noL losL by reflecLlon aL Lhe varlous lnLerfaces enLers Lhe formaLlon, where Lhe waves
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
38

meeL a porous medlum conslsLlng of a solld maLrlx wlLh fluld fllled pores LhaL are more or
less lnLerconnecLed.
1he behavlour of waves ln a porous medlum has been descrlbed by 8loL [37] and conflrmed
by 8erryman [38], resulLlng ln a wldely accepLed analysls LhaL Lhe slngle compresslonal wave
ln Lhe fluld changes aL Lhe fluld Lo rock lnLerface lnLo a fasL compresslonal
m
wave and a fasL
shear wave S
m
wlLh speeds comparable Lo Lhe veloclLy of sound ln Lhe solld maLrlx maLerlal
boLh descrlbed by 8loL as waves of Lhe flrsL klnd and a slow compresslonal
l
wave descrlbed
as wave of Lhe second Lype whlch ls unlque Lo poro-elasLlc maLerlals Lravelllng ln Lhe fluld of
Lhe porous medlum accordlng Lo 8erryman [38] and oLhers aL a speed slgnlflcanLly lower
Lhan Lhe speed of sound ln waLer. 1he shear wave S
m
ls a Lransversal wave LhaL osclllaLes
perpendlcular Lo Lhe dlrecLlon of propagaLlon caused by Lransverse conLracLlon or 'olsson'
effecLs.
1he background Lo Lhe work of 8loL was Lhe drlve from Shell Cll Company Lo beLLer descrlbe
Lhe behavlour of selsmlc waves ln Lhe underground. 8loL deLermlned LhaL for Lhe
propagaLlon of fasL waves of Lhe flrsL klnd ln a sLaLlsLlcally lsoLroplc porous elasLlc solld
conLalnlng a compresslble vlscous fluld for wave lengLhs LhaL are large compared Lo Lhe slze
of Lhe pores and ln dynamlc condlLlons wlLh olseulle flow ln Lhe pores a cerLaln crlLlcal
frequency exlsLs aL whlch Lhere ls no relaLlve moLlon beLween Lhe fluld and Lhe solld, ln Lhls
slLuaLlon of 'dynamlc compaLlblllLy' energy dlsslpaLlon due Lo fluld frlcLlon wlll be nll and Lhe
aLLenuaLlon of Lhe wave wlll be exLremely small and hence Lhe peneLraLlon depLh very large
as ls requlred for selsmlc lnvesLlgaLlon of masslve rock volumes.
Low frequency waves of Lhe flrsL klnd can meeL condlLlons of dynamlc compaLlblllLy ln Lhe
subsurface and, where Lhey reflecL on lnLerfaces of rock layers or oLher dlsconLlnulLles, allow
due Lo veloclLy and aLLenuaLlon conLrasLs selsmlc characLerlsaLlon of Lhe underground. 8y
deflnlLlon Lhe overall aLLenuaLlon of Lhese waves ls low ln order Lo obLaln a saLlsfacLory
depLh of lnvesLlgaLlon and Lhe energy 'spenL' on Lhe pore fluld and relaLlve moLlon beLween
fluld and maLrlx ls low. neverLheless benlgn effecLs such as freelng of sLuck oll dropleLs or
coagulaLlon of oll dropleLs can be generaLed ln Lhe pores of reservolr rock lf Lhe vlbraLlon
source ls very sLrong [39]. Some 8usslan researchers argue LhaL ln parLlcular condlLlons
resonance effecLs produce slgnal enhancemenLs LhaL promoLe effecLs ln Lhe pores [60].
ln conLrasL Lo Lhls Lhe slow compresslonal waves - 8loL dllaLaLlonal waves of Lhe second klnd
- ln Lhe pores are hlghly aLLenuaLed due Lo frlcLlonal effecLs and relaLlve moLlon of Lhe fluld
and Lhe walls of Lhe pores aL frequencles below Lhe crlLlcal frequency. Whlle Lhe slow waves
are less lnLeresLlng for selsmlc lnvesLlgaLlons because of Lhelr llmlLed depLh of peneLraLlon,
Lhey play a domlnanL role ln cleanlng pores ln Lhe vlclnlLy of a wellbore. 1he loss of energy ls
spenL malnly on dynamlc frlcLlon due Lo relaLlve moLlon of Lhe fluld and Lhe pores and vlsco-
elasLlc compresslonal effecLs, boLh resulLlng fluld veloclLy effecLs and evenLually ln heaL
generaLlon. ln quallLaLlve sense Lhe dlsslpaLlon of energy occurs closer Lo Lhe fluld Lo rock
lnLerface as Lhe frequency lncreases. A slmpllfled approach Lo lllusLraLe Lhe lnfluence of
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
39

frequency ln relaLlon Lo Lhe depLh of peneLraLlon assumlng a LoLally rlgld porous frame was
proposed for Lhls sLudy by Smeulders [61]:
1he mass balance equaLlon and uarcy's law are glven by:
(1.17)
(1.18)
where M ls Lhe fluld veloclLy wlLhln Lhe rlgld porous frame, | ls Lhe poroslLy and
0
k ls Lhe
permeablllLy. 1hese equaLlons can be rewrlLLen as:
(1.19)
(1.20)
where Lhe fluld compresslblllLy
f
K ls lnLroduced. lor waLer,
f
K = 2.23 Ca. SubLracLlng Lhe
above equaLlons leads Lo
(1.21)
where ls Lhe hydraullc dlffuslvlLy. 1he above equaLlon now has Lhe
form of a sLandard dlffuslon equaLlon. lor Lhe one-dlmenslonal case, Lhe peneLraLlon depLh
a of Lhe wave can be compuLed. 1hls depLh ls deflned by Lhe half-ampllLude of Lhe wave, so
where exp(-a) = x, wlLh Lhe aLLenuaLlon coefflclenL. 1he aLLenuaLlon coefflclenL of Lhe
slow compresslonal wave
l
ls glven by
(1.22)
wlLh f t e 2 = Lhe angular wave frequency of Lhe wave, lf > ls Lhe frequency of Lhe wave.
SubsLlLuLlon ln Lhe expresslon for Lhe half-ampllLude of Lhe wave allows Lhe peneLraLlon
depLh L Lo be expressed as
(1.23)
1hls slmpllfled analysls provldes an lmpresslon of Lhe peneLraLlon depLh deflned as Lhe half
ampllLude of Lhe slow compresslonal wave
l
as a funcLlon of Lhe wave frequency. lL ls clear
LhaL low frequency waves peneLraLe deeper lnLo Lhe porous medlum.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
40

HaIf AmpIitude Depth L
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
Distance from fIuid/porous matrix interface [m]
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

f

[
H
z
]
k0 [mD] at 30% por = 10000
k0 [mD] at 25% por = 1000
k0 [mD] at 15% por = 100
k0 [mD] at 10% por = 10

4,56)% 78779 b"&> "+E&,*6@% @%E*A a P+R => *A% 3&=B <=+E)%33,=#"& B"?% ,# " E=)=63 +"*),K
B,*A " )"#5% => E=)=3,*,%3 FE=)G "#@ "33=<,"*%@ *DE,<"& E%)+%"C,&,*,%3 /
W
,# +,&&, ]")<,%3 >=) c
>

_ M8MX dU" "#@ _ W8WW7 U"8

ueslred effecLs of Lhe radlaLlon of Lhe waves of varlous klnds lnLo Lhe porous maLrlx around
a wellbore lnclude Lhe creaLlon of lnsLanLaneous fluld veloclLles ln Lhe pores LhaL lmparL llfL
forces on Llny solld parLlcles lnslde Lhe pores so LhaL (l) Lhese parLlcles can be moblllsed ln
Lhe flow Lhrough Lhe pore and (ll) parLlcle brldges ln pore LhroaLs are desLablllsed. 1hese
phenomena have been sLudled by oeslo [62] for frequencles of 20kPz and 40 kPz. Pe
descrlbes a mlcroscoplc model assumlng LhaL a pore ls a cyllndrlcal solld wall Lube.
oeslo developed a raLlonale for Lhe moblllsaLlon of a parLlcle deposlLed on Lhe low slde of
Lhe Lube and held ln place by lLs gravlLaLlonal force, adheslve van der Waals force, repulslve
8orn force, sLrucLural repulslve force and repulslve elecLrlc double layer force, resulLlng ln a
LoLal aLLachmenL force l
A
on Lhe parLlcle. lf Lhe lnsLanLaneous veloclLy ln Lhe Lube causes a
llfL force LhaL leads Lo rolllng of Lhe parLlcle, Lhe parLlcle ls moblllsed. lf Lhere ls already
sLeady flow Lhrough Lhe pore Lube, e.g. due Lo ln[ecLlon from or producLlon lnLo Lhe well
bore, llfL force ls already lmparLed on Lhe parLlcle, Lhe cycllc veloclLy fleld creaLed by Lhe
slow wave wlll Lhen be superlmposed on Lhe sLeady flow leadlng Lo easler moblllsaLlon Lhan
ln Lhe absence of sLeady flow.
Llkewlse, oeslo develops a Lheory on how Lo desLablllse parLlcle brldges LhaL block a
formaLlon pore LhroaL belng a narrowlng of a Lube-llke pore. 1he sLlcklng mechanlsm ls agaln
a complex lnLeracLlon of forces and a cerLaln drag or llfL force ls requlred Lo break down Lhe
parLlcle brldge, whlch can be provlded by Lhe cycllc veloclLy fleld of Lhe slow wave and by
sLeady flow, wlLh Lhe precondlLlon LhaL Lhe dlrecLlon of flow ls crlLlcally lmporLanL for Lhe
case of parLlcle brldge desLablllsaLlon. lf Lhe sLeady flow pushes Lhe parLlcle brldge lnLo Lhe
pore LhroaL Lhan Lhls force needs Lo be counLeracLed by drag and llfL on Lhe parLlcles ln Lhe
brldge creaLed by Lhe cycllc veloclLy fleld. Cbvlously lf Lhe sLeady flow pushes Lhe brldge ouL
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
41

of Lhe pore, Lhe cycllc veloclLy fleld cooperaLes wlLh desLablllslng Lhe brldge and lf Lhe sLeady
flow ls sufflclenLly lnLense no cycllc veloclLy fleld wlll be requlred. 1he laLLer Lechnlque ls
called back flushlng or back surglng and ls commonly applled ln cleanlng oll and waLer wells.
oeslos approach lnfers LhaL a cerLaln mlnlmum 'Lrlgger' veloclLy ls requlred below whlch no
parLlcle moblllsaLlon or brldge desLablllsaLlon Lakes place. Shaklng or pulslng Lhe formaLlon
and Lhus Lhe pores lLself by Lhe fasL compresslve
m
and Lhe shear S
m
wave acLlon may also
conLrlbuLe Lo freelng up and moblllslng flnes, however Lhese effecLs were noL Laken lnLo
accounL by oeslo.
ln order Lo undersLand Lhe consequences of varlous frequencles for Lhe slow wave, lL ls
lmporLanL Lo quallLaLlvely descrlbe Lhe cycllc veloclLy fleld generaLed ln Lhe pores as funcLlon
of dlsLance from Lhe fluld/porous medlum lnLerface. 1he maxlmum veloclLy ln Lhe Lube-llke
pore ls dependenL on Lhe power avallable ln Lhe slow wave aL Lhe polnL of Lhe parLlcle or
brldge. Assumlng Lhe same power lnpuL aL Lhe fluld/porous maLrlx lnLerface and Lhe same
radlaLlon paLLern for Lhe hlgh as well as low frequency waves, a hlgh frequency slow wave
wlll lose lLs energy much fasLer Lhan a low frequency slow wave, resulLlng ln a deeper
cleanlng acLlon of Lhe low frequency slow wave as lllusLraLed above for Lhe peneLraLlon
depLh L, deflned as Lhe half ampllLude value. Powever Lhe number of 'veloclLy hlLs' capable
of moblllslng a parLlcle or brldge ls lower for a low frequency wave and Lhus longer exposure
wlll be requlred for Lhe same number of hlLs ln order Lo obLaln Lhe same cleanlng efflclency.
1he nexL facLor LhaL merlLs conslderaLlon for Lhe undersLandlng of Lhe effecL of vlbraLlon
sources as wave generaLors ls Lhe radlaLlon paLLern of Lhe waves. ln Lhe experlmenLs of
oeslo [62] and 8as [63] an acousLlc horn was used radlaLlng a near cyllndrlcal beam of
waves lnLo Lhe core sample, Lhereby maxlmlslng Lhe amounL of wave energy radlaLed lnLo
Lhe sample. CLher vlbraLlon sources creaLe waves as a polnL source, resulLlng ln non-
dlrecLlonal, spherlcal radlaLlon of Lhe wave energy resulLlng ln a power reducLlon
proporLlonal Lo Lhe square rooL of Lhe dlsLance from Lhe source lf aLLenuaLlon of Lhe slgnal
due Lo oLher means ls lgnored. Some sources acL as bl-poles or mulLl-poles wlLh Lhe resulL
LhaL Lhe radlaLed energy ls sLronger ln one dlrecLlon Lhan anoLher whlch ls a feaLure called
dlrecLlvlLy, descrlbed by many sclenLlsLs, such as lerce [64] and Zaslavskl [63]. 1he resulLs of
dlrecLlvlLy wlll cause focusslng of Lhe energy somewhere beLween Lhe spherlcal radlaLlon
and focused dlrecLlonal beamlng paLLerns. ulrecLlvlLy wlll Lhus lncrease Lhe peneLraLlon
depLh of Lhe wave energy, buL agaln, more exposure Llme wlll be requlred Lo obLaln Lhe
same number of desLablllslng 'veloclLy hlLs' ln Lhe same volume of rock around a well bore. lL
ls self-evldenL LhaL vlbraLlon sources wlLh sLrong dlrecLlvlLy, wlLhouL Lhe means of roLaLlon
wlll only LreaL a rock volume ln Lhe beam dlrecLlon of Lhe source.
1he real slLuaLlon ln naLure ls hlghly complex. oroslLy, permeablllLy, parLlcle brldges,
parLlcle sedlmenLaLlon ln pores, pore and pore LhroaL geomeLry, vary wlLhln shorL dlsLances
from a wellbore, resulLlng ln huge varlances ln Lhe consequences of beamlng waves lnLo
porous rocks surroundlng a well bore. Also a vlbraLlon source may noL glve one frequency
only, buL a frequency specLrum lncludlng harmonlc mulLlples. ln Lhe forgolng quallLaLlve
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
42

dlscusslon some lmporLanL properLles of Lhe vlbraLlon source generaLlng Lhe waves have
been menLloned:
- Lnergy of Lhe source
- lrequency specLrum of Lhe vlbraLlons
- ulrecLlvlLy of Lhe source
1he properLles of Lhe source wlll have Lo be Luned ln Lhe besL way Lo Lhe Lask be lL Lhe
removal of near well bore formaLlon damage or deeper damage, ln comblnaLlon wlLh a well
LhoughL-ouL LreaLmenL process. 1aklng Lhe varlablllLy of Lhe formaLlon lnLo accounL Lhls wlll
mean LhaL a sulLable source has a hlgh energy ouLpuL and a wlde energy specLrum.
ulrecLlvlLy can lmprove Lhe LreaLmenL depLh buL Lhe dlrecLlvlLy musL be compensaLed by
source roLaLlon and exposure compensaLlon ln order Lo obLaln Lhe same LreaLmenL resulLs as
ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe beam ln a cyllndrlcal rock volume around a well bore.
Commerclal documenLaLlon ofLen hlghllghLs only one 'dlmenslon' of Lhe LreaLmenL
characLerlsLlcs of a vlbraLlon source, resulLlng ln a blased expecLaLlon abouL Lhe resulLs of a
LreaLmenL. ln Lhe nexL secLlon a characLerlsaLlon wlll be glven of commerclally avallable
vlbraLlons sources.
A%C%J% .6'*'45)*,;'5,"3 ": ,32=;5*,'771 '/',7'-7) /,-*'5,"3 ;"=*4);
Selsmlc sLlmulaLlon focuses on releaslng oll dropleLs and promoLlng flow aL dlsLances of
many meLers from Lhe wells lLself, almlng for low energy effecLs ln a vasL volume of reservolr
rock, Lhls Lype of LreaLmenL requlres low frequency waves of Lyplcally 3 Lo 100 Pz LhaL
propagaLe deeply lnLo Lhe reservolr and Lherefore exhlblL low aLLenuaLlon wlLh a wave
generaLor ln sulLably poslLloned wells or aL Lhe surface, 8eresnev [66].
lor cleanlng Lhe formaLlon near Lhe wellbore Lhe LreaLmenL ls focused on dlslodglng solld
parLlcles, brldges of sollds parLlcles or emulslon dropleLs ln Lhe LhroaLs of formaLlon pores
almlng for an effecL wlLhln several declmeLres Lo several meLers away from Lhe wellbore,
comblned wlLh flow Lo remove Lhe dlslodged maLerlal, aLLempLlng Lo sLrlke a good balance
beLween Lhe energy radlaLed lnLo Lhe formaLlon and Lhe depLh of propagaLlon. As such Lhere
are low frequency well cleanlng Lools uslng Lyplcally 100 Pz Lo 1 kPz Lo obLaln a reasonable
peneLraLlon and hlgh energy hlgh frequency Lools uslng Lyplcally 10 Lo 40 kPz wlLh a llmlLed
peneLraLlon buL wlLh saLlsfacLory effecLs ln perforaLlon Lunnels and Lhe flrsL cenLlmeLres lnLo
Lhe wellbore wall. 1ools LhaL clean Lhe wellbore lLself ofLen comblne varlous effecLs such as
wave energy, shock waves from collapslng cavlLaLlon bubbles, [eLLlng and mechanlcal
hammerlng, low as well as hlgh frequency Lools are used for Lhls purpose.
1he vorLech Lool ls offered commerclally ln Lhe form of a well cleanlng Lool and a Lool Lo
asslsL Lhe drllllng process. lLs worklng prlnclple ls shown ln paLenL uS6029746 [67].

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
43

4,56)% 787M9 e3<,&&"*,=# <A"+C%) >=) *A% Z=)*%<A *==& PYQR

Pydraullc osclllaLlon ls generaLed by allowlng a hlgh raLe fluld flow from a cenLral condulL Lo
enLer lnLo a resonance chamber wlLh a slgnlflcanLly larger dlameLer. 1he flow ls Lhen forced
lnLo a narrower condulL buL ls sub[ecL Lo self-exclLed osclllaLlng dlsLurbances resulLlng ln a
pulsed flow. lor Lhe cleanlng Lool Lhe flow pulses exlL from a slngle nozzle. 1he vlbraLlon
frequency ls 100 Lo 243 Pz as descrlbed ln paLenL uS6470980. no lnformaLlon could be
obLalned abouL Lhe vlbraLlon energy creaLed ln Lhe Lool, however Lhe cleanlng Lools are falrly
small ln dlameLer wlLh flow raLes of several hundred l/mln and a pressure drop of Lyplcally
30 bar. As such Lhe Lools can be characLerlsed as omnl-dlrecLlonal low frequency vlbraLlon
sources wlLh a relaLlvely hlgh peneLraLlon depLh.
A Lool wlLh a slmllar worklng prlnclple ls offered by uynaflow ln Lhe form of an organ plpe
'SLraLo!eL`' as descrlbed by Chanlne eL al [68], a Lool LhaL generaLes vlolenL osclllaLlons
comblned wlLh cavlLaLlon Lo asslsL Lhe rock cuLLlng process, belng operaLed aL up Lo 76 l/mln
and pressure dlfferenLlals of several hundred bar. An acousLlc chamber ln Lhe Lool works ln
Landem wlLh a self-exclLer aL Lhe boLLom of Lhe [eL and Lhe geomeLry of Lhe [eL, see flgure 1.
1he operaLlonal parameLers are selecLed such LhaL Lhe Lwo osclllaLlons come ln resonance.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
44

4,56)% 787O9 V=)/,#5 E),#<,E&% => 3%&>)%3=#"*,#5 <"?,*"*,#5 B"*%) 1%*- ">*%) PY\R

1he vlbraLlon source ls a downward focused energy beam lmpacLlng on formaLlon closely
poslLloned below Lhe ouLflow of Lhe nozzle. 1he effecL ls clalmed Lo be so vlolenL LhaL aL hlgh
backpressure condlLlons 'vorLex rlng cavlLles' are creaLed provldlng a cavlLaLlon bubble
collapse asslsLed vlbraLlon crushlng of Lhe formaLlon below Lhe [eL. 1he vlbraLlon frequency
ls 10 kPz Lo 70 kPz and Lhe pressure spenL ln Lhe Lool several hundred bar. ln Lerms of a
vlbraLlon source, Lhe Lool ls characLerlsed by a focused very hlgh energy beam aL a hlgh
frequency. 1he peneLraLlon depLh of Lhe resulLlng waves wlll be of Lhe order of mm's Lo
cm's, however Lhe rock desLrucLlon acLlon ls asslsLed by Lhe collapse of cavlLaLlon bubbles.
LaboraLory LesLs reporL a more Lhan 20 fold lncrease ln cuL volume compared Lo a regular
hlgh pressure [eL operaLlng aL slmllar condlLlons.
AnoLher Lool ls Lhe Clean Well 1ool [69] LhaL works wlLh a hydro-mechanlcal osclllaLor ln
comblnaLlon wlLh a resonance chamber where acousLlc energy ls creaLed aL approxlmaLely
260 Pz and emlLLed from dual pulse porLs.

4,56)% 787T9 :<A%+"*,< )%E)%3%#*"*,=# => *A% "<*,=# => *A% N&%"# V%&& 0==& PY[R
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
43

Wave sLudles wlLh Lhe Clean Well 1ool have demonsLraLed LhaL effecLlve cleanlng wlll Lake
place ouL Lo 1/4 wavelengLh away from Lhe source, buL LhaL Lhe speed of cleanlng decreases
rapldly afLer 1/8 wavelengLh. 1hls asks accordlng Lo W.C. Croves, presldenL of Clean Well
1ools LLd., [69] for an opLlmum frequency of roughly 260 Pz. A hlgher frequency cleans
fasLer, buL has a smaller peneLraLlon depLh. 1herefore Clean Well hlghllghLs LhaL Lhe
harmonlcs of Lhe base frequency have a favourable effecL because Lhe formaLlon ls radlaLed
wlLh waves of dlfferenL frequencles. Lnergles per pulse range from 10 Lo 20 !oules were
applled ln cleanlng [obs. 1he Lool, as a vlbraLlon source ls characLerlsed as a low frequency,
medlum energy Lool wlLh a good depLh of peneLraLlon. 1he dual pulse porLs wlll provlde a
measure of dlrecLlvlLy, Lhe dlrecLlon of whlch wlll depend on Lhe poslLlon of Lhe porLs.
uurlng LreaLmenL accounL should be Laken of Lhe dlrecLlvlLy ln order Lo reach Lhe deslred
rock mass wlLh adequaLe exposure. lor clrcumferenLlal LreaLmenL, Lhe Lool should be
roLaLed.
A nexL famlly of Lools ls Lhe fluldlc osclllaLor whlch ls currenLly markeLed by PalllburLon
Lhrough Lhelr ulsonlx Lool [70-71], buL was lnlLlally lnLroduced by erfClean lnLernaLlonal,
lnc ln 1990 ln Lhe search for a Lool LhaL could effecLlvely clean perforaLlon Lunnels. 1he Lool
also has been markeLed by uownhole lluldlcs lnc [72]. 1he Lool ls based on a fluldlc osclllaLor
as shown ln llgure 1.13.

4,56)% 787X9 :<A%+"*,< => " >&6,@,< =3<,&&"*=) ">*%) E"*%#* f: X7YXTO\ PQWR "#@ +")/%*,#5
,#>=)+"*,=# => *A% U6&3=#,K *==& 3A=B# =# *A% B%C3,*% => b"&&,C6)*=#PQ7R

1he Lool conslsLs of a block wlLh a fluld enLry flow porL (32) feedlng a square or recLangular
nozzle (61). 1he flow Lhen hlLs a spllLLer and ls forced lnLo Lwo dlffuser Lubes (72, 73). A
Lransverse passage way (73) causes Lhe flow Lo alLernaLe, because lf Lhe flow ls down one
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
46

dlffuser leg, Lhe sllghLly lower pressure aL Lhe enLry polnL of Lhe Lransverse Lube pulls Lhe
flow Lowards Lhe oLher dlffuser leg, once Lhe flow swlLches Lhe opposlLe happens. 1he
ulsonlx Lools are relaLlvely small, wlLh an Cu of Lyplcally 40 Lo 60 mm, uslng a feed raLe of
Lyplcally 230 l/mln requlrlng a pressure drop of 100 Lo 130 bars causlng pressure flucLuaLlons
aL approxlmaLely 200 Pz. 1he vlbraLlon source can Lherefore be characLerlsed as a moderaLe
power, low frequency source wlLh dlrecLlvlLy. PalllburLon equlps Lhe Lool wlLh slde and
boLLom porLs Lo dlrecL Lhe wave energy, care musL be Laken however LhaL Lhe energy beam
reaches Lhe zone Lo be LreaLed. A commerclal plcLure of Lhe orlglnal Lool, llgure 1.13 shows
Lwo exlL porLs aL Lhe boLLom of Lhe Lool, causlng Lwo laLeral energy lobes ln one orlenLaLlon
of Lhe Lool, llmlLlng Lhe radlaLlon ln Lhe oLher dlrecLlons. 8oLaLlon of Lhe Lool would be
requlred Lo cover Lhe full clrcumference of Lhe well bore, whlch ls ofLen noL done ln fleld
appllcaLlons.

4,56)% 787Y N=++%)<,"& @=<6+%#*"*,=# => ]=B#A=&% 4&6,@,<3- 2#<8 3A=B,#5 *A% %K,* E=)*3 =>
*A%,) >&6,@,< =3<,&&"*=)- PQMR
Plgh energy low frequency down hole Lools are markeLed by Applled Sonlc 8esearch Corp
(AS8) ln Lhe form of Lhelr Pydro lmpacL 1ool (Pl1) [73], Lhe prlnclple of whlch ls shown ln
flgure 1.17.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
47

4,56)% 787Q9 0A% b20 3D3*%+ >)=+ !:^ PQOR

1he Pl1 Lool generaLes pressure ln a pressure chamber by Lhe llnear moLlon of Landem
plsLons of unequal dlameLer. lf Lhe lower plsLon ls pulled ouL of Lhe lower seal bore Lhe
pressure ln Lhe chamber ls suddenly released downward. 1he llnear moLlon ls provlded
mechanlcally by a convenLlonal donkey head sysLem, buL could also be a llnear hydraullc or
mechanlcal splndle Lype mechanlsm. 1he frequency of Lhe wave generaLor ls Lyplcally 6
sLrokes per mlnuLe dellverlng very hlgh energy bursLs Lo creaLe low frequency waves LhaL
Lravel deep lnLo Lhe reservolr Lo moblllse Lrapped oll. 1hls vlbraLlon source represenLs Lhe
low frequency, hlgh bursL energy slde of specLrum of vlbraLlon sources and provldes non
dlrecLlonal spherlcal radlaLlon wlLh Lhe goal Lo lmparL effecLs on a large rock volume wlLh Lhe
fasL compresslonal
m
and shear waves S
m
.
1he lasL vlbraLlon source LhaL wlll be dlscussed ls Lhe Lool conslsLlng of a vlbraLlng body
lnslde a plpe of lvannlkov [24] descrlbed ln Lhe cavlLaLlon secLlon earller ln Lhls chapLer. 1hls
Lool has mulLlple wave generaLors, Lhe flrsL one belng Lhe hammer blows of Lhe bounclng
ball agalnsL Lhe lnner wall of Lhe Lool houslng and Lhe second one belng Lhe osclllaLlng laLeral
ouLflow of fluld wlLh an acLlon llke Lhe fluldlc osclllaLor uslng a mechanlcal swlLch raLher Lhan
a fluldlc swlLch. uue Lo Lhe large dynamlc pressure dlfferenLlals across Lhe vlbraLlng ball, and
waLer hammer effecLs cavlLaLlon can be generaLed under cerLaln clrcumsLances addlng a
Lhlrd source of wave energy, belng Lhe hlgh frequency shock waves caused by Lhe collapslng
cavlLaLlon bubbles. 1he vlbraLlon frequency ls flow raLe dependenL buL falls Lyplcally
beLween 300 Pz and 1 kPz, comblned wlLh hlgher order harmonlcs. Cnly Lhe lvannlkov Lools
generaLe cycllc hammer blows. A slngle 'lefL - rlghL' cycle of Lhe ball wlll creaLe waves wlLh
dlrecLlvlLy and energy lobes radlaLlng sldeways from Lhe polnL of lmpacL of Lhe ball, Lhe
osclllaLlng fluld [eLs pro[ecL energy ln Lhe same preferred dlrecLlon as Lhe hammer blows.
1he dlrecLlvlLy lmproves Lhe peneLraLlon depLh of Lhe waves. Powever due Lo Lhe chaoLlc
Lransverse movemenL of Lhe ball, dlrecLlve waves wlLh a good peneLraLlon depLh are emlLLed
clrcumferenLlally. 1he energy of Lhe cycllc hammer blows ls a funcLlon of Lhe mass of Lhe ball
and Lhe Lravel dlsLance, hence Lools wlLh a large heavy ball and a large gap wlll have Lhe
poLenLlal Lo generaLe powerful hammer blows. 1he complex effecLs of Lhls Lool has ma[or
poLenLlal for near well bore cleanlng, however lLs preclse behavlour merlLs Lhorough
lnvesLlgaLlon.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
48

A%E% <4"@) ": 56) 56);,;
1hls Lhesls descrlbes Lhe sLudy lnLo Lhe deslgn, undersLandlng and lmprovemenL of a
hydrodynamlc Lool LhaL produces powerful vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon or a comblnaLlon of Lhe
Lwo, and LhaL ls sulLable for a large varleLy of useful appllcaLlons ln a wlde range of amblenL
pressures from aLmospherlc Lo Lhe pressures encounLered ln wells of several km deep. 1ools
selecLed for Lhe sLudy were based on Lhe paLenL of lvannlkov [27] where an axlally
resLralned body, mosLly a ball, conflned ln a houslng wlLh a narrow gap can move freely ln
random Lransverse dlrecLlon ln fluld flowlng Lhrough Lhe houslng, referred Lo as vlbraLlng-
body-ln-plpe and vlbroCav Lools ln Lhls sLudy. 1hese Lools are relaLlvely slmple of
consLrucLlon, powered by Lhe fluld flow and easlly scalable Lo varlous appllcaLlons.
1he Lool deslgn beneflLs from Lhe hlgh dynamlc pressure creaLed ln Lhe narrow gap beLween
Lhe body and Lhe houslng and consequenL lowerlng of Lhe sLaLlc pressure lf fluld ls pumped
Lhrough Lhe Lool. Already aL relaLlvely low flow raLes Lhe free movlng body sLarLs Lo
osclllaLe, and aL lncreaslng flow raLe Lhe self-lnduced vlbraLlon becomes accompanled by
bounclng of Lhe body agalnsL Lhe walls of Lhe houslng. uue Lo Lhls osclllaLlng behavlour Lhe
flow ln Lhe plpe ls suddenly cuL off by Lhe movlng body causlng a waLer hammer effecL LhaL
enhances Lhe pressure drop across Lhe body and lnLenslfles Lhe bounclng effecL.
1he sLaLlc pressure ln Lhe core of Lhe vorLlces creaLed ln Lhe wake of Lhe body LhaL are
responslble for Lhls self-osclllaLlng behavlour of Lhe body may fall below Lhe vapour pressure
of Lhe llquld whlch glves rlse Lo Lhe generaLlon of cavlLles. CavlLaLlon also occurs ln and
downsLream of Lhe gap, where Lhe sLaLlc pressure falls below Lhe vapour pressure of Lhe
llquld. ln addlLlon Lhe bluff geomeLry of Lhe body causes deLachmenL of Lhe sLreamllnes from
Lhe surface of Lhe body, whlch conLrlbuLes Lo Lhe generaLlon of cavlLles. 1he effecL of Lhe
waLer hammer enhanced osclllaLlon ls LhaL cavlLaLlon ls creaLed aL much hlgher sLaLlc
pressures on Lhe downsLream slde of Lhe Lool Lhan wlLh sLaLlc orlflces or slmllar flow barrlers
and aL Lhe same downsLream sLaLlc pressure much sLronger cavlLaLlon ls obLalned. AL
pressures where cavlLaLlon becomes suppressed by hlgh sLaLlc pressures, very sLrong
bounclng releases pressure waves wlLh raLher low frequencles LhaL propagaLe deeply lnLo
Lhe surroundlng maLrlx.
8oLh Lhe cavlLaLlonal and Lhe vlbraLlon behavlour of Lhe Lool wlll be lnfluenced by many
parameLers such as Lhe shape and welghL of Lhe body of Lhe Lool, Lhe flow raLe, Lhe fluld
properLles, Lhe gap, Lhe roughness of Lhe body and Lhe houslng and Lhe surroundlng
pressure. So reglmes mlghL exlsL where elLher of Lhe Lwo modes or a comblnaLlon of Lhe Lwo
may prevall. undersLandlng of such reglmes ls consldered Lhe key Lo opLlmlslng Lhe Lool for
parLlcular appllcaLlons. 1he sLudy also venLures lnLo several Lool conflguraLlons and slzes and
aspecLs such as Lool wear. 1he Lhesls descrlbes fleld Lrlals for several Lool appllcaLlons ln oll,
waLer and polluLlon conLrol wells.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
49

A%J% G=57,3) ": 56) 56);,;
NA"E*%) M focuses on proven and poLenLlal appllcaLlons of cavlLaLlon and vlbraLlon. llrsL Lhe
mechanlsms followlng from Lhe collapse of cavlLaLlonal bubbles or Lhe propagaLlon of
acousLlc waves creaLed by vlbraLlon wlll be hlghllghLed. ln parLlcular hydrodynamlc
cavlLaLlon and vlbraLlon wlll be addressed. AnLlclpaLed advanLages and dlsadvanLages of Lhe
vlbroCav Lools for a parLlcular appllcaLlon wlll be dlscussed.
NA"E*%) O dlscusses Lhe experlences wlLh a slmple 330 bar exploraLory LesL clrculL used ln
Assen LhaL have led Lo Lhe deslgn of a LesL clrculL ln uelfL for frequenL and sysLemaLlc
laboraLory LesLlng of Lhe behavlour of vlbroCav Lools. 1he uelfL LesL clrculL ls Lhen descrlbed.
lL had a worklng range up Lo 10 bar backpressure and operaLed wlLh a verLlcal sLralghL Lool
and a waLer column helghL of abouL 0.3 m above Lhe vlbraLlng body, malnly a ball, and a
LoLal fluld volume of 0.23 m
3
. 8ackpressure was achleved by keeplng a closed sysLem LhaL
could be pressurlzed by an accumulaLor. 1wo cenLrlfugal pumps ln serles provlded a
pressure drop of maxlmally 40 bar over Lhe Lool and Lhe hlgh pressure parL of Lhe sysLem
had a 30 bar worklng pressure raLlng. 1he LesL chamber had Lhree vlewlng wlndows Lo
observe Lhe behavlour of Lhe ouLflow and exlL of Lhe Lool durlng operaLlon. 1he vlbraLlng
body, mosLly a ball, made of dlfferenL maLerlals and aL varlous slzes, ln Lhe cyllndrlcal or
conlcal houslng Lhe body was elLher supporLed aL Lhe boLLom by a rod aL Lhe end of Lhe
houslng or hanglng on a sLrlng or a rod.
NA"E*%) T descrlbes experlmenLs and resulLs wlLh varlous bodles ln a verLlcal cyllndrlcal
houslng ln Lhe 30 bar uelfL LesL clrculL. 1he bodles were nearly excluslvely balls of dlfferenL
maLerlals and slzes, supporLed aL Lhe boLLom for mosL of Lhe LesLs. 1he nomlnal gap raLlo
/u
ball
was always small and varled for Lhe small houslngs beLween 0.028 and 0.110, and for
Lhe large houslngs beLween 0.022 and 0.033. lor each experlmenL wlLh a selecLed ball ln a
speclflc cyllndrlcal houslng Lhe flow raLe of Lhe llquld along Lhe ball was lncreased and
subsequenLly decreased aL a consLanL backpressure. Lqually Lhe flow raLe was kepL consLanL
and Lhe backpressure was flrsL lncreased and Lhen decreased. ln Lhls way Lhe behavlour of
Lhe ball was sLudled for dlfferenL flow and backpressure condlLlons aL a selecLed gap raLlo or
gap. Lxperlences wlLh Lool wear are also dlscussed ln Lhls chapLer. A change ln Lhe Lool
conflguraLlon requlred a slgnlflcanL efforL whlch llmlLed Lhe efflclency of Lhe lnvesLlgaLlons.
NA"E*%) X descrlbes experlmenLs and resulLs wlLh Lhe 30 bar uelfL LesL clrculL uslng Lool
houslngs wlLh conlcal ouLflow secLlons and balls hanglng on a rod LhaL could be remoLely
ad[usLed ln helghL wlLh a hydraullc cyllnder. 1hls equlpmenL allowed slmllar LesLs as
descrlbed ln ChapLer 4, buL wlLh remoLely ad[usLable gap raLlos and hence permlLLed
efflclenL LesLlng of a wlde range of parameLers. 1he wealLh of daLa creaLed wlLh Lhese LesLs
ls Lhe lnpuL Lo a Lhorough analysls of Lhe varlous reglmes encounLered when changlng flow
raLe and backpressure for a wlde range of Lool characLerlsLlcs.
NA"E*%) Y provldes resulLs of hlgh speed phoLography and an analysls of Lhe movemenL of a
hanglng ball ln a conlcally shaped houslng durlng experlmenLs ln Lhe uelfL LesL clrculL. 1he
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
30

effecL of cavlLaLlon on Lhe cycllc moLlon of Lhe ball ls descrlbed and dlscussed. Close-ups of
Lhe ouLflow of Lhe vlbroCav Lool provlde vlsuallsaLlon of Lhe cavlLaLlon and Lurbulence
effecLs creaLed ln Lhe fluld and Lhe correlaLlon of Lhese effecLs wlLh Lhe movemenL of Lhe
ball.
NA"E*%) Q descrlbes experlences and resulLs of hlgh backpressure experlmenLs wlLh a 330
bar closed LesL clrculL ln urachLen. 1hls clrculL was assembled Lo carry ouL a llmlLed number
of LesLs aL pressures LhaL are encounLered ln deep wellbores, wlLhouL belng Lroubled by Lhe
problems encounLered ln Lhe open exploraLory LesL clrculL used ln Assen. ln Lhls clrculL only
boLLom supporLed balls were LesLed. locus of Lhese experlmenLs was Lo sLudy Lool reglmes
aL very hlgh backpressures, ln parLlcular cavlLaLlon. 1he Lools were sub[ecLed Lo very hlgh
flow raLes and Lhe LesLs were heavlly lnfluenced by Lool wear, whlch ls dlscussed ln Lhls
chapLer. ln parLlcular Lhe process of beddlng ln of a ball lnLo a boLLom supporL ls consldered
ln deLall.
NA"E*%) \ provldes deLalls of 29 lndusLrlal Lrlals ln oll wells (10), waLer wells (10) and
polluLlon conLrol wells (9) for cleanlng Lhe porous medlum around a wellbore uslng roLaLlng
and roLaLed vlbroCav Lools. 1hls chapLer seLs ouL Lhe LheoreLlcal background for vlbraLlon
based well cleanlng, descrlbes ln deLall Lhe appllcaLlon condlLlons durlng Lhe Lrlals and
venLures lnLo seml-quanLlfled reconclllaLlon of Lheory wlLh fleld observaLlon resulLlng ln a
basls for a deeper undersLandlng of Lhe acLlon of vlbraLlon based well cleanlng Lools. 1hls
chapLer descrlbes ln a novel way Lhe lnLerrelaLlon beLween Lool characLerlsLlcs, energy,
peneLraLlon depLh and formaLlon damage characLerlsLlcs.
NA"E*%) [ descrlbes 3 lndusLrlal Lrlals for Lhe removal of scale ln wellbores wlLh a deLalled
descrlpLlon of Lhe appllcaLlon condlLlons. Cne Lrlal was done Lo clean a sLuck accessory ln Lhe
producLlon Lublng and four Lrlals were performed Lo clean scaled perforaLlons ln. 1he
LreaLmenL condlLlons are dlscussed ln deLall. 1he physlcal effecLs of Lhe roLaLlng vlbroCav
Lool for scale removal are dlscussed, leadlng Lo concluslons abouL Lhe scale cleanlng process
and Lool requlremenLs.
NA"E*%) 7W ls an ouLlook lnLo Lhe exLenslve poLenLlal of vlbroCav Lechnology, reflecLlng on
Lhe resulLs of Lhe sLudy. 1hls chapLer venLures lnLo posslble appllcaLlons ln Lhe flelds of
useful vlbraLlon, mlxlng and cavlLaLlon and forms a basls for furLher 8&u work.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
31

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789.
37. 8loL, M. !. AcousLlcal Soc. Am. 28 (1936) 168 - 191.
38. 8erryman, !.C. , Appl. hys. LeLL. 37 (1980)
39. !eong, C., kalllvokas, L.l., Puh, C., Lake, L.W., SL 147130 (2011)
60. kosLrov, S., Wooden, W., Cll & Cas !ounal, Aprll. 18 (2003)
61. Smeulders, u. prlvaLe correspondence
62. oeslo, . and Coms, C. SL 100812 (2008)
63. 8as, l. van der, 8oufflgnac, L. de, Zulderwl[k, , Wong, S-W, 8aLenburg, u. van,
8lrchak, 8., ?oo, k, SL 86492 (2004)
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
34

64. lerce, A.u., AcousLlcs - An lnLroducLlon Lo lLs hyslcal rlnclples and AppllcaLlons,
lS8n: 0-88318-612-8 (1989)
63. Zaslavskll, ?u.M., AcousLlcal hyslcs, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 633 - 663 (2003)
66. 8eresnev, l.A., !ohnson, .A., Ceophyslcs, vol. 39, no. 6, pp 1000 - 1017 (1994)
67. aLenL uS 6029746
68. Chahlne, C.L., kalamuck, k.M., lrederlc, C.S., 8Lh Am WaLer !eL Conference, paper 37
(1993)
69. Clean Well 1ools webslLe: www.cleanwellLools.com
70. aLenL uS 3163438
71. PalllburLon webslLe: BBB8A"&&,C6)*=#8<=+
72. uownhole lluldlcs, lnc. webslLe: BBB8@A>&6,@,<38<=+
73. AS8 webslLe: BBB8"EE&,%@3%,3+,<)%3%")<A8<=+
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
33

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
36

.6'@5)* CB D@@7,4'5,"3; ": 4'/,5'5,"3 '32 /,-*'5,"3
C%A% O::)45; ": 4'/,5'5,"3
CavlLaLlon covers Lhe phenomena of formaLlon, growLh and subsequenL collapse of a swarm
of bubbles. 1he collapse of a bubble occurs ln mllllseconds and releases a large amounL of
energy whlch resulLs ln local hlgh LemperaLure spoLs ln Lhe range of 1000 Lo 10000 k and
local hlgh pressures ln Lhe range of 100 Lo 3000 bar. 8ubble collapse also creaLes free
radlcals and lnduces shock waves, and hlgh local Lurbulence.
Cnly acousLlc and hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon are consldered Lo be effecLlve enough Lo be used
ln processlng appllcaLlons ln chemlcal, elecLrochemlcal, food and blo-processlng lndusLrles,
for envlronmenLal wasLe waLer LreaLmenL as well as for cleanlng and for fracLure sLlmulaLlon
appllcaLlons. 8ecenL overvlews can be found ln ref. [1-3].
ln "<=63*,< <"?,*"*,=# ulLrasound comes from a mosLly plezoelecLrlc Lransducer LhaL Lransfers
Lhe vlbraLlon afLer ampllflcaLlon Lo Lhe sonoLrode whlch ls ln conLacL wlLh Lhe surroundlng
medlum. 1hls medlum ls a llquld or a spray of llquld conLalnlng aL leasL 3 Lo 10 llquld
pockeLs as ln denLal cleanlng devlces.
1he low frequency power ulLrasound sources of 16 kPz Lo 100 kPz LhaL are used ln mosL
lndusLrlal appllcaLlons generaLe large cavlLaLlon bubbles needed for hlgh LemperaLures and
pressures ln Lhe cavlLaLlon zone. A hlgher surroundlng pressure, referred Lo as backpressure,
causes a hlgher cavlLaLlon Lhreshold, and Lhus Lhe number of cavlLaLlon bubbles reduces.
1he lnLernal pressure of Lhe bubble upon collapse wlll however, lncrease, whlch leads Lo a
more vlolenL bubble collapse [6].
AcousLlc cavlLaLlon provokes several sLrlklng effecLs. Cne of Lhese effecLs ls "<=63*,<
3*)%"+,#5. AL lower lnLenslLles Lhe ulLrasound pressure wave causes compresslon and
rarefacLlon of Lhe llquld, and Lherefore lnduces moLlon and mlxlng ln Lhe fluld [7]. 1he
currenL of moLlon lncreases wlLh Lhe square rooL of ulLrasonlc power, and moves away from
Lhe ulLrasound source. AL hlgher lnLenslLles of Lhe ulLrasound wave cavlLaLlon bubbles are
formed aL Lhe locaLlon of Lhe lowesL pressures durlng rarefacLlon of Lhe fluld whlch can
vlolenLly collapse upon compresslon due Lo Lhe wave acLlon. upon collapse sLrong shear
waves and *6)C6&%#<% are creaLed.
A sLandlng wave of ulLrasound can be formed when Lhe emlLLed wave reflecLs agalnsL a solld
surface or an alr/waLer lnLerface and Lhe acousLlc pressure aL Lhe nodes ls zero. 8ubbles
presenL ln Lhe llquld LhaL are smaller Lhan Lhe resonance slze accumulaLe aL Lhe anLl-node,
whereas bubbles wlLh slzes beyond Lhe resonance slze accumulaLe aL Lhe node and coalesce.
1hls mechanlsm LhaL ls responslble for +,<)=3*)%"+,#5 ln Lhe fluld ls used for ulLrasonlc
degasslng.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
37

When a bubble collapses near Lo or ln dlrecL conLacL wlLh a solld wall or an lnLerface Lhe
spherlcal symmeLry of Lhe collapse ls dlsLurbed, and a llquld +,<)=1%* ls formed. 1hls also
happens when a bubble collapses ln a cloud of oLher bubbles. Such a mlcro[eL ls a very
sLrong currenL pulse wlLh duraLlon of abouL 0.3 Lo 1 s and a volume of abouL 10
-4
l.
Mlcro[eLs play an lmporLanL role ln mlxlng, cleanlng and dlslnfecLlon, and are Lhe maln
reason for an lncrease ln mass Lransfer by efflclenLly reduclng Lhe dlffuslon layer.
upon a vlolenL bubble collapse a hlgh pressure pulse, called a 3A=</ B"?%, can be emanaLed.
1he lmpacL of shock waves on a maLerlal surface ls one of Lhe causes of lLs eroslon, and plays
LogeLher wlLh Lhe mlcro[eLs a role ln cleanlng or surface reacLlvaLlon. lL may also play a role
ln Lhe promoLlon of prlmary nucleaLlon of compounds from soluLlon.
1he hlgh LemperaLure and pressure aL Lhe cenLre of Lhe collapslng bubble can creaLe all
klnds of radlcals from Lhe waLer, oxygen and nlLrogen vapour molecules LhaL can acceleraLe
chemlcal converslons.
bD@)=@D#"+,< <"?,*"*,=# generaLed by a consLrlcLlon ln a flow ls referred Lo ln Lhls sLudy as
passlve cavlLaLlon. 1he consLrlcLlon can be a venLurl or a choke, an orlflce plaLe or a free ball
movlng laLerally ln a plpe. lf Lhe sLaLlc pressure ln Lhe consLrlcLlon falls below Lhe vapour
pressure of Lhe llquld, bubbles can be formed [8]. lf Lhe free movemenL of a ball ln a plpe
conLrlbuLes, owlng Lo Lhe waLer hammer effecL, Lo Lhe pressure drop ln Lhe consLrlcLlon
cavlLaLlon already occurs aL a lower flow raLe, Lhls klnd of cavlLaLlon ls referred Lo ln Lhls
sLudy as acLlve cavlLaLlon. AfLer Lhe consLrlcLlon or gap Lhe pressure lncreases and Lhe
cavlLaLlon bubbles collapse. Plgh lnLenslLy fluld Lurbulence ls also creaLed behlnd Lhe gap.
1he lnLenslLy of Lurbulence has a ma[or effecL on Lhe lnLenslLy of cavlLaLlon, slnce Lhe bubble
behavlour under LurbulenL condlLlons ls more ofLen LranslenL lnsLead of sLable or osclllaLory
ln cases wlLhouL Lurbulence. uurlng acLlve cavlLaLlon wlLh a laLerally vlbraLlng ball, bounclng
of Lhe ball agalnsL Lhe plpe wall resulLs ln vlbraLlon of Lhe sysLem. ln Lhe resonance mode
where Lhe naLural frequency of Lhe ball colncldes wlLh LhaL of Lhe plpe, Lhe vlbraLlons are
sharply ampllfled. So ln Lhls parLlcular case Lhe cavlLaLlonal effecLs are accompanled by
pressure waves emlLLed by Lhe vlbraLlng plpe.
1he ma[or @,>>%)%#<% beLween acousLlc and hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ls LhaL for
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon Lhe medlum has Lo flow Lhrough a gap, whlle for acousLlc cavlLaLlon
Lhe medlum can be sLagnanL. uurlng flow Lhrough a gap shear sLresses are lmposed upon
Lhe fluld or suspenslon. Cf Lhe effecLs provoked by cavlLaLlon, acousLlc sLreamlng and mlcro-
sLreamlng wlll noL occur ln case of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon, buL Lhe creaLlon of Lurbulence,
mlcro[eLs and shock waves wlll be slmllar, [usL as Lhe creaLlon of radlcals ln Lhe core of Lhe
lmplodlng cavlLaLlonal bubbles. Also ln Lhelr appllcaLlons dlfferences exlsL. lf cavlLaLlonal
effecLs are requlred ln small llquld pockeLs ln a solld maLrlx as lnslde cells of vegeLables,
acousLlc cavlLaLlon ls Lhe only opLlon. 1he energy requlremenL for generaLlng hydrodynamlc
cavlLaLlon ls generally lower Lhan for acousLlc cavlLaLlon, and can for some appllcaLlons as
for example for proLeln release by cell dlsrupLlon, even be more Lhan Lwo orders of
magnlLude lower [ 1, 9, 10]. lor large scale appllcaLlons hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ls also more
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
38

sulLable, because lL can be scaled up relaLlvely easy and Lhe equlpmenL ls very robusL and
energy savlng. Lroslon of Lhe cavlLaLlon Lool below Lhe consLrlcLlon has long been broughL
forward as prohlblLlve for Lhe use of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon. Lroslon can however, be
largely avolded by Lhe use of Lools where Lhe cavlLaLlon bubbles leave Lhe Lool lmmedlaLely
afLer Lhelr formaLlon, and by uslng novel hard maLerlals LhaL are exLremely wear reslsLanL.
8elow some lmporLanL appllcaLlons of cavlLaLlon wlll be dlscussed. 1hese appllcaLlons are
arranged accordlng Lo Lhe common use of speclflc effecLs of cavlLaLlon.
C%C% D@@7,4'5,"3; ": 4'/,5'5,"3
C%C%A% P,?,38
lnLenslve mlxlng by collapslng cavlLaLlon bubbles ls explalned by Lhe exlsLence of sLrong
mlcro-vorLlces formed by cumulaLlve mlcro[eLs. CavlLaLlon can be used for rapld mlxlng of
mlsclble flulds aL a molecular scale, whlle for lmmlsclble flulds very flne, hlghly sLable mlcro
emulslons can be formed wlLh dropleL slzes down Lo 10-100 nm wlLh a lower energy lnpuL
Lhan for mechanlcal mlxlng, and a lower conLenL of emulslfler and sLablllzer. Many
LheoreLlcal and laLely also experlmenLal sLudles [11-18] have been devoLed Lo ulLrasonlc
emulslflcaLlon of oll ln waLer and waLer ln oll mlxLures. 1he characLerlsLlcs of Lhree phase
C/W/C emulslons prepared by ulLrasound have also been sLudled [19,20]. 8ecause Lhese
emulslflcaLlon processes ofLen need a mechanlcal pre-emulslflcaLlon sLage, hydrodynamlc
cavlLaLlon wlLh hlgh shear sLresses ln Lhe flow ls parLlcularly well-sulLed for Lhe mlxlng of
large volumes ln conLlnuous operaLlon.
lf a llquld ls mlxed wlLh solld parLlcles flnely dlspersed suspenslons can be achleved by Lhe
use of cavlLaLlon. CavlLaLlon bubbles collapslng vlolenLly aL Lhe solld/llquld lnLerface can
even conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe breakage or eroslon of Lhe solld parLlcles. Also mlxlng of gasses lnLo
Lhe llquld as flne sLable gas-bubbles can be reached by use of cavlLaLlon.
All Lhese fasL mlxlng processes wlLh mlnuLe dropleLs, parLlcles or gas-bubbles can be applled
for rapld converslons ln physlcal and chemlcal processes. An example of a physlcal process ls
Lhe waLer ln dlesel fuel appllcaLlon, where a near molecular emulslon of 3 Lo 10 of waLer ln
oll ls used Lo lmprove Lhe combusLlon characLerlsLlcs of fuels and Lo reduce Lhe polsonous
componenLs ln exhausL gases. AnoLher superlor mlxlng effecL ls obLalned by cavlLaLlonal
mlxlng of addlLlves ln fuels Lo lmprove Lhelr reacLlvlLy. Mlxlng of waLer as mlnuLe dropleLs ln
edlble faLs ls anoLher appllcaLlon. CavlLaLlon ls also used Lo obLaln flne emulslons of drllllng
flulds LhaL remaln sLable wlLh lower oll/waLer raLlos and a beLLer yleld of vlscoslflers.
1he superlor mlxlng of lmmlsclble flulds or flulds and sollds LhaL can be achleved by
cavlLaLlon can also be successfully applled Lo speed up chemlcal reacLlons. 1hese
appllcaLlons are reporLed under chemlcal converslons.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
39

C%C%C% .)77 2,;*=@5,"3
hyslcal sLresses resulLlng from lmplodlng cavlLaLlonal bubbles are held responslble for
cellular lnacLlvaLlon or leLhallLy by dlsrupLlon of Lhe cell or Lhe cell wall. 1hls phenomenon
can be used elLher alone or ln comblnaLlon wlLh convenLlonal Lhermal or chemlcal meLhods
for a large varleLy of fluld deconLamlnaLlons, and for cell decomposlLlons ln order Lo release
valuable conLenLs.
lood sLerlllzaLlon can be achleved aL reduced energy consumpLlon and aL moderaLe
LemperaLures, Lhus reLalnlng heaL lablle nuLrlenLs and flavour componenLs [21]. 1he
desLrucLlve forces of cavlLaLlonal lmploslons lnacLlvaLe common mlcro-organlsms such as
lacLlc acld bacLerla, yeasL, and heaL-reslsLanL bacLerlal spores [22]. ln frulL [ulce
manufacLurlng Lhe energy consumpLlon can be slgnlflcanLly reduced and Lhe process
efflclency lmproved by applylng hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon lnsLead of convenLlonal and pulsed
elecLrlc flelds processlng Lechnologles as was reporLed by CogaLe [2].
An lmporLanL appllcaLlon of cavlLaLlon ls ln (wasLe) waLer dlslnfecLlon by LreaLmenL of lLs
blologlcal conLamlnaLlon elLher alone, as a pre-LreaLmenL sLep or ln comblnaLlon wlLh oLher
LreaLmenLs. Cver Lhe years waLer remedlaLlon has been achleved by chemlcal and physlcal
LreaLmenLs. Chemlcal meLhods have aparL from unwanLed slde-effecLs Lhe drawback LhaL
many mlcroorganlsms produce colonles and spores agglomeraLed ln large clusLers or are
enLrapped ln clay parLlcles. Chemlcal LreaLmenL desLroys Lhe ouLer mlcro-organlsms buL
leave Lhe lnner cells lnLacL. hyslcal LreaLmenLs as by uv llghL also have Lhelr resLrlcLlons.
8evlews abouL Lhe use of ulLrasonlc cavlLaLlon for waLer dlslnfecLlon have been wrlLLen by
[23, 24], and recenLly by CogaLe [2] on Lhe use of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon. ln parLlcular Lhe
lmpacL of shear ln hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ln addlLlon Lo Lhe cavlLaLlonal effecLs has been
very efflclenL ln desLroylng Lhe agglomeraLes of bacLerla and clay parLlcles, Lhus maklng
Lhem more accesslble for furLher LreaLmenL.
CLher sLudles on Lhe lmpacL of ulLrasonlc lnacLlvaLlon of bacLerla ln waLer are from !oyce eL
al. [23], of ulLrasound ln con[uncLlon wlLh elecLrolysls from !oyce eL al. [26], on cavlLaLlon
comblned wlLh hydrogen peroxlde LreaLmenL or ozone by !yoLl and andlL [27,28], and for
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon LogeLher wlLh ozone from Chand eL al.[29]. Lspeclally
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon aL hlgher operaLlng pressure appeared Lo be very effecLlve for
dlslnfecLlon of bore well waLer as was proven by !yoLl and andlL [30].
lor Lhe removal of blologlcal conLamlnaLlon of wasLe sLreams hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ls a
vlable opLlon. ln a revlew by SawanL eL al. [31] Lhe large poLenLlal of Lhe use of
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon for ballasL waLer LreaLmenL before Lhe dlsposal of Lhe waLer Lo
avold LranslocaLlon of organlsms was emphaslzed.
1hls process of cell rupLure by ln parLlcular hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon can also be applled ln
convenLlonal wasLe waLer LreaLmenL for sludge decomposlLlon and Lhus for sludge reducLlon
[32, 33]. lL has recenLly been shown for excess sludge from a membrane bloreacLor LhaL a
comblnaLlon of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon and ozone LreaLmenL provlded 10 Lo 20 more
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
60

sludge reducLlon aL a glven ozone dosage [34]. ulslnLegraLlon of agglomeraLed sludge
parLlcles also gave Lhe ozone more access Lo Lhe lndlvldual cells.
1he use of cavlLaLlon as a cell dlsrupLlon process ln a suspenslon wlLh a hlgh cell denslLy was
successful ln Lhe release of slgnlflcanL amounLs of lnLracellular enzymes/proLelns. ulsrupLlon
of brewer's or baker's yeasL by hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon for proLeln release requlred a Lwo
order of magnlLude lower energy lnpuL Lhan convenLlonal meLhods or ulLra-sonlcaLlon [2,
22]. A cell dlsrupLlon process can proceed vla LoLal rupLure of Lhe lndlvldual cells aL severe
cavlLaLlonal lnLenslLy, causlng Lhe lnLercellular enzymes and oLher proLelns Lo be
lmmedlaLely released, or lL can be shear drlven under mlld cavlLaLlonal lnLenslLy, where only
Lhe cell walls are desLrucLed and Lhe enzymes/proLelns are slowly exLracLed.
C%C%E% .6)#,4'7 4"3/)*;,"3;
numerous appllcaLlons of cavlLaLlon Lo lmprove chemlcal converslons have been sLudled.
1he lmprovemenL follows from dlfferenL effecLs lnduced by cavlLaLlon. lmplodlng bubbles
glve beLLer mass Lransfer due Lo more lnLense mlxlng of reacLlng flulds LhaL can be elLher
homogeneously mlxed or form emulslons. CavlLaLlon also conLrlbuLes Lo heLerogeneous
reacLlons ln suspenslons where one reacLanL ls a solld or where Lhe caLalysL ls a solld. SLrong
mlcro[eLs from lmplodlng bubbles can clean or even erode Lhe solld surface. 1he shockwaves
and hlgh Lurbulence caused by lmplodlng bubbles can lead Lo rupLure of hlgh molecular
welghL molecules ln Lhe llquld whlch causes Lhe vlscoslLy Lo decrease.
1he hlgh local LemperaLures and pressures ln Lhe cenLre of Lhe lmplodlng bubbles creaLe as
sald before radlcals LhaL may Lake parL ln Lhe converslon. ln some cases Lhese radlcals even
change Lhe reacLlon paLh whlch leads Lo a dlfferenL producL. A huge number of chemlcal
converslons Lhrough radlcal formaLlon are glven ln books and revlew papers as for example
ln references [4, 3 and 33].
A mosL promlslng appllcaLlon of cavlLaLlonal emulslflcaLlon Lo acceleraLe Lhe converslon ls ln
Lhe preparaLlon of blodlesel from all klnds of renewable resources. 8lodlesel ls an
oxygenaLed fuel conslsLlng of alkyl-esLers of long-chaln faLLy aclds derlved from vegeLable
olls or anlmal faLs Lhrough a Lhree-sLep LransesLerlflcaLlon reacLlon ln an excess of alcohol.
1he complex reacLlons aL Lhe lnLerface of Lhe only parLlally mlsclble faLs and alcohols are
very slow and normally requlre hlgh-speed sLlrrlng, Lhe use of caLalysLs and elevaLed
LemperaLures and pressures Lo achleve a 90 Lo 93 converslon ln 70 hours. CogaLe [36]
found LhaL cavlLaLlon could speed up Lhls process Lo 13 mln. Pydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon
appeared Lo be ln general 40 Llmes more effecLlve Lhan acousLlc cavlLaLlon and 160-400
Llmes more effecLlve Lhan Lhe convenLlonal approach [10]. SLavarache eL al [37, 38]
esLabllshed LhaL by uslng ulLrasonlc cavlLaLlon much shorLer converslon Llmes were needed
Lhan for mechanlcal sLlrrlng and less caLalysLs were used. 1hls was conflrmed by oLher
sLudles [39, 40] lncludlng Lhe LransesLerlflcaLlon of flsh oll ln blodlesel [41]. AnoLher huge
source for blodlesel producLlon ls sewage sludge. AfLer an aeroblc mlcroblologlcal
converslon of Lhe carbon compounds lnLo llplds [42], Lhese llplds could be furLher processed
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
61

lnLo blodlesel ln a process LhaL was speeded up by ulLrasound. All Lhese promlslng processes
Lo produce blodlesel were performed baLch wlse, and hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon seems very
well sulLed Lo converL such a large scale operaLlon lnLo a conLlnuous mode.
lor Lhe hydrolysls of faLLy olls ln a convenLlonal way LemperaLures beLween 230 and 330
o
C
and pressures of 30 Lo 60 bar are requlred. andlL and !oshl [28] managed Lo converL casLor
and kerdl oll by Lhe formaLlon of flne emulslons by elLher acousLlc or hydrodynamlc
cavlLaLlon under amblenL condlLlons.
CavlLaLlon ls also known Lo be used for Lhe rupLure of large molecules ln a llquld. ChlvaLe and
andlL [29] sLudled Lhe acousLlc and hydrodynamlc depolymerlsaLlon of CMC and
polyeLhylene oxlde by followlng Lhe drop ln vlscoslLy. Cracklng of heavy oll fracLlons can also
be achleved by cavlLaLlon.
Ambulgekar eL al [43, 44] applled cavlLaLlon for Lhe oxldaLlon of Loluene, nlLroLoluene and
chloroLoluene wlLh kMnC
4
, and found hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon Lo be more effecLlve as
compared Lo acousLlc cavlLaLlon and far more sulLable for large scale appllcaLlon.
AparL from Lhe appllcaLlon of cavlLaLlon ln Lhe blologlcal LreaLmenL of wasLe waLer by cell
dlsrupLlon, cavlLaLlon can also be used for Lhe degradaLlon of chemlcals ln wasLe waLer.
MosLly oxldaLlon of Lhe chemlcals occurs due Lo Lhe generaLlon of hoL spoLs and radlcals
comblned wlLh hlgh Lurbulence ln Lhe llquld. lL has been LesLed for Lhe removal of dyes and
pesLlcldes from effluenLs of Lhe food processlng lndusLry. Slvakumar and andlL [43] applled
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon wlLh mulLlple hole orlflce plaLes for Lhe decolourlzaLlon of a dye
effluenL sLream. 8hodamlne 8 could also be degraded from an aqueous soluLlon by
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon [46], [usL as alachlor ([47]] and p-nlLrophenol [48]. Wang eL al. [49]
also lnvesLlgaLed Lhe comblned effecL of hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon and hydrogen peroxlde.
1he mechanlsm behlnd lL ls Lhe enhanced formaLlon of CP
-
radlcals from hydrogen peroxlde.
8ecenLly radhan and CogaLe [30] showed LhaL a slmllar mechanlsm ls worklng ln Lhe lenLon
process where hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon acceleraLes Lhe degradaLlon of Lhe polluLanL. Also
acousLlc cavlLaLlon has been applled ln a large number of sLudles for Lhe degradaLlon of
chemlcals such as benzene, Loluene, eLhylbenzene, and xylene ln waLer [8rauLlgam eL al.
[31]].
C%C%K% Q,;,35)8*'5,"3
ln parLlcular hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon can be used for slze reducLlon of parLlcles. lmplodlng
bubbles and shear are very well sulLed Lo dlsrupL aggregaLes or agglomeraLes, and Lo obLaln
a slze reducLlon of Lhe parLlcles as by LurbulenL shear grlndlng.
aLll and andlL [36] used hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ln Lhe synLhesls of nano-scale parLlcles of
sLyrene buLadlene rubber. Moser eL al. [37] and SunsLrom eL al. [38] used Lhls Lechnlque for
Lhe producLlon of nano-slzed caLalysLs.
An lmporLanL appllcaLlon of Lhe dlslnLegraLlon of parLlcles ls for decomposlLlon of sludge ln
wasLewaLer LreaLmenLs. klm eL al. [32] have used hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon for sludge pre-
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
62

LreaLmenL Lo lncrease Lhe blodegradablllLy of sludge, whlle Plrooka eL al. [33] used
cavlLaLlon on a mlxLure of sludge and sodlum hydraLe Lo reduce excess sludge producLlon ln
a dalry wasLewaLer planL, and Pwang eL al. [34] decomposed Lhe excess sludge of a
membrane bloreacLor wlLh cavlLaLlon comblned wlLh ozone LreaLmenL. ln Lhe lasL case
hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon gave rlse Lo hlgher mass Lransfer of Lhe ozone Lo Lhe dlslnLegraLed
sludge parLlcles.
C%C%R% .*1;5'77,S'5,"3
1he slze dlsLrlbuLlon of parLlcles ln a crysLalllsed producL ls one of Lhe mosL lmporLanL
producL speclflcaLlons. 1he slze of parLlcles ls dlrecLly dependenL on Lhe nucleaLlon raLe,
slnce Lhls raLe deLermlnes Lhe number of newly creaLed crysLals ln Lhe case of a crysLalllne
subsLance. 1he effecLs of cavlLaLlonal collapse have been sLudled wlLh reference Lo Lhe
lnducLlon of crysLal nucleaLlon. 8ubble lmploslons lead Lo local LranslenLs ln LemperaLure
and pressure, and enhanced nucleaLlon raLes were observed by applylng ulLrasonlcally
lnduced cavlLaLlon.
8elaLlng a LemperaLure LranslenL Lo nucleaLlon seems counLer-lnLulLlve, because for mosL
soluLlons an lncrease ln LemperaLure wlll lead Lo reduced super-saLuraLlon, removlng Lhe
drlvlng force for nucleaLlon and crysLalllzaLlon. Powever, collapse also creaLes a LranslenL
pressure lncrease, and an lnvesLlgaLlon on Lhe crysLalllsaLlon of ammonlum sulphaLe from
waLer has suggesLed LhaL Lhls ls whaL promoLes nucleaLlon [32]. A calculaLlon based on
classlcal nucleaLlon Lheory shows LhaL Lhe effecL ls negllglble up Lo pressures of 70 Ma, buL
LhaL above Lhls pressure a very rapld lncrease ln nucleaLlon raLe wlll occur. Also Lhe mass
Lransfer efflclency needed for Lhe growLh of Lhe crysLals could be lncreased. A plloL scale LesL
on adlplc acld demonsLraLed LhaL Lhe slze of Lhe crysLals could be beLLer conLrolled, and LhaL
beLLer quallLy crysLals wlLh fewer llquld and gas lncluslons and wlLh less agglomeraLlon could
be produced by applylng ulLrasonlc cavlLaLlon.
CavlLaLlon can be used for Lhe producLlon of nano-scale crysLals by enhanclng Lhe nucleaLlon
raLe, by dlsrupLlng agglomeraLes and even dependlng on Lhe slze of Lhe parLlcles by
LurbulenL shear grlndlng. aLll and andlL [36] used hydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon ln Lhe synLhesls
of nano-scale parLlcles of sLyrene buLadlene rubber. SunsLrom eL al. [33] used Lhls Lechnlque
for Lhe producLlon of nano-slzed caLalysLs.

C%E% O::)45; ": /,-*'5,"3
vlbraLlon ln a fluld fllled wellbore generaLes compresslon waves ln Lhe fluld surroundlng Lhe
vlbraLlon source. 1hese waves may have Lo pass Lhrough sLeel plpe walls, fllLer Lubes and a
cemenL sheaLh before Lhey reach Lhe rock mass around Lhe well.
1he rock mass ls normally porous rock conslsLlng of a maLrlx of solld gralns or plaLe-llke
parLlcles LhaL are packed on Lop of each oLher and loaded wlLh Lhe welghL of Lhe overlylng
rock maLrlx column. 1he maLrlx parLlcles may be cemenLed or oLherwlse aLLached Lo each
oLher, ln whlch case Lhe rock ls descrlbed as consolldaLed or Lhe gralns may noL be
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
63

lnLerconnecLed buL held ln place by graln Lo graln conLacL polnLs loaded wlLh Lhe welghL of
Lhe overlylng rock maLrlx ln whlch case Lhe rock ls unconsolldaLed.
1he pores beLween Lhe maLrlx parLlcles are fllled wlLh flulds and Lhe comblnaLlon of maLrlx,
pores and pore conLenL ls descrlbed as a porous medlum. lf a compresslon wave meeLs an
lnLerface wlLh a porous medlum, Lhe wave energy ls dlvlded over 3 wave Lypes, a fasL
compresslon wave
m
and a fasL Shear wave S
m
ln Lhe solld maLrlx and a slow compresslon
wave LhaL propagaLes Lhrough Lhe fluld ln Lhe pores. 1he behavlour and effecLs of Lhese
waves has been quallLaLlvely dlscussed ln ChapLer 1 glvlng rlse Lo a number of useful
appllcaLlons.
uellberaLe mechanlcal vlbraLlons and hammerlng can be used ln well consLrucLlon for
appllcaLlons llke frlcLlon reducLlon, lmprovlng Lhe cuLLlng process of drllllng blLs, for Lhe
generaLlon of sound slgnals for well bore measuremenLs and denslflcaLlon of gravel packs.
C%J% D@@7,4'5,"3; ": /,-*'5,"3
C%J%A% .7)'3,38 ' @"*"=; #)2,=# '*"=32 ' M)77-"*)
Already by drllllng lnLo Lhe porous rock sollds and chemlcals -long chaln polymers ln
parLlcular- may have caused damage ln Lhe near wellbore area. uurlng producLlon Lhe
porous medlum ln Lhe dlrecL vlclnlLy of Lhe wellbore, Lyplcally ln Lhe rock cyllnder around Lhe
wellbore wlLh a radlus of Lhe order of 1 m ls parLlcularly senslLlve Lo foullng. 1hls ls because
parLlcles llberaLed ln Lhe far fleld due Lo flow and pressure effecLs and carrled Lo Lhe
wellbore by Lhe producLlon flow Lhrough Lhe pores converge Lo Lhe wellbore, whlle Lhe
veloclLy ln Lhe pores lncreases leadlng Lo condlLlons where narrower LhroaLs beLween pores
may become brldged. Llkewlse ln Lhe case of ln[ecLlon, parLlcles ln Lhe ln[ecLlon sLream may
plug Lhe pore LhroaLs ln Lhe dlrecL vlclnlLy of Lhe wellbore. 1he near wellbore area can also
become plugged wlLh deposlLlon of asphalLenes, due Lo release and loss of volaLlle
componenLs of Lhe crude oll ln Lhe pressure drop LhaL ls requlred Lo creaLe flow Lowards Lhe
wellbore. CLher foullng mechanlsms are dlscussed ln ChapLer 8.
A well ls connecLed wlLh Lhe porous medlum such LhaL producLlon or ln[ecLlon can Lake place
ln a durable way, Laklng accounL of Lhe prevalllng condlLlons. 1he slmplesL connecLlon ls Lhe
open hole as lL ls drllled wlLhouL any proLecLlon, a low cosL meLhod LhaL ls used lf Lhe porous
formaLlon ls fully consolldaLed. 1he mosL common meLhod ls Lo proLecL Lhe hole wlLh a sLeel
caslng wlLh cemenL beLween Lhe caslng and porous formaLlon and perforaLlng 20 Lo 30 holes
per meLre of Lyplcally 10 mm dlameLer exploslvely reachlng several declmeLres lnLo Lhe
porous medlum and Lhereby brldglng Lhe near wellbore area LhaL may have been damaged
by Lhe drllllng process. CLher meLhods lnvolve placlng fllLer Lubes allowlng formaLlon sand Lo
'self-pack' around Lhe fllLer and placlng -ln a gravel packlng procedure- a conLrolled sand bed
beLween Lhe fllLer Lube and Lhe porous formaLlon. 1he acLual condlLlons ln Lhe well should
be Laken lnLo accounL when [udglng Lhe posslble effecLs of a vlbraLlon based well cleanlng
Lool.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
64

Waves enLerlng Lhe fouled rock mass around Lhe well or perforaLlon Lunnels are under
cerLaln condlLlons capable of moblllslng parLlcles ln pores and desLablllslng parLlcle brldges,
as descrlbed ln ChapLer 1. ln Lhe cleanlng process parLlcle moblllsaLlon and brldge
desLablllsaLlon ls [usL Lhe flrsL sLep ln cleanlng Lhe near wellbore. 1he nexL sLep ls
LransporLlng Lhe foullng parLlcles from Lhe well or placlng Lhe parLlcles furLher lnLo Lhe
formaLlon, allowlng Lhem Lo seLLle aL a place where Lhey wlll noL be re-moblllsed by regular
producLlon or ln[ecLlon acLlvlLles.
8akker eL al, ln 2002 [34] descrlbe successful LreaLmenLs wlLh Lhe Lool LhaL ls Lhe sub[ecL of
Lhls sLudy. 1amblnl ln 2003 [33] reporLs of acLlve cavlLaLlon and ulLrasonlc LreaLmenL as
emerglng Lechnologles, menLlonlng ulLrasonlc LreaLmenL ln Lhe 20kPz Lo 40 kPz reglon as a
LreaLmenL Lechnology LhaL reaches maxlmum Lwlce Lhe radlus of Lhe wellbore. Some of Lhe
characLerlsLlcs of Lhls hlgh frequency cleanlng process were sLudled ln Lhe laboraLory by
oeslo [36] for acousLlc Lools beamlng focused wave energy lnLo core samples. Pe
esLabllshed LhaL shorL bursLs of acousLlc energy are more efflclenL for cleanlng Lhan long
bursLs or conLlnuous beamlng. Pls laboraLory observaLlon lndlcaLes LhaL aL Lhe applled
frequencles cavlLaLlon can have a negaLlve effecL on Lhe cleanlng process. WlLh Lhe
LranslaLlon of Lhese laboraLory resulLs Lo vlable fleld condlLlons accounL should be Laken of
Lhe sLrong dlrecLlvlLy of Lhe vlbraLlon source ln Lhe laboraLory experlmenLs whlch normally ls
noL achlevable ln a reallsLlc down hole slLuaLlon.
1he developmenL of an acousLlc well cleanlng Lool based on pulsed 20 kPz radlal radlaLlon ls
reporLed by Wong ln 2003 [37] and van de 8as ln 2004 [38], Lhe resulLs wlLh Lhe proLoLype
radlal Lool dld noL compare well wlLh Lhe resulLs of prevlous experlmenLs wlLh a llnear
acousLlc cell wlLh a focused energy beam. Champlon [39] announces ln 2004 Lhe
developmenL of a very hlgh power lmpulse Lool generaLlng pressure shocks creaLed by hlgh
volLage elecLrlcal dlscharges LhaL vlolenLly vaporlse wellbore fluld beLween Lwo elecLrodes
wlLh subsequenL lmploslon of Lhe vapour bubble. Many SL paper reporL on case sLudles of
well LreaLmenLs ln Lhe ma[orlLy wlLh fluldlc osclllaLlon Lools, wlLh Lhe fluldlc osclllaLor belng
Lhe mosL commonly applled Lool for well cleanlng aL Lhe momenL of wrlLlng Lhls Lhesls.
Wlllemse [60] reporLs favourable resulLs wlLh Lhe fluldlc osclllaLor ln well condlLlons where
Lhe perforaLlons and reservolr rock Lo be LreaLed were obsLrucLed by lnner Lubes and fllLers,
ln a so-called 'dlfflculL compleLlon' slLuaLlon, Lhls work lllusLraLes LhaL Lhe obsLrucLlons cause
only a llmlLed loss of wave energy. Almelda [61] reporLs favourably abouL removal of
asphalLhene deposlLs uslng dlesel and buLyl glycol pumped Lhrough a fluldlc osclllaLor.
8oberLs [62] reporLs good resulLs for ulLrasonlc removal of organlc deposlLs ln laboraLory
experlmenLs wlLh focused acousLlc waves of 36 kPZ dellverlng 0.4 W rms radlaLed Lhrough a
horn onLo Lhe face of Lhe core sample resulLlng ln effecLlve LreaLmenL 12 Lo 13 cm lnLo Lhe
core, Lhe removal of damage by polymers was less pronounced.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
63

C%J%C% .7)'3,38 56) M)77-"*) ": ;4'7) '32 2)@";,5;
1he wellbore lLself, perforaLlon Lunnels and Lhe near wellbore can become damaged by Lhe
deposlLlon of scale deposlLs formed by Lhe crysLalllsaLlon of varlous salLs deposlLed from
produced formaLlon waLer or ln[ecLlon waLer, Lhe mosL lmporLanL belng carbonaLe and
sulphaLe salLs. Whlle carbonaLe salLs can be dlssolved raLher easlly wlLh hydrochlorlc acld,
sulphaLe salLs are much more dlfflculL Lo remove and normally have Lo be broken up and
clrculaLed ouL of Lhe well. Cohllnezhad [63] provldes an overvlew of varlous Lechnlques LhaL
can be used Lo remove lnsoluble scale, lncludlng mechanlcal removal wlLh a drllllng blL or a
mlll, hlgh pressure fluld [eLLlng wlLh roLaLlng laLeral [eL nozzles, cavlLaLlon -however
descrlbed as belng severely suppressed by hlgh amblenL pressures-, abraslve [eLLlng Lyplcally
uslng sand ln a fluld [eL sLream, Lhe use of vlbraLory fluldlc osclllaLlon Lools and speclally
deslgned exploslve charges. Collnezhad ls pesslmlsLlc abouL Lhe scale cleanlng performance
of vlbraLory Lools alone, however ln comblnaLlon wlLh mechanlcal desLrucLlon and sulLable
chemlcals saLlsfacLory resulLs can be obLalned. A Lool wlLh physlcal hammerlng capablllLy ln
comblnaLlon wlLh sLrong vlbraLlon would have a good poLenLlal for scale removal.
C%J%E% H);)*/",* ;5,#=7'5,"3
8eservolr sLlmulaLlon, also referred Lo as selsmlc sLlmulaLlon or elasLlc wave based
sLlmulaLlon ls applled as a low cosL Lnhanced Cll 8ecovery meLhod LhaL lnlLlally caughL a loL
of aLLenLlon ln 8ussla and laLer was embraced ln Lhe uSA. 1he meLhod needs powerful
waves LhaL Lravel deep lnLo Lhe reservolr rock uslng vlbraLlon sources ln wells near Lo Lhe
reservolr or aL Lhe dayllghL surface. Clven Lhe vasL volume of rock LhaL needs Lo be radlaLed,
only low energy evenLs can be expecLed, such as releaslng oll dropleLs LhaL are sLuck ln pores
and need a small Lrlgger Lo become unsLuck or Lo coalesce wlLh a nearby oll dropleLs, such
LhaL Lhelr larger slze wlll be more moblle ln Lhe flow condlLlons ln Lhe reservolr as descrlbed
by kosLrov [64]. ln ChapLer 1 lL has been explalned LhaL low frequency waves are mosL
sulLable for Lhls Lask wlLh Lhe fasL compresslon and shear waves belng Lhe vehlcles Lo radlaLe
energy deep lnLo Lhe reservolr, where dlsconLlnulLles or resonance effecLs glve rlse Lo
reflecLlve effecLs LhaL generaLe energy evenLs capable of generaLlng Lhe deslred effecLs on
resldual oll. Many papers have been wrlLLen abouL reservolr sLlmulaLlon, ofLen wlLh
conslderable speculaLlve expecLaLlons. A 2011 sLudy [63] provldes an algorlLhmlc approach
Lo deLermlnlng opLlmal slgnal frequencles for reservolr sLlmulaLlon LreaLmenLs, ldenLlfylng
opLlmum wave condlLlons wlLhln Lhe frequency band of Lyplcally 3 Pz Lo 30 Pz applled for
reservolr sLlmulaLlon.
C%J%J% F*,45,"3 *)2=45,"3
Many operaLlons ln a deep well lnvolve LranslaLlon and roLaLlon of long plpe sLrlngs wlLhln
plpes and ln conLacL wlLh newly drllled formaLlon, Lhe so-called open hole. ln all Lhese
operaLlons frlcLlon ls belng experlenced LhaL needs Lo be overcome wlLh axlal plpe force or
Lorque or a comblnaLlon of Lhe Lwo. 1he frlcLlon forces may become so hlgh LhaL plpe sLrlng
may sLarL Lo buckle slnusoldal or hellcally, generaLlng so much frlcLlon LhaL lL cannoL be
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
66

lowered Lo Lhe deslred poslLlon, or LhaL Lhe mechanlcal axlal sLrengLh of Lhe plpe ls
lnsufflclenL Lo overcome Lhe axlal frlcLlon when pulllng Lhe plpe ouL of Lhe hole, or LhaL Lhe
mechanlcal Lorque capablllLy of Lhe plpe ls lnsufflclenL for roLaLlon of Lhe plpe.
1he predlcLlon of Lhe behavlour of plpe sLrlngs ln deep wellbores ln wells wlLh complex
Lra[ecLorles, lncludlng exLended reach horlzonLal wells ls wlLhln Lhe knowledge area of sLrlng
mechanlcs pracLlced ln drllllng and compleLlon englneerlng. 1he problem of mechanlcal
frlcLlon ln a wellbore has a number of common denomlnaLors. lf Lhe plpe sLrlng ls noL ln
moLlon and Lhe goal ls Lo sLarL movlng Lhe plpe sLrlng elLher axlally or by roLaLlon, Lhe sLaLlc
frlcLlon has Lo be overcome. Cnce Lhe plpe sLrlng ls ln moLlon, Lhe dynamlc frlcLlon remalns,
ofLen Lhere ls a ma[or dlfference beLween sLaLlc and dynamlc frlcLlon. Axlal frlcLlon resulLs ln
axlal force, lf Lhe plpe sLrlng ls roLaLed axlal frlcLlon changes lnLo LangenLlal frlcLlon LhaL
needs Lo be overcome by applylng Lorque Lo Lhe plpe sLrlng.
1he magnlLude of Lhe frlcLlon force ls relaLed Lo Lhe normal force beLween Lhe plpe sLrlng
and Lhe wellbore wall. ln lnLervals where Lhe normal forces are hlgh, a loL of frlcLlon ls
generaLed. lf sLaLlc frlcLlon suddenly changes lnLo dynamlc frlcLlon elasLlc energy ln Lhe plpe
sLrlng applled Lo overcome Lhe dlfference beLween sLaLlc and dynamlc frlcLlon sudden
releases, glvlng rlse Lo a feaLure called 'sLlck - sllp' whlch may, for example, be exLremely
damaglng Lo drllllng blLs. 1he sLlck - sllp phenomenon also glves rlse Lo poLenLlally damaglng
Lorque vlbraLlons ln Lhe plpe sLrlng. CLher frlcLlon relaLed problems occur when a plpe geLs
sLuck near Lhe boLLom, whlch may happen ln Lhe drllllng process for a number of reasons.
1he forces LhaL need Lo be overcome are Lhe force requlred aL Lhe sLuck polnL and Lhe force
requlred Lo move or Lorque up Lhe plpe sLrlng ln prlnclpally sLaLlc condlLlons ln order Lo
generaLe Lhe requlred force aL Lhe sLuck polnL. ln a drllllng slLuaLlon speclal [arrlng Lools are
used Lo provlde axlal hammerlng energy ln order Lo free Lhe plpe aL Lhe sLuck polnL.
vlbraLlons ln Lhe plpe body aL sulLable locaLlons are exLremely useful Lo resolve frlcLlon
relaLed problems. vlbraLlon superlmposes a cycllc sLress fleld ln Lhe plpe sLrlng and aL
conLacL polnLs beLween Lhe plpe sLrlng and Lhe wellbore onLo Lhe non-vlbraLlng sLress
condlLlon, resulLlng ln mlnlscule cycllc dlsplacemenLs LhaL affecL elLher Lhe normal forces or
help Lo break sLaLlc frlcLlon forces and reduce Lhem - ldeally - Lo Lhe level of dynamlc
frlcLlon. 1hls may asslsL ln counLerlng sLlck sllp problems or geLLlng more force 'aL Lhe sLuck
polnL'. Skyles aL al [66] reporL ln 2012 abouL a frlcLlon reducer Lool wlLh an osclllaLlng valve
assembly provldlng pressure pulses aL a frequency of 8 Lo 30 Pz worklng ln Landem wlLh a
8ellvllle sprlng vlbraLlon Lool Lhus creaLlng axlal dlsplacemenLs of several mm. 1he Lool ls
belng descrlbed as very successful for slldlng drllllng wlLh a mud moLor. Pllllng eL al ln 2012
[67] sLudled varlous frlcLlon reducLlon Lools for colled Lublng operaLlons ln exLended reach
wells. As colled Lublng ls sLored on a reel roLaLlon of Lhe plpe sLrlng ls noL posslble. Pllllng
sLudled an 8 Pz roLary valve pulse Lool, a 12.3 Pz poppeL/sprlng mass Lool and a 23 Pz fluldlc
flow-modulaLlng Lool all provldlng axlal exclLaLlon of Lhe plpe sLrlng, Lhe laLLer ouLperformed
Lhe oLher Lools.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
67

C%J%K% O36'34,38 56) *"4( 2);5*=45,"3 @*"4);;
1he cuLLlng process of a modern polycrysLalllne dlamond cuLLer (uC) drllllng blL ls allke
cuLLlng sLeel on a laLhe, however, Lhe medlum Lo be cuL by Lhe uC blL ls noL as
homogeneous as sLeel and due Lo frlcLlonal effecLs sLrong sLlck - sllp relaLed vlbraLlon may
occur LhaL negaLlvely lnLerferes wlLh Lhe cuLLlng process and poLenLlally damages Lhe
expenslve uC drllllng blL. uellberaLe vlbraLlons aL a sulLable frequency near Lhe drllllng blL
may poLenLlally provlde beneflclal effecLs. All eL al 2011 [68] presenLs fleld experlence wlLh
an axlal osclllaLlon generaLor Lool lndlcaLlng LhaL beLLer raLes of peneLraLlon can be achleved
aL a lower welghL-on-blL and LhaL less Lorque aL Lhe blL ls experlenced. ueen eL al 2011 [69]
used a Lorslon lmpacL hammer Lo lmprove Lhe drllllng wlLh uC blLs, leadlng Lo reduced
drllllng cosLs. 8abaLunde eL al 2011 [70] observed ln laboraLory experlmenLs slgnlflcanL
peneLraLlon raLe lncreases wlLh vlbraLlon asslsLed uC drllllng. Ll eL al [71] conducLed
laboraLory experlmenLs aL 300 and 600 rpm and 60 Pz axlal vlbraLlon wlLh 0.09, 0.29 and
0.44 mm ampllLude and found LhaL Lhe raLe of peneLraLlon lncreased proporLlonally Lo Lhe
ampllLude of Lhe vlbraLlon. 8ruce eL al [72] descrlbe a vlbraLory drllllng meLhod referred Lo
as sonlc drllllng uslng 30 Lo 130 Pz axlal vlbraLlon, uslng a surface exclLer and resonance ln
Lhe drlll sLrlng Lo drlll and drlve caslng lnLo unconsolldaLed or llghLly consolldaLed formaLlons
aL more Lhan Lwlce Lhe speed of convenLlonal drllllng operaLlons, Lhe vlbraLlons cause
fluldlsaLlon and asslsL Lhe cuLLlng process, however, Lhe maxlmum depLh LhaL can be
reached ls 600 m. lernandez eL al [73] reporL abouL a uS ueparLmenL of Lnergy pro[ecL for
Lhe developmenL of a down hole mud hammer devlce generaLlng axlal hammer blows
beLween .23 and 28.3 Pz wlLh flow raLes up Lo 1600 l/mln and up Lo 33.3 bar pressure drop
over Lhe Lool, Lhls Lool showed subsLanLlal lmprovemenLs ln drllllng raLes ln overbalanced,
hard rock formaLlons, and needed aL Lhe concluslon of Lhe pro[ecL sLlll subsLanLlal
lmprovemenLs.
lreelng Lhe formaLlons fragmenLs - also called cuLLlngs - from Lhe boLLom of Lhe hole
lmmedlaLely afLer cuLLlng, wlLh Lhe ob[ecLlve Lo avold crushlng Lhe cuLLlng more Lhan once
by Lhe drllllng blL ls normally achleved by sLrong fluld [eLs of drllllng fluld dlrecLed ln such a
way LhaL flushlng and coollng of Lhe cuLLers ls opLlmally achleved. lreshly cuL fragmenLs
however may be dlfflculL Lo move because of 'chlp hold down' creaLed by Lhe overpressure
ln Lhe wellbore and Lhe flush of drllllng mud fllLraLe lnLo Lhe freshly cuL rock. A pulslng and
vlbraLlng acLlon of Lhe [eL sLream wlll asslsL freelng freshly cuL fragmenLs, hence avoldlng re-
grlndlng Lhus lmprovlng Lhe drllllng speed and Lhe llfe of Lhe drllllng blL. Chahlne eL al [74]
lnvesLlgaLed ln 1993 Lhe use of self-resonaLlng cavlLaLlng waLer [eLs for rock cuLLlng flndlng
LhaL a slgnlflcanL lmprovemenL ln cuLLlng hard rock occurs over normal [eL nozzles lf Lhe [eL
lmpacL pressure ls below Lhe rock sLrengLh. vorLech developed a pulsaLlng blL sub operaLlng
aL 3 bar dlfferenLlal pressure emlLLlng compresslonal waves clalmlng a slgnlflcanL lncrease of
Lhe raLe of peneLraLlon wlLh colled Lublng drllllng, Schnelder eL al [73] reporL ln 2011
favourable resulLs of Lhe vorLech sysLem.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
68

C%J%R% $)77-"*) #)';=*)#)35;
lncreaslng use ls made of vlbraLlons aL Lhe drllllng blL Lo descrlbe Lhe formaLlon ahead and
around Lhe well uslng vlbraLlon sensors ln Lhe drlll sLrlng aL a sulLable dlsLance from Lhe blL ln
a procedure referred Lo as selsmlc whlle drllllng. A roller cone blL used Lo be a good sound
source because of Lhe LeeLh lmpacLlng onLo Lhe boLLom of Lhe well durlng roLaLlon of blL ,
however Lhls noL Lhe case wlLh uC blLs LhaL have replaced roller cone blLs Lo a large exLenL.
Malusa 2003 [76] found LhaL Lhe laLeral vlbraLlons of a uC blL could be a useful sound
source. Anchllya 2006 [77] menLlons Lhe lnLroducLlon of a swepL lmpulse Lool generaLlng a
broadband slgnal aL Lhe blL whlle drllllng. SynerglsLlc use of vlbraLlon Lools LhaL sLlmulaLe
raLe of peneLraLlon and Lhe use of Lhe vlbraLlon slgnals for selsmlc whlle drllllng purposes
was reporLed by lernandez [73].
C%J%T% Q)3;,:,4'5,"3
ln wellbore consLrucLlon coarse homogeneous sand ls someLlmes used as a fllLer ln Lhe
annular space beLween an unconsolldaLed wellbore and a fllLer Lube, Lhls sand ls placed ln a
pumplng operaLlon ln a procedure called gravel packlng ln Lhe ollfleld. 1he resulLlng gravel
pack ls ofLen formed by loosely seLLled sand gralns and by fluld producLlon from or ln[ecLlon
lnLo Lhe well Lhe sLacklng of Lhe sand gralns may become denser, leadlng Lo volume
reducLlon of Lhe proLecLlve sand fllLer and Lhe exposure of secLlons of Lhe fllLer Lube LhaL
may Lhen be eroded by parLlcles from Lhe unconsolldaLed formaLlon resulLlng ln severe
damage Lo Lhe fllLer Lube. AlLhough no llLeraLure references could be found for a Lechnlque
of gravel pack denslflcaLlon, vlbraLlon Lechnlques are qulLe common ln Lhe fleld of geo
englneerlng for ground lmprovemenL and relnforcemenL. 1erashl 2000 [78] descrlbes LhaL
vlbro-compacLlon uslng vlbro-rod and vlbro-floLaLlon as vlbraLlon based Lechnlques Lo
lncrease Lhe sLrengLh and reduce seLLlemenL of loose granular solls.
C%K% ."347=2,38 *)#'*(;
1he above appllcaLlons for cavlLaLlon and vlbraLlon form a broad basls for a Lhorough
evaluaLlon of Lhe vlbroCav vlbraLlon source selecLed for Lhls sLudy, because Lhe source has
unlque poLenLlal Lo generaLe very sLrong cavlLaLlon aL elevaLed backpressures and very
sLrong vlbraLlons. 1he mechanlcal hammerlng caused by Lhe bounclng ball provldes unlque
feaLures noL found ln exlsLlng appllcaLlons.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
69

C%R% H):)*)34);
1. aLlsL, A., 8aLes, u., lnnovaLlve lood Sclence and Lmerglng 1echnologles,
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27. !yoLl, k.k. , andlL, A.8. , 8lochemlcal Lng. !. 14(2003)9-17
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33. Adewuyl, ?.C. , Lnvlron. Scl. 1echnol. 39(2003)8337-8370
36. CogaLe, .8. , andlL, A.8. , ulLrason. Sonochem, 12(2003)21-27
37. SLavarache, C. , vlnaLoru, M. , nlshlmura, 8. , Maeda, ?. , ulLrason. Sonochem.
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39. CogaLe, .8. , Chem.Lng.roc.47(2008)313-327
40. CogaLe, .8. , kabadl, A.M. , 8lochem.Lng.!. 44(2009)60-72
41. ArmenLa, 8.L. , vlnaLoru, M. , 8ur[a, A.M. , kralovec, !.A. , 8arrow, C.!.!. , Am. Cll
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42. Angerbauer, C. , Slebenhofer, M. , MlLLelbach, M. , CueblLz, C.M. , 8loresour.
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43. Ambulgekar, C.v. , SamanL, S.u. , andlL, A.8. , ulLrason. Sonochem. 12(2003)83-90
44. Ambulgekar, C. v. , SamanL, S.u. , andlL, A.8. , ulLrason. Sonochem. 11(2004)191-
196
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
71

43. Slvakumar, M. , andlL, A.8. , ulLrason. Sonochem. 9(2002)123-131
46. Wang, x. , Wang, !. , Cuo, . , Cuo, W. , Ll, C. , Sonochem. 13(2008)337-363
47. Wang, x. , Zhang, ?. , !. Pazardous MaLerlals, 161 (2009)202-207
48. kalamuck, k.M. , Chahlne, C.L. , !. llulds Lng. 122(2000)463-470
49. Wang, x. , Wang, !. , Cuo, . , Cuo, W. , Wang, C. , !. Pazardous MaLerlals, 169
(2009)486-491
30. radhan, A.A. , CogaLe, .8. , Chem. Lng. !. 136(2010)77-82
31. 8rauLlgam, . , Wu, Z-L., , SLark, A. , Cndruschka, 8 , Chem Lng 1ech 32(2009)743-
733
32. vlrone, C. , kramer, P. !. M. , 8osmalen, C. M.van , SLoop, A. P. , 8akker, 1. W. , !.
CrysL. CrowLh 294 (2006)9 - 13
33. SunsLrom, !.L. , Moser, W.8. , Marshlk-CuerLs, 8. , Chem MaLer 8(1996)2061-2067
34. 8akker, 1.W. and lvannlkov, v.l. SL 73332 (2002)
33. 1amblnl, M. SL 82373 (2003)
36. oeslo, . and Coms, C. SL 100812 (2008)
37. Wong, S-W, 8as l. van der, 8lrchak, 8., Pann, W, ?oo, k, 8aLenburg, u. van, SL
84118 (2003)
38. 8as, l. van der, 8oufflgnac, L. de, Zulderwl[k, , Wong, S-W, 8aLenburg, u. van,
8lrchak, 8., ?oo, k,, SL 86492 (2004)
39. Champlon, 8, 8as, l. van der, nlLLers, C, SL 82197 (2004)
60. Wlllemse, M, MosLafa, C., Ll-Ashry, M., Abdallah, l., SaLLar, A.A., Waheed, A., Conrad,
8., SL 93987 (2003)
61. Almelda, !.8.n., SuzarL, !.W.., alva, M.u.M., SanLos, !.A.C.M., SanLos, l.P.M.,
8arbosa, v.., SL 121922 (2009)
62. 8oberLs, .M., venklLaraman, A., Sharma, M.M., SL 62046 (1999)
63. Chollnezhad, !. , SL 99683 (2006)
64. kosLrov, S. , Wooden, W. , SL 114023 (2008)
63. !eong, C. , kalllvokas, L.l. ,Poh, C. , Lake, L.W., SL 147130 (2011)
66. Skyles, L.. , Amlraslanl, ?.A. , WllholL, !.L. , lAuC/SL 131221 (2012)
67. Pllllng, S. , Ayllng, C. ,SL 134290 (2012)
68. All, A.A , 8arLon, S. , Mohanna, A, SL 143216 (2011)
69. ueen, A. , Wedel, 8. , nayan, A. , MaLhlson, S. , PlghLower, C. , SL 147193 (2011)
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
72

70. 8abaLunde, ?. , 8uLL, S. , Molgaard, !. , Arvanl, l. , Am. 8ock. Mech. Ass. 11-327
(2011)
71. Ll, P. , 8uLL, S. , Munaswamy, k. , Arvanl, l. , Am. 8ock. Mech. Ass. 10-428 (2010)
72. 8ruce, u.A. , uespres, L. , Sonlc urllllng SyLems, CeosysLems (ca 2004)
73. lxLon, u. , Pall, u. , Advanced Mud Pammer SysLems, uS uCL research program
(1997 - 2003)
74. Chahlne, C.L. , kalumuck, k.M. , lrederlck, C.S. , 8
Lh
Amerlcan WaLer !eL Conference
1993, paper 37
73. Schnelder, C. , Cralg, S. , CasLaneda, !.C. , CasLro, L. , SL 147138 (2011)
76. Malusa, M. , oleLLo, l. , Mlranda, l. , SocleLy of LxploraLlon CeophyslclsLs, uoc. lu
2003-2223 (2003)
77. Anchllya, A. , SL 100332 (2006)
78. 1erashl, M. , !uran, l. , paper for CeoLng (2000)

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
73

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
74

.6'@5)* EB Q);,83 ": ' KU -'* 5);5 4,*4=,5
E%A% Q);,83 4*,5)*,'
1he alm of Lhe sLudy ls, as menLloned ln ChapLer 1, Lhe deslgn and opLlmlzaLlon of a Lool
wlLh a free movlng body also referred Lo as vlbroCav Lool ln order Lo creaLe powerful
vlbraLlon as well as cavlLaLlon boLh aL aLmospherlc and aL elevaLed backpressure. An
lmporLanL aspecL ln Lhls conLexL ls Lhe lnvesLlgaLlon of Lhe dlfferenL Lool reglmes as funcLlon
of process condlLlons such as feed pressure, backpressure, flow raLe and Lool geomeLry.
AcLlve cavlLaLlon wlLh a vlbraLlng body can already be lnduced aL a lower flow raLe Lhan ls
needed Lo geL passlve cavlLaLlon wlLh a non-movlng body aL Lhe same backpressure and
when cavlLaLlon occurs ln comblnaLlon wlLh body vlbraLlon powerful shockwaves and fluld
[eLs are generaLed by Lhe lmploslon of a swarm of cavlLaLlonal bubbles.
1o creaLe reglons of low pressure nexL Lo Lhe body Lhe flow veloclLy of Lhe fluld has Lo be
hlgh, whlch requlres a large pressure drop over a small gap beLween Lhe body and Lhe plpe.
8ecause aL small gaps Lhe vlbraLlng body bounces agalnsL Lhe plpe wall, mechanlcal pressure
waves are creaLed llke hammer blows, resulLlng ln acousLlc shockwaves Lravelllng Lhrough
Lhe fluld LogeLher wlLh Lhe shorL range acousLlc shockwaves of lmplodlng cavlLaLlon bubbles.
ln case of passlve cavlLaLlon wlLh a sLlll body only shorL range acousLlc shockwaves happen.
AlLhough cavlLaLlon caused by movlng bodles has exLenslvely been menLloned ln llLeraLure,
and has frequenLly been encounLered ln pracLlce mosLly as an unwanLed phenomenon, Lools
LhaL use movlng bodles such as balls ln plpes wlLh small gaps beLween Lhe ball and Lhe plpe
wall are rarely descrlbed ln relaLlon Lo Lhelr vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon behavlour. MosL
llLeraLure on Lhls sub[ecL refers Lo research performed by karllkov eL al. [1-3] focusslng
malnly on vlbraLlon effecLs, and Lhls work LogeLher wlLh LhaL of lvannlkov eL al. [4] were
Laken as sLarLlng polnL for Lhls sLudy. lrom Lhe paLenL [4] a sLralghL plpe or Lube was
selecLed, ln mosL cases wlLh a ball as movlng body locaLed aL Lhe end of Lhe plpe. A sLralghL
plpe was prlmarlly chosen Lo avold compllcaLed hydrodynamlc condlLlons upsLream of Lhe
ball. 1he slze of Lhe equlpmenL descrlbed ln Lhe paLenL was aL an lndusLrlal scale Lo be used
for example ln cleanlng appllcaLlons for oll and waLer wells.
Cur 30 bar LesL clrculL was bullL Lo sLudy Lhe opLlmal worklng condlLlons of Lhe vlbraLlon and
cavlLaLlon devlce aL a convenlenL slze of Lhe LoLal seL-up, so Lhe clrculL was geomeLrlcally
scaled down by a facLor of 4.3 wlLh respecL Lo Lhe scale ln Lhe paLenL. 1he scale used by
karllkov [1-3] was even smaller Lhan LhaL ln Lhe 30 bar LesL clrculL. A parameLer LhaL was
kepL Lhe same as ln Lhe paLenL was Lhe percenLage of Lhe cross-secLlonal area of Lhe ball
dlvlded by Lhe cross-secLlonal area of Lhe plpe (hereafLer called Lhe blockage facLor) LhaL
should be aL leasL 80. A second parameLer LhaL was consldered essenLlal Lo be kepL slmllar
was Lhe 8eynolds number nexL Lo Lhe ball ln Lhe gap. 1hls 8eynolds number ls relaLed Lo Lhe
flow raLe ln Lhe plpe and Lhe slze of Lhe ball. 1he Lhlrd and fourLh parameLers LhaL puL
resLrlcLlons on Lhe flow raLe were Lhe cavlLaLlon number and pressure coefflclenL (see
Appendlx l).
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
73

E%C% O?@7"*'5"*1 6,86 @*);;=*) 5);5 4,*4=,5 ,3 D;;)3
1he lvannlkov paLenL [4] suggesLs LhaL acLlve cavlLaLlon would be feaslble wlLh
backpressures of even 300 bar wlLh Lhe clalmed meLhod because of Lhe waLer hammer
effecL ln Lhe fluld column upsLream and downsLream of Lhe ball. lL was Lherefore declded Lo
perform exploraLory LesLs wlLh a hlgh pressure LesL clrculL Lo sLudy Lhe maln characLerlsLlcs
of Lhe vlbraLor Lool.
A 7 m
3
LesL clrculL was bullL aL a locaLlon ln Assen, Lhe neLherlands, conslsLlng of a 330 bar
Lhree-plsLon plunger pump feedlng a LesL chamber and a LhroLLllng valve dlscharglng lnLo an
aLmospherlc sLorage and sucLlon Lank provlded wlLh a heaL exchanger. 1he sLalnless sLeel
LesL chamber had four clrcular glass vlewlng porLs of 40 mm dlameLer ln Lhe chamber wall
for vlsual observaLlon of Lhe ouLflow of Lhe Lool. 1he hlgh pressure parL of Lhe sysLem was
raLed aL 330 bar, Lhus, allowlng for 30 bar pressure drop over Lhe Lool, a backpressure of up
Lo 300 bar could be applled by regulaLlng Lhe pressure wlLh Lhe LhroLLllng valve downsLream
of Lhe LesL chamber.
1he LesL chamber accommodaLed a horlzonLal sLralghL sLalnless sLeel houslng conslsLlng of a
sLralghL plpe of 18.3 mm lnner dlameLer, and a Lool wlLh a sLeel ball. 8alls were used ln
varlous experlmenLs wlLh an lnlLlal dlameLer of 16.69 mm, 17.00 mm, 17.46 mm, 18.00 mm
or 18.26 mm Lo obLaln deslred blockage raLlos. uownsLream of Lhe ball a supporL was
aLLached Lo Lhe end of Lhe plpe Lo keep Lhe ball lnslde Lhe plpe and Lo allow Lhe ball Lo
roLaLe and vlbraLe freely ln Lhe flow. 1he flow Lhrough Lhe Lool was regulaLed aL values
beLween 3 and 18 m
3
/hr. 1he open sLorage vessel fllled wlLh waLer allowed enLralned
bubbles Lo elLher re-dlssolve or Lo ascend Lo Lhe llquld surface and Lhe fluld Lo be cooled.
lrom Lhe exploraLory experlmenLs performed ln Lhls LesL clrculL Lhe followlng was learned:
- 1he plunger pump dld noL provlde a sufflclenLly consLanL flow raLe, Lhls hampered
Lhe sLeady generaLlon of a plume of cavlLaLlon bubbles.
- All flve dlfferenLly slzed balls sLarLed Lo roLaLe and vlbraLe agalnsL Lhe lnslde wall of
Lhe plpe unLll aL hlgher flow raLes a plume of cavlLaLlon bubbles was formed.
- An observable plume of cavlLaLlon bubbles could be generaLed aL flow raLes beLween
6 and 7.2 m
3
/hr wlLh an 18.00 mm ball (see flgure 3.1) aL a backpressure of 1 Lo 23
bar.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
76

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
"
10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
C
4,56)% O879 :*)",5A* E&6+% => <"?,*"*,=# C6CC&%3 C%A,#@ *A% *==& >=) "# 7\8WW ++ C"&& 3,H% ,#
*A% !33%# *%3* <,)<6,* 3%%# *A)=65A *A% 5&"33 ?,%B,#5 E=)*38 0A% *==& ,3 E=3,*,=#%@ "* *A% ),5A*
A"#@ 3,@% => *A% B,#@=B BA%)% *A% E&6+% <=+%3 >)=+ B,*A " >&=B )"*% => Y +
O
À) F"G =) Q8M
+
O
À) FCG8
1he hlgh force exerLed on Lhe ball by Lhe flow and movemenL of Lhe ball caused deformaLlon
and mechanlcal wear damage aL Lhe boLLom area of Lhe ball and Lhe Lop of Lhe supporL (see
flgure 3.2). ln some LesLs Lhe damage was so severe LhaL movemenL of Lhe ball was
resLrlcLed Lo roLaLlon only. 1he largesL ball even broke lnLo Lwo halves along a plane from
Lhe boLLom up Lhrough Lhe cenLre. CavlLaLlon eroslon damage was observed on Lhe ball ln a
rlng [usL above Lhe boLLom area and aL boLh sldes of Lhe supporL (see flgure 3.2). Also Lhe
plpe wall showed a wear rlng aL Lhe narrow gap beLween Lhe ball and Lhe wall caused by
mechanlcal wear and posslbly cavlLaLlon eroslon.
Cavitation damage
Area of wear
10 mm
Cavitation damage
Area of wear
Cavitation damage
Area of wear
10 mm 10 mm
a
Cavitation damage
Area of wear
10 mm
Cavitation damage
Area of wear
Cavitation damage
Area of wear
10 mm 10 mm
b
4,56)% O8M9 V%") "#@ <"?,*"*,=# @"+"5% =# *A% 7\8X ++ C"&& F"G "#@ =# *A% 36EE=)* >=) *A%
7\8X ++ E,E%FCG8

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
77

- lL ls dlfflculL Lo malnLaln consLanL backpressure aL changlng flow raLes wlLh an open
sysLem, because Lhe LhroLLllng valve needed Lo be ad[usLed aL every change ln flow
raLe.
- 1he hlgh clrculL pressure requlres a loL of pumplng power LhaL converLs lnLo heaL LhaL
has Lo be removed by coollng. A closed sysLem where Lhe pumplng power ls only
used Lo provlde Lhe pressure drop over Lhe Lool would requlre much less energy.
- ulrL or corroslon parLlcles ln Lhe waLer may lnfluence Lhe cavlLaLlon behavlour
because of Lhelr poLenLlal Lo acL as nucleaLlon slLes.
- Cas bubbles already presenL ln Lhe waLer or purposely added may also acL as
nucleaLlon slLes. 8y ln[ecLlng small amounLs of nlLrogen gas lnLo Lhe sysLem aL
concenLraLlons below Lhe saLuraLlon level aL Lhe pressure condlLlons upsLream of Lhe
ball a cavlLaLlon plume could be provoked aL a hlgher backpressure Lhan wlLhouL gas
ln[ecLlon.
- ulsassembllng Lhe clrculL for changlng Lhe Lool was a cumbersome Lask and operaLlng
Lhe sysLem requlred a cerLlfled and experlenced hlgh pressure pumplng englneer.
1hls llmlLed Lhe amounL of LesLlng LhaL could be done, whlle lL became clear LhaL
more sysLemaLlc LesLlng was requlred for a proper analysls of Lhe behavlour of Lhe
Lool.

1he resulLs of Lhese exploraLory LesLs as well as Lhe deslgn crlLerla derlved from Lhe paLenL
of lvannlkov [4] were used for Lhe deslgn of Lhe 30 bar LesL clrculL.

E%E% Q);4*,@5,"3 ": 56) KU -'* 5);5 4,*4=,5
1he 30 bar LesL clrculL was deslgned for a verLlcal Lool and for up Lo 10 bar backpressure wlLh
LoLal fluld volume of 0.23 m
3
and a waLer column helghL of abouL 0.3 m above Lhe ball. 1he
backpressure was achleved by fluld clrculaLlon ln a closed sysLem LhaL could be pressurlzed
by an accumulaLor Lo a backpressure of up Lo 10 bar. 1o provlde a pressure drop of
maxlmally 40 bar over Lhe Lool Lwo cenLrlfugal pumps were lnsLalled ln serles. Pence Lhe
flow sysLem from Lhe pumps Lo Lhe upsLream slde of Lhe ball was deslgned for a worklng
pressure of 30 bar aL 110
o
C, belng Lhe maxlmum of Lhe backpressure plus Lhe maxlmum
pressure drop over Lhe Lool and Lhe flow sysLem up Lo Lhe Lool aL Lhe envlsaged maxlmum
LemperaLure of Lhe experlmenLs. A slmpllfled funcLlonal schemaLlc of Lhe LesL clrculL ls
presenLed ln flgure 3.3, a phoLograph ln flgure 3.4, and a drawlng ln flgure 3.3.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
78

Valve02
Valve01
l01
Gas injector
Pump P02 Pump P01
F1 Flow
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Accumulator
Coiled Coolers
Test
Chamber
VibroCav01
Hydraulic
cylinder
Hydraulic hand pump P03
Windows (3x)
PRV01
PRV02
VV01
Vent valve
P3
P2
P1
T3
T2
T1
Valve03
C01 C02
A01
F2 Flow
Valve02
Valve01
l01
Gas injector
Pump P02 Pump P01
F1 Flow
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Accumulator
Coiled Coolers
Test
Chamber
VibroCav01
Hydraulic
cylinder
Hydraulic hand pump P03
Windows (3x)
PRV01
PRV02
VV01
Vent valve
P3
P2
P1
T3
T2
T1
Valve03
C01 C02
A01
F2 Flow

nomenclaLure
AccumulaLor A01
8ypass valve valve01
Colled coolers C01, C02
llowmeLer l1
Cas ln[ecLor l01
Cas valve valve02
Pydraullc cyllnder Cyl01
Pydraullc pump 03
lnleL, ouLleL valve valve03
ressure rellef valves 8v01, 8v02
umps 01, 02
1esL chamber v01
venL valve vv01
vlbraLor/cavlLaLor vlbroCav01

4,56)% O8O9 46#<*,=#"& 3<A%+"*,< => *A% XW C") *%3* <,)<6,*

4,56)% O8T9 UA=*=5)"EA => *A% XW C") *%3* <,)<6,*

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
79

Valve02
F1
P1
P2
A01
Valve02
F1
P1
P2
A01

4,56)% O8X9 ])"B,#5 => *A% XW C") *%3* <,)<6,*

1he clrculL was fllled wlLh dlsLllled or Lap waLer. AL Lhe sLarL of an experlmenL Lhe chosen
backpressure for Lhe sysLem was obLalned by lncreaslng Lhe overall pressure ln Lhe clrculL
wlLh Lhe pressure accumulaLor A01 behlnd lnleL valve 03. 1o reach Lhe deslred pressure a
membrane ln Lhe accumulaLor was expanded wlLh pressurlzed nlLrogen. 1he helghL of Lhe
LesL chamber was 1.1 m. lL conLalned Lhe vlbraLlon Lool, Lwo arms wlLh sound sensors and an
addlLlonal supporL arm for e.g. a llghL source. 1he plpe and Lhree arms proLruded ln Lhe
chamber Lhrough leak LlghL peneLraLlons ln Lhe lld aL Lhe Lop of Lhe chamber. An auLomaLlc
venL valve vv01 was lnsLalled ln Lhe lld of Lhe LesL chamber Lo release gas accumulaLlons ln
Lhe Lop of Lhe chamber. 1he chamber boLLomed ouL lnLo Lwo colled Lube heaL exchangers
LhaL acLed as coolers Lo remove Lhe heaL generaLed durlng an experlmenL or as heaLers for
experlmenLs performed aL elevaLed LemperaLures.
1he LoLal volume of waLer ln Lhe clrculL was 0.23 m
3
provlde sufflclenL resldence Llme for alr
and sLaLlonary cavlLaLlon bubbles Lo elLher re-dlssolve or Lo assemble aL Lhe Lop of Lhe LesL
chamber, where gas bubbles can merge and leave Lhrough Lhe venL valve. ln experlmenLs
wlLh degassed waLer Lhe clrculL was fllled from a separaLe vacuum vessel vla lnleL valve 03.
lor experlmenLs wlLh nlLrogen gas addlLlon nlLrogen was ln[ecLed vla valve 02 Lhrough an
ln[ecLor l01, excess gas could also leave Lhe sysLem vla Lhe venL valve.
1hree glass vlewlng wlndows were mounLed ln Lhe verLlcal wall of Lhe LesL chamber, Lwo
opposlLe each oLher and a Lhlrd under 90 degrees. 1hese wlndows allowed Lhe boLLom parL
of Lhe ball and Lhe ouLflow of Lhe plpe Lo be lllumlnaLed, and Lhe movemenL of Lhe ball and
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
80

Lhe cavlLaLlonal evenLs Lo be observed. 1o record Lhe movemenL of Lhe ball a convenLlonal
halogen lamp was used as well as a cold llghL source or a sLroboscope. 1he llghL source was
poslLloned ouLslde Lhe vessel v01 or for Lhe cold llghL source wlLh a flexlble arm lnslde Lhe
vessel. hoLos or fllms were reglsLered wlLh a 6 M phoLo camera or a 640x480 fllm camera
or as deLalled ln ChapLer 6 wlLh hlgh speed cameras.
AL Lhe same helghL as Lhe lower end of Lhe Lool buL aL horlzonLal dlsLances of abouL 30 and
40 mm from Lhe cenLre of Lhe houslng, Lwo plezo-elecLrlcal sensors were mounLed on Lhe
sensor arms aLLached Lo Lhe lld of Lhe vessel. 1hese sensors recorded Lhe ampllLude and Lhe
frequency of Lhe acousLlc pressure waves, caused by mechanlcal vlbraLlon and by cavlLaLlon.
1wo cenLrlfugal pumps (Crundfos, C8n 10-21Sl, C8n 10-20) llned up ln serles, each wlLh a
power raLlng of 7.3 kW, dellvered flow ln Lhe clrculaLlon loop of up Lo 18 m
3
/hr aL low
pressure dlfferenLlal and 6 m
3
/hr aL a pressure drop over Lhe Lool of approxlmaLely 40 bar,
see flgure 3.6 for Lhe pump curve of Lhe comblned sysLem. A flow scheme ls glven ln flgure
3.7. Whlle Lhe pumps were operaLed aL consLanL power, Lhe flow raLe Lhrough Lhe loop was
regulaLed wlLh ball valve 01 poslLloned ln a bypass. 8ecause Lhe sucLlon pressure of Lhe flrsL
pump may reach 10 bar, and Lhe pumps ln serles were capable of lncreaslng Lhe pressure by
40 bar, Lhe worklng pressure of Lhe pumps and Lhe hlgh pressure parL of Lhe clrculL was 30
bar. 1he acLual flow raLe and pressure drop over Lhe Lool could be flne-Luned by closlng of
bypass valve valve01. 1he sysLem was proLecLed agalnsL over-pressurlsaLlon wlLh Lwo safeLy
release valves whlch were seL aL 10 and 30 bar for Lhe low and hlgh pressure parLs of Lhe
sysLem respecLlvely.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
81

4,56)% O8Y9 d)6#@>=3 ,#>=)+"*,=# => *A% E6+E <6)?% => XW C") *%3* <,)<6,*8 0A% E6+E
<=+C,#"*,=# 63%@ ,3 +")/%@ B,*A " )%@ C=K8

P01 P02
Valve
01
PRV01
C01 C02
V01
VV01
l01
PRV02
Gas
Vibro
Cav01
Gas
19 m3/H
10 bar
50 bar
V01
P03
Cyl01
A01
Valve02
Valve03
P01 P02
Valve
01
PRV01
C01 C02
V01
VV01
l01
PRV02
Gas
Vibro
Cav01
Gas
19 m3/H
10 bar
50 bar
V01
P03
Cyl01
A01
Valve02
Valve03

4,56)% O8Q9 4&=B 3<A%+% => *A% XW C") *%3* <,)<6,*8

1he vorLex flow meLers (Lndress + Pauser, rowlrl 72l) Lurned ouL noL Lo measure correcLly
when vlbraLlons occurred above 300 Pz wlLh a force beyond 1 g.

E%J% Q);4*,@5,"3 ": 56) /,-*'5,"3 '32 4'/,5'5,"3 5""7;

1he vlbroCav Lools deslgned Lo obLaln vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon conslsLed of a houslng wlLh a
freely movlng body lnslde. 1he body was axlally resLralned elLher by a boLLom supporL aL Lhe
end of Lhe houslng or by hanglng lL on a sLrlng or rod as drawn ln flgure 3.8. 1he body lLself
was mosLly a ball, buL ln one case a cyllndrlcal body was used, rounded aL Lhe Lop and wlLh a
reversed v-shaped lndenL aL Lhe boLLom LhaL could Lumble over an angle of a few degrees
across Lhe boLLom supporL (named 'fllp-flop'). 1he houslng was for flxed gap Lools a sLralghL
cyllndrlcal plpe, for Lhe hanglng ball also a conlcal houslng was used. 1he advanLage of a
conlcal houslng ls LhaL for one ball slze Lhe gap can be ad[usLed wlLhouL havlng Lo
dlsassemble Lhe Lool.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
82

Hanging
Support
Housing
Hanging
Support
Conical
housingpart
Housing
Housing
Bottom
Support
Hanging
Support
Housing
Hanging
Support
Housing
Hanging
Support
Conical
housingpart
Housing
Hanging
Support
Conical
housingpart
Housing
Housing
Bottom
Support
Housing
Bottom
Support

4,56)% O8\9 !&*%)#"*,?% 36EE=)*3 => *A% C=@D >=) "&*%)#"*,?% A=63,#539 3*)",5A* <D&,#@),<"&
A=63,#5 B,*A >,K%@ 5"E >=) " 5,?%# C"&& @,"+%*%) "#@ <=#,<"& A=63,#5 B,*A "@163*"C&% 5"E

lor Lhe flrsL seL of experlmenLs as descrlbed ln ChapLer 4 vlbraLlon Lools were used wlLh a
verLlcal cyllndrlcal plpe as houslng and a horlzonLal supporL aL Lhe end of Lhe plpe Lo resLraln
Lhe ball. 1he houslng was dlrecLly connecLed upsLream Lo a verLlcal plpe of Lhe same
dlameLer LhaL connecLed Lo Lhe horlzonLal Lublng above Lhe lld of Lhe LesL chamber. Cnly
one experlmenL was carrled ouL wlLh Lhe 'fllp-flop' Lool.
lor Lhe second seL of experlmenLs as descrlbed ln ChapLer 3 Lools were used wlLh a hanglng
ball ln elLher a cyllndrlcal or a conlcal houslng. 1he ball was aLLached wlLh elLher a flbre or a
bar Lo Lhe Lop of Lhe connecLlng sLeel rod or Lo a hydraullc cyllnder aL Lhe Lop LhaL could be
moved verLlcally wlLh a hydraullc hand pump 03. WlLh Lhls hydraullc cyllnder Lhe helghL of
Lhe ball lnslde Lhe conlcal houslng and hence Lhe gap could be remoLely ad[usLed.
1he properLles of Lhe varlous Lools are summarlzed ln Lable 3.1. 1he lnlLlal dlameLer of Lhe
body and Lhe houslng are presenLed here, because durlng Lhe experlmenLs Lhe dlameLers
may have changed sllghLly due Lo wear by Lhe lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe body and Lhe
houslng.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
83

lnlLlal ball dlameLer (mm) MaLerlal of ball
uenslLy (kg/m
3
)
lnlLlal dlameLer of Lhe
houslng (mm)
Cap raLlo
S
8lockage raLlo 8
16.67 Chrome SLeel 7830 18,30 0,110 0,811
17.00 Chrome SLeel 7830 18,30 0,088 0,844
17.00 x 40.00 fllp-flop Chrome SLeel 7830 18,30 0,088 0,844
17.46 Chrome SLeel 7830 18,30 0,039 0,891
17.46 Sl
3
n
4
3440 18,30 0,039 0,891
18.00 Chrome SLeel 7830 18,30 0,028 0,946
44.43 Chrome SLeel 7830 46,00 0,033 0,933
44.43* maxlmum clearance Chrome SLeel 7830 46,00 0.033 0.933
44.43* mlnlmum clearance Chrome SLeel 7830 44.30 0.001 0.998
44.43 nylon 1130 46,00 0,033 0,933
43.00 Chrome SLeel 7830 46,00 0,022 0,936

0"C&% O879 0==&39 *DE%3 "#@ 3,H%3 Fg <=#,<"& A=63,#5- 6#+")/%@ _ 3*)",5A* A=63,#5G

E%K% H):)*)34);
1. karllkov, v.., 8eznlchenko, n.1., Sholomovlch, C.l. lluld uynamlcs 33 (2000) 268 -
273.
2. karllkov, v.., 8eznlchenko, n.1., Sholomovlch, C.l. lluld uynamlcs 36 (2001) 623 -
639.
3. karllkov, v.., khomyakov, A.n., Sholomovlch, C.l. lluld uynamlcs 40 (2003) 783 -
789.
4. lvannlkov, v.l., lvannlkov, l.v., paLenL uS6703396

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
84

D@@)32,? >B ."#@'*,;"3 ": 5);5 4"32,5,"3;
1he followlng assumpLlons were made ln Lhe calculaLlons needed for comparlson of Lhe
Lools: (l) 1he llquld ls homogeneous, lncompresslble and frlcLlonless up Lo Lhe appearance of
cavlLaLlon and Lhe LemperaLure sLays consLanL, (ll) ConservaLlon of mass and momenLum
occurs, (lll) 1he dlfference ln helghL beLween Lhe waLer levels before and afLer Lhe ball ls
assumed Lo be negllglble, (lv) 1he ball ls sLandlng sLlll ln Lhe plpe ln a sLeady flow, (v) 1he
backpressure of Lhe LesL chamber equals Lhe pressure aL Lhe exlL of Lhe plpe, (vl) 1he flow
veloclLy lncreases gradually from Lhe veloclLy upsLream ln Lhe plpe Lo Lhe veloclLy ln Lhe gap.
uownsLream of Lhe gap Lhe sLreamllnes deflecL from Lhe ball.
lor Lhe calculaLlons of Lhe values ln Lable 3.2 below Lhe followlng deflnlLlons were used.
Cap raLlo S:
pipe ball
ball ball
d D
S
D D
o

= =
8lockage raLlo 8:
2
2
1
4
1
4
ball
ball
pipe
pipe
D
A
B
A
d
t
t
= =
veloclLy ln Lhe plpe v
plpe
:
pipe
pipe
Q
v
A
=
veloclLy ln Lhe gap v
gap
:
gap
gap pipe ball
Q Q
v
A A A
= =

ump pressure p
pump
:
2 2
1
2
pump water gap back
p v B p = +
ressure coefflclenL C
p
:
2
2
2
1
1
2
gap pump pipe
p
gap
water pipe
p p A
C
A
v
= =
CavlLaLlon number o:
2
1
2
pump vapor
water pipe
p p
v
o
=
CavlLaLlon wlll appear lf Lhe cavlLaLlon number o falls below -C
p
. AnoLher deflnlLlon
encounLered for Lhe appearance of cavlLaLlon ls LhaL Lhe cavlLaLlon number o dlvlded by Lhe
negaLlve pressure coefflclenL (C
p
) ls smaller Lhan 1.
new cavlLaLlon number o
number
:
number
p
C
o
o =

ln Lable 3.2. Lhe newly deflned cavlLaLlon number o
number
ls glven, whlch should be smaller
Lhan 1 for cavlLaLlon Lo appear.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
83

8eynolds number ln plpe 8e
plpe
: Re
water pipe pipe
pipe
water
v d
=
8eynolds number ln gap 8e
gap
: Re
water gap ball
gap
water
v D
=
Comparlson of Lhe 8e numbers, Lhe blockage raLlos and Lhe newly deflned cavlLaLlon
number of lvannlkov eL al. [4] and karllkov eL al. [1-3] wlLh Lhose of Lhe Lools used here
show LhaL for all Lhree parameLers Lhe values are lylng ln Lhe same range.

1esL condlLlon d
plpe
u
ball
S 8 llow raLe p
pump
o
number
8e
plpe
8e
gap
(mm) (mm)
(m
3
/h)
(bar)
x10
3
x10
3
lvannlkov
1
82.30 76.00 0.086 0.849 49.0 2.0 1.46 2.10 12.78
lvannlkov
2
63.00 60.00 0.030 0.907 60.0 14.6 0.89 3.37 34.31
lvannlkov
2
63.00 61.00 0.033 0.938 36.0 12.6 0.96 2.02 31.32
karllkov
3
13.70 12.00 0.308 0.384 3.4 1.6 1.11 1.22 2.23
karllkov
3
13.70 12.90 0.217 0.673 3.4 2.3 0.90 1.22 3.07
karllkov
3
13.70 13.70 0.146 0.761 2.7 1.7 1.42 6.08 2.22
Small Lool 18.30 16.67 0.110 0.812 12.0 13.3 0.73 2.29 10.99
Small Lool 18.30 17.00 0.088 0.844 10.0 16.7 0.78 1.91 11.29
Small Lool 18.30 17.46 0.039 0.891 7.0 18.3 0.83 1.34 11.38
Small Lool 18.30 18.00 0.028 0.947 3.3 21.7 0.94 0.67 12.21
Large Lool 46.00 44.43 0.033 0.934 18.0 10.0 0.97 1.38 20.18
Large Lool 46.00 43.00 0.022 0.937 14.0 14.6 0.99 1.08 24.49
Large Lool wlLh Lapered houslng
(h=20mm)*
44.30 44.43 0.001 0.998 1.0 32.3 1.03 0.08 33.33
(h=10mm)*
43.23 44.43 0.018 0.963 16.0 30.0 0.96 1.23 33.03
(h=0mm)*
46.00 44.43 0.033 0.934 18.0 10.0 0.97 1.38 20.18

0"C&% O8M9 N=+E"),3=# C%*B%%# *==&3 => 2?"##,/=?- c")&,/=? "#@ *==&3 63%@ ,# *A% XW C") *%3*
<,)<6,*
7
G 2?"##,/=? %* "&8 PTR-
M
G 2?"##,/=? E),?"*% <=++6#,<"*,=#-
O
G c")&,/=? %* "&8 P7OR8
gG A ,3 *A% A%,5A* => *A% C"&& ,# *A% A=63,#5 <=6#*,#5 >)=+ W ,> *A% +,@@&% &,#% => *A% C"&& ,3
E=3,*,=#%@ "* *A% C=**=+ %#@ => *A% A=63,#58
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
86

.6'@5)* JB .'/,5'5,"3 '32 /,-*'5,"3 -1 :7"M '7"38 ' -"55"# ;=@@"*5)2 -'77 ,3
' KU -'* 5);5 4,*4=,5
J%A% >35*"2=45,"3
1he behavlour of a body LhaL moves laLerally ln a plpe wlLh a narrow gap by passlng flow has
noL ln depLh been sLudled ln splLe of lLs conslderable lmporLance for many appllcaLlons. lL ls
known LhaL broad ranges of flow raLes exlsL for whlch self-exclLed vlbraLlon seLs ln LhaL can
be accompanled by bounclng of Lhe body agalnsL Lhe plpe wall. 1hese ranges shlfL for
dlfferenL body and fluld denslLles and for oLher varlables llke Lhe flow raLe, Lhe LoLal mass of
Lhe body, Lhe gap, Lhe fluld properLles and Lhe surroundlng pressure. 8ounclng of Lhe body
agalnsL Lhe plpe wall mosLly causes lnLense vlbraLlons and sLrong acousLlc waves LhaL
propagaLe ln Lhe surroundlng envlronmenL.
8ased on [1] and own observaLlon ln Lhe exploraLory Assen LesL clrculL, aL low flow raLes Lhe
body, mosLly a ball, may already sLarL roLaLlng around lLs axls, caused by vlscous drag and lf
approprlaLe by splralllng of non-recLlfled flow approachlng Lhe ball. AL hlgher flow raLes
vlbraLlon of Lhe ball ls lnduced prlmarlly by Lhe hlgh dynamlc pressure ln Lhe passage
beLween Lhe ball and Lhe wall of Lhe plpe and consequenL low sLaLlc pressure, resulLlng ln a
sLaLlc pressure dlfferenLlal across Lhe ball. lnsLablllLles ln Lhe flow around Lhe ball shlfL lLs
poslLlon off cenLre, and once Lhe ball moves lL ls forced Lo Lhe slde wlLh Lhe hlghesL flow
veloclLy. upon lLs movemenL Lhe passage opens on Lhe opposlLe slde, reverslng Lhe dlrecLlon
of force, Lhls alLernaLlng force resulLs ln self-exlLed osclllaLlon. A cerLaln mlnlmum flow raLe
ls requlred for vlbraLlon ln con[uncLlon wlLh bounclng of Lhe ball agalnsL Lhe plpe wall, Lhe
onseL of whlch ls slgnalled by an lncrease ln acousLlc nolse, parLlcularly for Lhe larger balls.
lor condensed flulds cavlLaLlon can be observed ln reglons of sLlll hlgher flow raLes due Lo
Lhe lncreased sLaLlc pressure drop ln Lhe gap, and lmplodlng cavlLaLlon bubbles are
LransporLed by Lhe flow along Lhe body. 1wo Lypes of cavlLaLlon can be dlsLlngulshed, so-
called acLlve cavlLaLlon where Lhe body vlbraLes and so-called passlve cavlLaLlon where Lhe
body sLands sLlll. AcLlve as well as passlve cavlLaLlon ls suppressed aL lncreaslng pressure
downsLream of Lhe Lool, Lhe so-called backpressure. When varylng Lhe flow and/or Lhe
backpressure dlfferenL reglmes of Lool behavlour and effecLs llke vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon
can be observed, such observaLlons are sLudled ln depLh ln Lhls chapLer.
1he LheoreLlcal flow raLe, aL whlch passlve cavlLaLlon seLs ln for a glven body and plpe
conflguraLlon, fluld properLles and backpressure can be esLlmaLed from Lhe cavlLaLlon
number o and Lhe pressure coefflclenL c
p
ln Lhe narrow gap beLween Lhe body and Lhe plpe
as for lnsLance descrlbed by 8rennen [2]. 1he LheoreLlcal flow raLe ln case of lnvlscld flow,
where passlve cavlLaLlon seLs ln for a glven gap and pressure dlfference over Lhe ball, can be
esLlmaLed from Lhe cavlLaLlon number:
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
87

2
1
2
pump vapor
water pipe
p p
v
o

= (4.1)
2
2
2
1
1
2
gap pump pipe
p
gap
water pipe
p p A
C
A
v
= = (4.2)
wlLh v
plpe
= flow raLe ln Lhe plpe upsLream of Lhe ball and p
gap
= pressure ln Lhe gap. lf o < -
C
p
passlve cavlLaLlon sLarLs. C
p
does noL depend on Lhe geomeLry of Lhe gap ln Lhe ldeal case
of an lnvlscld llquld.
AnoLher deflnlLlon for Lhe onseL of passlve cavlLaLlon ls LhaL Lhe cavlLaLlon number o dlvlded
by Lhe negaLlve pressure coefflclenL (C
p
) ls smaller Lhan 1.

number
p
C
o
o =
(4.3)
1hls newly deflned cavlLaLlon number deslgnaLed as o
number
ls used below. 1he flow raLe for
Lhe acLual onseL of passlve cavlLaLlon can dlffer subsLanLlally from Lhe LheoreLlcal value for
many reasons, such as vlscous effecLs, surface roughness of Lhe plpe wall and presence of
flne solld parLlcles or dlssolved gasses [1]. 1he flow raLe requlred for Lhe onseL of passlve
cavlLaLlon lncreases aL hlgher backpressure.
AcLlve cavlLaLlon can develop aL lower flow raLes for a vlbraLlng body, slnce an addlLlonal
dynamlc pressure and hence a lower sLaLlc pressure ls creaLed ln Lhe gap by Lhe waLer
hammer effecL [3]. 1hls addlLlonal sLaLlc pressure drop resulLs from Lhe laLeral movemenL of
Lhe body whlch parLlally shuLs off Lhe flow, and causes a local pressure drop of an
approxlmaLe magnlLude of:
v c P
water r waterhamme
A = A (4.4)
where c = speed of sound,
water

= denslLy of waLer and v A = lnsLanLaneous reducLlon ln flow
raLe.
1he flow raLe range where acLlve cavlLaLlon mlghL occur aL a glven backpressure ls a less
explored area. Slnce unsLable behavlour of Lhe surroundlng fluld deLermlnes Lhe flow
paLLern and Lhus when and how vlgorously Lhe body sLarLs vlbraLlng, Lhe flow raLe aL whlch
acLlve cavlLaLlon sLarLs ls prone Lo flucLuaLlons and lLs onseL can Lhus vary. 1he LranslLlon
from one reglme Lo anoLher can also show hysLeresls meanlng LhaL Lhe LranslLlon happens aL
anoLher value lf Lhe reglme ls enLered by lncreaslng or decreaslng Lhe flow or Lhe pressure.
uependlng on Lhe appllcaLlon, speclflc reglmes where elLher vlbraLlon or cavlLaLlon, or a
comblnaLlon of Lhe Lwo perslsLs can be persecuLed wlLh a parLlcular Lool.
1he osclllaLlng behavlour of a laLerally free movlng body ln an unbounded flow has for long
been sub[ecL of deLalled sLudy. ln unbounded flows sheddlng of vorLlces and vorLex wake
formaLlon behlnd a ball are mosLly descrlbed as Lhe cause for laLeral movemenL, see ChapLer
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
88

1. lor bounded flows however, and a gap raLlo S = /u
ball
= (d
plpe
- u
ball
)/ u
ball
, where u
ball
=
ball dlameLer and d
plpe
= lnLernal plpe dlameLer, below abouL 0.33, vlbraLlon ls more llkely Lo
be caused by Lhe low sLaLlc pressure due Lo Lhe hlgh dynamlc pressure ln Lhe gap. 1he
behavlour of a body for narrow gaps ln flow reglmes of lncreaslng veloclLy seems Lo be a
poorly explored area boLh aL aLmospherlc and aL hlgher amblenL pressures.
karllkov eL al. [1] sLudled Lhe acousLlc frequency wlLh laLerally self-exclLed vlbraLlon of balls
wlLh a narrow gap raLlo beLween 0.10 and 0.33 for a flow Lhrough a cyllndrlcal plpe flxed aL
Lhe upper end ln a masslve supporL. lnLense vlbraLlons of Lhe ball, made from plasLlc,
duralumln or brass, LogeLher wlLh bounclng of Lhe ball on Lhe lnLernal plpe wall were
observed. 1he boLLom of Lhe copper or sLeel plpe was lmmersed ln an open waLer Lank, so
Lhe backpressure was near-aLmospherlc. 1he ball was hanglng on a fllamenL LhaL allowed
laLeral movemenL of Lhe ball. 1he free lengLh of Lhe plpe was ad[usLed Lo obLaln resonance
beLween Lhe vlbraLlons of Lhe ball and Lhe free plpe ln order Lo obLaln accuraLe
measuremenLs of Lhe vlbraLlon frequency. A llnear relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe vlbraLlon
frequency of Lhe ball and Lhe flow raLe was found for Lhe flow range before Lhe onseL of
elLher acLlve or passlve cavlLaLlon.
karllkov eL al. presenLed Lhree plcLures of phenomena LhaL were observed ln Lhe flow [usL
below Lhe gap Lo lllusLraLe whaL happened close Lo and beyond Lhe onseL of cavlLaLlon aL
lncreaslngly hlgher flow raLes. 1he plpe wall was made of LransparenL plasLlc, so cavlLaLlon
could be vlsually observed. llrsL vorLlces were noLlced downsLream of Lhe narrow gap aL
hlgher flow raLes, followed by cavlLaLlon plumes emerglng alLernaLely on dlfferenL sldes of
Lhe vlbraLlng ball LhaL could be aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe generaLlon of acLlve cavlLaLlon. 1he Lhlrd
plcLure showed symmeLrlcal and Lherefore passlve cavlLaLlon. When passlve cavlLaLlon
sLarLed Lhe vlbraLlon sLopped. 1hls was ascrlbed Lo Lhe sLablllzlng effecL of Lhe symmeLrlcal
wake ln case of passlve cavlLaLlon.
1hus karllkov eL al. showed by observlng Lhe movemenL of Lhe ball durlng bounclng and by
analyslng Lhe plcLures LhaL Lhe followlng reglmes exlsLed aL lncreaslng flow raLes ln an open
sysLem, l.e. aL aLmospherlc backpressure: (l) a flow reglme wlLhouL or wlLh vlbraLlon of Lhe
ball, buL wlLhouL bounclng agalnsL Lhe plpe wall, (ll) a reglme wlLh vlbraLlon and bounclng
agalnsL Lhe plpe wall, (lll) a reglme wlLh vlbraLlon, bounclng and acLlve cavlLaLlon, and (lv) a
reglme wlLh no vlbraLlon and passlve cavlLaLlon.
A laLer paLenL by lvannlkov eL al. [4] focused on Lhe deslgn of Lools wlLh a laLerally free
movlng body ln Lhe flow ln a plpe Lo lmprove acLlve cavlLaLlon. A narrower gap raLlo of
maxlmally 0.118 was clalmed Lo be necessary Lo obLaln opLlmal acLlve cavlLaLlon. lL was
suggesLed LhaL cavlLaLlon could sLlll be obLalned aL very hlgh backpressures up Lo 300 bars
due Lo free LurbulenL vorLlces LhaL should be able Lo nucleaLe cavlLaLlon.
1he sLudy descrlbed ln Lhls chapLer focuses on Lhe ldenLlflcaLlon of Lhe vlbraLlon and
cavlLaLlon behavlour of boLLom supporLed laLerally free movlng bodles, mosLly balls of
varlous slzes and denslLles ln an aqueous flow Lhrough plpes of varlous dlameLers aL narrow
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
89

gaps accordlng Lo Lhe recommendaLlons ln Lhe lvannlkov paLenL. 1he behavlour was noL only
sLudled aL aLmospherlc pressure, buL aL backpressures up Lo 10 bar.
WhaL happens aL hlgher Lhan aLmospherlc backpressures ls mosL relevanL, slnce ln many
appllcaLlons vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon Lools should sLlll be funcLlonal aL hlgh amblenL
pressures as encounLered ln waLer and oll wells. Also Lhe role of Lhe waLer quallLy reflecLed
by Lhe presence of solld lmpurlLles, and of gasses presenL ln Lhe waLer on Lhe cavlLaLlon
behavlour wlll be shorLly addressed.

J%C% !""7 2);4*,@5,"3
1he lnvesLlgaLed Lools conslsLed of a free body ln a houslng shaped as a cyllndrlcal plpe of
abouL 30 cm lengLh wlLh an lnLernal dlameLer of 18.30 mm or 46.00 mm wlLh a narrow gap
beLween Lhe body and Lhe houslng. 1he body, malnly a ball, was supporLed by a horlzonLal
bar Lo prevenL axlal movemenL whlle fluld was pumped Lhrough Lhe plpe as shown ln flgure
4.1. 1he bar was aLLached Lo Lhe plpe wall aL Lhe very end of Lhe plpe. 1hls lmplles LhaL Lhe
ball was LoLally accommodaLed lnslde Lhe plpe and Lhe fluld behavlour ln Lhe gap lnvlslble Lo
Lhe eye unless Lhe effecL was sLrong enough Lo emerge from Lhe plpe.
Cnly one dlfferenLly shaped body was LesLed conslsLlng of a cyllnder, rounded aL Lhe Lop and
wlLh a reversed v-shaped lndenL aL Lhe boLLom LhaL could Lumble over an angle of a few
degrees across Lhe supporL, Lhls Lool was named 'fllp-flop' (see flgure 4.2).

FLOW
Ball
FLOW
Ball

FLOW FLOW

4,56)% T879 (=**=+ 36EE=)*%@ C"&& 4,56)% T8M9 (=**=+ 36EE=)*%@ J>&,E>&=EJ

1he slzes of Lhe balls are glven ln Lable 4.1 LogeLher wlLh Lhe nomlnal gap raLlos S = / u
ball
,
(where Lhe gap = d
plpe
- u
ball
), Lhe nomlnal blockage raLlos 8 = u
ball
2
/ d
plpe
2
, and Lhe
denslLles of Lhe balls. ln Lhe small plpe Lhe nomlnal gap raLlo varled beLween 0.039 and
0.110, whlle ln Lhe large plpe Lhe nomlnal gap raLlo varled beLween 0.022 and 0.033. noLe
LhaL aL Lhese narrow gap raLlos wear effecLs on Lhe plpe wall and Lhe ball have a sLrong
effecL on Lhe gap, Lhe Lerm nomlnal ls used Lo express LhaL Lhe sLaLed gap raLlo and blockage
raLlo are based on Lhe lnlLlal lnner dlameLer of Lhe houslng and Lhe lnlLlal dlameLer of Lhe
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
90

ball. MosL balls were made from chrome sLeel, one was made of nylon, one of uelrln, and
one of super hard and wear reslsLanL Sl
4
n
3
.

lnlLlal ball dlameLer (mm) MaLerlal of ball
uenslLy (kg/m
3
)
lnlLlal dlameLer of Lhe
houslng (mm)
Cap raLlo
S
8lockage raLlo 8
16.67 Chrome SLeel 7830 18,30 0,110 0,811
17.00 Chrome SLeel 7830 18,30 0,088 0,844
17.46 Chrome SLeel 7830 18,30 0,039 0,891
17.46 Sl
3
n
4
3440 18,30 0,039 0,891
18.00 Chrome SLeel 7830 18,30 0,028 0,946
44.43 Chrome SLeel 7830 46,00 0,033 0,933
44.43 nylon 1130 46,00 0,033 0,933
43.00 Chrome SLeel 7830 46,00 0,022 0,936

0"C&% T879 0==& 3E%<,>,<"*,=#3

J%E% Q);4*,@5,"3 ": )?@)*,#)35;
1he Lools were poslLloned ln Lhe 30 bar LesL clrculL descrlbed ln ChapLer 3, where Lhe fluld
flow was generaLed by Lwo cenLrlfugal pumps ln serles. 1he LoLal flow corresponded wlLh Lhe
operaLlonal pressure of Lhe pump accordlng Lo Lhe C curve of Lhe sysLem. arL of Lhe flow
wenL Lhrough a bypass and Lhe flow Lhrough Lhe Lool was changed by LhroLLllng Lhe bypass
flow. 1he pressure ln Lhe chamber downsLream of Lhe ball ln Lhe plpe, referred Lo as Lhe
backpressure, could be varled by changlng Lhe pressure ln an accumulaLor. 1he Lool lnleL
pressure Lhus equalled Lhe pump pressure mlnus Lhe dynamlc pressure loss beLween Lhe
pump and Lhe Lool whlch was very low due Lo Lhe large dlameLer of Lhe lnLerconnecLlng plpe
work. 1he pressure drop over Lhe Lool equalled Lhe Lool lnleL pressure mlnus Lhe
backpressure. Several serles of experlmenLs were performed uslng Lhe smaller and Lhe larger
balls ln elLher of Lhe Lwo plpes.
2# 3%),%3 7 Lhe flow raLe Lhrough Lhe Lool was flrsL lncreased sLepwlse from zero Lo lLs
maxlmal value aL a consLanL backpressure beLween 1 and 10 bars for 6 sLeel balls ln 2 plpes,
and subsequenLly decreased sLepwlse zero. 1he sound level was recorded conLlnuously.
2# 3%),%3 M Lhe flow raLe was lncreased sLepwlse aL an aLmospherlc backpressure from zero Lo
lLs maxlmal value for 6 sLeel balls ln 2 plpes, and aL maxlmal flow raLe Lhe backpressure was
flrsL gradually lncreased Lo lLs maxlmal value, and Lhen lowered agaln Llll aLmospherlc
pressure was reached. 1hereafLer Lhe flow raLe was decreased agaln sLepwlse aL
aLmospherlc backpressure. ln Lhese experlmenLs Lhe sound level was recorded.
2# 3%),%3 O Lhe waLer quallLy was changed ln a few experlmenLs wlLh a 17 mm ball slze and a
gap raLlo of 0.088 for comparlson wlLh experlmenLs done ln serles 2.
2# 3%),%3 4 nlLrogen gas was added ln 9 experlmenLs for comparlson wlLh experlmenLs done
ln serles 1.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
91

2# 3%),%3 X a Sl
4
n
3
ball ln Lhe small plpe and a nylon and a uelrln ball ln Lhe larger plpe were
used Lo perform experlmenLs equlvalenL Lo Lhose ln serles 2.
2# 3%),%3 Y a dlfferenLly shaped body deslgnaLed as 'fllp-flop' was used LhaL could only Lumble
a few degrees across Lhe horlzonLal supporL bar.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
92

J%J% H);=75; '32 2,;4=;;,"3
J%J%A% V)3)*'7 -)6'/,"=* ": -'77; ,3 ' :7"M :"* ' ;#'77 8'@
karllkov eL al. [1] already showed LhaL by lncreaslng Lhe flow raLe aL aLmospherlc
backpressure Lhe behavlour of Lhe ball changes from vlbraLlng wlLhouL cavlLaLlon Lhrough
vlbraLlng wlLh acLlve cavlLaLlon Lo no vlbraLlon wlLh passlve cavlLaLlon. vlbraLlon wlLhouL
bounclng only happens aL very low flow raLes and wlll noL exLenslvely be dlscussed here. 1he
expecLed LranslLlon from one reglme Lo anoLher ls skeLched ln flgure 4.3 for a glven gap slze.
1he parabollc shape of Lhe passlve cavlLaLlon boundary was deduced from Lhe behavlour of
a flxed orlflce where dynamlc pressure effecLs relaLed Lo Lhe square of fluld veloclLy are
domlnaLlng. 1he LranslLlon beLween vlbraLlon and acLlve cavlLaLlon was assumed Lo be a
sLralghL llne because lmpulse effecLs LhaL are proporLlonal Lo fluld veloclLy were expecLed Lo
be domlnaLlng. 1he verLlcal bold llne aL 0 barg represenLs Lhe range for experlmenLs done by
karllkov. 1he poslLlonlng of Lhe plcLures shown by karllkov eL al. [1] ls lndlcaLed by red sLars.
1he grey area shows Lhe domaln of Lhe experlmenLs of Lhls sLudy.
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

u
p

t
o

1
8

m
3
/
h
r
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure to 10 Barg
no vibration, no cavitation
Karlikov experiments
Karlikov
photos
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

u
p

t
o

1
8

m
3
/
h
r
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure to 10 Barg
Karlikov experiments
Karlikov
photos

4,56)% T8O9 hKE%<*%@ 5%#%),< )%5,+%3 "* @,>>%)%#* >&=B )"*%3 "#@ C"</E)%336)%3 >=) " 5,?%#
5"E 3,H%8 0A% 5)%D ")%" 3A=B3 *A% @=+",# => *A% %KE%),+%#*3 ,# NA"E*%)3 T- X "#@ Y8

lnLroducLory experlmenLs showed LhaL for a glven gap slze Lhe flow raLe aL whlch vlbraLlon
wlLh bounclng sLarLs ls falrly lndependenL of Lhe backpressure, buL ls sub[ecL Lo hysLeresls.
1hls means LhaL aL a cerLaln backpressure a hlgher flow raLe ls observed where Lhe ball sLarLs
bounclng (wlLhouL cavlLaLlon) aL lncreaslng flow raLe Lhan aL lLs reLurn Lo vlbraLlon wlLhouL
bounclng (called 'no vlbraLlon, no cavlLaLlon' ln flgure 4.3) aL decreaslng flow raLe. AL a
furLher lncrease of Lhe flow raLe Lhe vlbraLlng ball lnduces acLlve cavlLaLlon. AL hlgher
backpressures acLlve cavlLaLlon ls more dlfflculL Lo lnduce, so Lhe flow raLe requlred for
lncepLlon of Lhe reglme of acLlve cavlLaLlon ls larger.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
93

1he LranslLlon beLween vlbraLlon and acLlve cavlLaLlon dld noL show hysLeresls durlng Lhe
lnLroducLory experlmenLs. lL appeared LhaL under cerLaln condlLlons acLlve cavlLaLlon does
noL happen aL all, for example when Lhe waLer hammer effecL ls Loo small Lo conLrlbuLe
sufflclenLly Lo Lhe pressure drop ln Lhe gap. ln Lhe passlve cavlLaLlon reglme Lhe ball sLood
sLlll. 1he llne, where passlve cavlLaLlon sLarLs aL varlous backpressures, can for a ball sLandlng
sLlll ln Lhe cenLre of Lhe flow be calculaLed from Lhe cavlLaLlon number o
number
for each
ball/plpe comblnaLlon. 1he serles of experlmenLs dlscussed below are done Lo valldaLe and
furLher explore Lhe reglmes of dlfferenL ball behavlour as skeLched ln flgure 4.3.
J%J%C% H);=75; :"* ;#'77 -'77;
AlLhough Lhe experlmenLs of serles 1 were performed for all four small sLeel balls ln Lhe plpe
wlLh an lnlLlal dlameLer of 18.30 mm, only a few represenLaLlve resulLs wlll be presenLed
here Lo elucldaLe Lhe generlc relevanL flndlngs.
llgure 4.4.a presenLs Lhe flow raLe, Lhe pump pressure, Lhe backpressure and Lhe pressure
drop over Lhe ball versus Llme for a ball of 16.67 mm nomlnal dlameLer ln an 18.30 mm
nomlnal plpe, l.e. wlLh a gap raLlo of 0.11. 1he flow raLe ls flrsL lncreased ln sLeps, and Lhen
afLer reachlng Lhe maxlmal value decreased ln sLeps as a funcLlon of Llme aL a consLanL
backpressure of 3 barg. 1he sLeps up and down of Lhe flow raLe durlng Lhls experlmenL are
lndlcaLed ln flgure 4.4.b by verLlcal arrows. AL an lncreaslng flow raLe Lhe ball sLopped
vlbraLlng aL 17 mln and aL a correspondlng flow of 8.4m
3
/hr passlve cavlLaLlon seL ln. lor Lhls
ball and gap slze no acLlve cavlLaLlon bubbles were noLlced underneaLh Lhe plpe durlng
vlbraLlon aL a flow raLe below 8.4m
3
/hr. 1he occurrence of some acLlve cavlLaLlon can,
however, noL be LoLally excluded.
AL a furLher lncrease ln flow raLe Llll 11.9 m
3
/hr more passlve cavlLaLlon was observed. AL
decreaslng flow passlve cavlLaLlon sLops afLer 28 mln and Lhe ball resumes vlbraLlon aL 28
mln. 1he energy needed for vlbraLlon causes Lhe pump pressure Lo rlse afLer a Lemporary dlp
and causes Lhe flow raLe Lo decrease conslsLenLly wlLh Lhe C curve of Lhe pump. 1lll 40 mln
Lhe ball conLlnues Lo vlbraLe, and acLlve cavlLaLlon - lf Lhere was any - wenL unnoLlced. ln
some experlmenLs also a dlp ln pressure durlng Lhe lncrease ln flow raLe was ldenLlfled, LhaL
could be relaLed Lo ceaslng vlbraLlon of Lhe ball. ulsLurbance ln flow measuremenLs dlrecLly
aL Lhe sLarL and aL Lhe end of Lhe experlmenL can be aLLrlbuLed Lo low frequency vlbraLlon of
Lhe ball and aL Lhe very end wlLh a mlnlmal flow raLe Lo measuremenL errors.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
94

16.67 mm baII in 18.50 mm pipe
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 40:00 45:00
Flow (m/hr) Ppump (barg) Backpressure (barg)
Ptool (bar) Energy (kW)
Passive cav Vibration Vibration Act cav Act cav
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 40:00 45:00
Ptool (bar) Energy (kW)
Passive cav Vibration Vibration Act cav Act cav
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
active cav
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
active cav
b
4,56)% T8T9 "G 4&=B- E)%336)% "#@ %#%)5D @"*" ?%)363 *,+% >=) " C"&& => 7Y8YQ++ ,# "# 7\8XW
++ E,E% "* X C")5 C"</E)%336)%- CG U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38 0A% 3*),E%@ &,#%3
@%E,<* AD3*%)%3,3 @6),#5 *A% *)"#3,*,=# >)=+ =#% )%5,+% ,#*= *A% =*A%)8

lor Lwo balls of respecLlvely 16.67 mm and 17.00 mm ln a plpe of 18.30 mm dlameLer Lhe
mlnlmal flow raLe resulLlng ln passlve cavlLaLlon was ploLLed agalnsL Lhe backpressure (see
flgure 4.3.a), Lhls mlnlmal flow raLe lncreased from abouL 3.3 m
3
/hr aL 0 barg Lo abouL 11
m
3
/hr aL 8 barg, as cavlLaLlon was lncreaslngly suppressed by Lhe lncrease ln backpressure.
1he newly deflned cavlLaLlon number o
number
remalned pracLlcally consLanL wlLh ralslng
backpressure as was expecLed, buL was hlgher Lhan 1 (see flgure 4.3.b). asslve cavlLaLlon
was Lhus observed aL a lower flow raLe Lhan would be expecLed for lnvlscld flow [1]. So
apparenLly Lhe fluld used cannoL be LreaLed as ldeal and oLher effecLs such as sLrong local
Lurbulence, presence of alr and easy nucleaLlon due Lo Lhe presence of small parLlcles
appear Lo play a slgnlflcanL role.

MinimaIe fIow for passive cavitation versus backpressure
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
/
h
r
)

16,67 mm bal 17.00 mm ball
a
number versus backpressure
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,6
1,8
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)

n
u
m
b
e
r
16,67 mm bal 17.00 mm ball
number
b
4,56)% T8X9 "G .,#,+"& >&=B )"*% >=) E"33,?% <"?,*"*,=# "#@ CG
#6+C%)
?%)363 C"</E)%336)% >=)
E"33,?% <"?,*"*,=#8
1he mosL relevanL flndlngs for Lhe serles 2 experlmenLs performed wlLh Lhe four small sLeel
balls ln Lhe small plpe wlll be lllusLraLed for a 17.00 mm dlameLer sLeel ball ln an 18.30 mm
plpe. llgure 4.6.a shows Lhe flow raLes and pressure daLa as a funcLlon of Llme (lefL hand
verLlcal axls).
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
93

1he LoLal sound level ls ploLLed on Lhe rlghL hand verLlcal axls. llrsL Lhe flow raLe ls ralsed ln
sLeps aL 0 barg backpressure Llll Lhe maxlmal flow raLe ls reached aL 9 mlnuLes. AL very low
flow raLes and backpressure approxlmaLely beLween 1 mln and 2 mln and 37 Lo 39 mln
sLrong nolse lndlcaLes vlbraLlon, posslbly comblned wlLh cavlLaLlon. 1he presence of
cavlLaLlon aL Lhese low flow raLe condlLlons could however noL be vlsually conflrmed and ls
Lherefore lnferred from Lhe relaLlvely hlgh nolse level. AL Lhe maxlmal flow raLe passlve
cavlLaLlon ls observed. When afLer 12 mln Lhe backpressure ls gradually lncreased aL
maxlmal flow raLe also Lhe pressure upsLream of Lhe ball, Lhe pump pressure, lncreases. AL
hlgher backpressures less cavlLaLlon occurs aL Lhe same flow raLe. AL 7 barg backpressure
passlve cavlLaLlon dlsappears, and Lhe ball resumes vlbraLlon, causlng Lhe sound level Lo
lncrease. AfLer reachlng a backpressure of 9 barg Lhe backpressure was decreased and flnally
afLer reLurnlng Lo 0 barg Lhe flow raLe was lowered ln sLeps. 1he reglmes encounLered ln Lhls
experlmenL are lndlcaLed ln flgure 4.6.b.

17.00 mm baII in 18.50 mm pipe with rusty water
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
45,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 40:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
Ptool (bar) Energy (kW) Sound level (dB(c))
Passive cav Vibration Vib Passive cav Vib
17.00 mm baII in 18.50 mm pipe with rusty water
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
45,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 40:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure
active cav
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure
active cav
b
4,56)% T8Y9 "G 4&=B- E)%336)%- %#%)5D "#@ 3=6#@ @"*" ?%)363 *,+% >=) " 3*%%& C"&& => 7Q8WW
++ ,# "# 7\8XW ++ E,E%- CG U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38

1he pressure drop over Lhe Lool and Lhe maxlmal flow raLe aL lncreaslng backpressure are
shown ln flgure 4.7.a for varlous experlmenLs wlLh Lhe small balls ln Lhe 18.30 mm plpe
LogeLher wlLh slmllar graphs for experlmenLs wlLh waLer quallLles varylng from dlsLllled
waLer and Lap waLer Lo rusLy waLer and waLer conLalnlng flne parLlcles. 1he dlfferences
caused by varlaLlons ln waLer quallLy are relaLlvely mlnor. 1he pressure drop over Lhe ball
decreases from abouL 26.3 bar aL aLmospherlc pressure Llll abouL 23.8 bar aL 8 barg
backpressure. 1he correspondlng maxlmal flow raLe lncreases from abouL 10.3 m
3
/hr Llll 11.2
m
3
/hr as shown ln flgure 4.7.b. as should be expecLed from Lhe C behavlour of Lhe
cenLrlfugal pump sysLem of Lhe LesL seL up.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
96

Pressure drop over the tooI at maximum fIow rate versus
backpressure for a 17.00 mm baII in 18.50 mm pipe
23,0
24,0
25,0
26,0
27,0
28,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
p
t
o
o
l

(
b
a
r
)
rusty water clear tap water clear demineralized water water containing fine particles
Pressure drop over the tooI at maximum fIow rate versus
backpressure for a 17.00 mm baII in 18.50 mm pipe
23,0
24,0
25,0
26,0
27,0
28,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
p
t
o
o
l

(
b
a
r
)
a
maximum fIow rate versus backpressure for a 17.00 mm
baII in 18.50 mm pipe
9,8
10,0
10,2
10,4
10,6
10,8
11,0
11,2
11,4
11,6
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
backpressure (barg)
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
/
h
r
)
b
4,56)% T8Q9 "G U)%336)% @)=E =?%) *A% *==& "#@ CG +"K,+6+ >&=B )"*% ?%)363 C"</E)%336)% >=)
?"),=63 B"*%) ;6"&,*,%3 "* ,#<)%"3,#5 "#@ @%<)%"3,#5 C"</E)%336)%38

1he sound level already becomes as hlgh as 83 d8(C) aL low flow raLes. lL ls also hlgh aL
maxlmal flow raLe for backpressures beLween abouL 6 and 8 barg (see flgure 4.8). 1hls
counLs for experlmenLs wlLh dlfferenL waLer quallLles aL maxlmal flow raLe and lncreaslng
and decreaslng backpressure as shown ln flgure 4.8. ln all cases Lhe sound level rapldly
lncreases from 80 Lo 83 d8(C) when Lhe backpressure ls lncreased, and aL abouL 6 Llll 8 barg
Lhe sound level lncreases even more. 1he hlghesL sound level can only be explalned by
vlbraLlon and bounclng of Lhe ball agalnsL Lhe plpe wall. So above abouL 6 Llll 8 barg a
LranslLlon Lakes place from passlve lnLo vlbraLlon or acLlve cavlLaLlon. Lnergy calculaLlons
showed LhaL durlng an experlmenL Lhe energy spenL over Lhe Lool remalns abouL consLanL.
MosL fluld composlLlons show comparable behavlour, only Lhe LesL wlLh demlnerallsed
waLer shows earller and more vlolenL vlbraLlon, llkely comblned wlLh cavlLaLlon.

sound IeveI at maximum fIow rate versus backpressurefor a
75,0
80,0
85,0
90,0
95,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
s
o
u
n
d

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
b
(
c
)
)

4,56)% T8\9 :=6#@ &%?%& "5",#3* C"</E)%336)% "* +"K,+"& >&=B )"*% >=) ?"),=63 B"*%) ;6"&,*,%3
>=) ,#<)%"3,#5 "#@ @%<)%"3,#5 C"</E)%336)%38

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
97

ln serles 4 a mlnor sLream of nlLrogen was ln[ecLed lnLo Lhe sysLem Lo see wheLher Lhls
would provlde a larger cavlLaLlon plume. 1hls was done for a sLeel ball of 17.46 mm dlameLer
ln a plpe of 18.30 mm aL a flow raLe of 8.4 m
3
/hr, and a backpressure of 1.9 barg. llgure 4.9
shows, LhaL gas ln[ecLlon has llLLle vlsual effecL on Lhe cavlLaLlon cloud ln Lhls experlmenL.
1he lengLh of Lhe cavlLaLlon plume ln Lhe phoLos ls beLween 10 and 20 mm buL a much
longer plume of 100 Lo 200 mm ls vlslble Lo Lhe naked eye.

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
a
10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
b
4,56)% T8[9 N"?,*"*,=# B,*A=6* F"G =) B,*A FCG #,*)=5%# ,#1%<*,=#

llgure 4.10 shows Lhe resulLs of an experlmenL for a 17.46 mm Sl
3
n
4
ball ln Lhe 18.30 mm
plpe. 1he procedure was slmllar Lo a serles 2 experlmenL as presenLed above for a sLeel ball.
A mlnor flow of nlLrogen gas was ln[ecLed. When lncreaslng Lhe flow aL 0 barg Lhe ball
sLarLed Lo vlbraLe lmmedlaLely. 1he subsequenL lncrease ln nolse suggesLs LranslLlon Lo
acLlve cavlLaLlon followed by passlve cavlLaLlon aL 3 mln. upon an lncrease ln backpressure
aL maxlmum flow raLe, vlbraLlon wlLh vlolenL bounclng suddenly occurred. 1hls vlolenL
bounclng suddenly sLopped upon a decrease ln backpressure, buL bounclng seemed Lo re-
occur aL very low backpressure. 1hls experlmenL can LenLaLlvely be reconclled wlLh Lhe
LranslLlon Lhrough Lhe varlous reglmes shown ln flgure 4.10.b.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
98

17.46 mm Si3N4 ball in 18.50 mm pipe
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
45,0
00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 24:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
Act cav Act cav
17.46 mm Si3N4 ball in 18.50 mm pipe
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
45,0
00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 24:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
Act cav Act cav
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
active cav
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
active cav
b
4,56)% T87W9 a) 4&=B- E)%336)%- %#%)5D "#@ 3=6#@ @"*" ?%)363 *,+% >=) " :,
O
$
T
C"&& => 7Q8TY
++ ,# " 7\8XW ++ E,E% B,*A +,#=) #,*)=5%# ,#1%<*,=#- CG U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38

J%J%E H);=75; :"* 7'*8) -'77;
1he same Lype of experlmenLs as ln serles 1 and 2 were carrled ouL for larger balls ln a larger
plpe of 46.00 mm dlameLer wlLh even smaller gap raLlos. ln flgure 4.11 a serles 2 Lype
experlmenL ls presenLed for a 44.43 mm sLeel ball ln Lhe 46.00 mm plpe. AL 0 barg and
lncreaslng flow raLe Lhe ball sLarLs vlbraLlng wlLhouL cavlLaLlon, and aL hlgher flow raLe
probably wlLh mlnor acLlve cavlLaLlon LhaL wenL unnoLlced, unLll a reglme of lncreaslng
passlve cavlLaLlon ls enLered wlLhouL vlbraLlon of Lhe ball.
WlLh a large ball and a relaLlvely narrow gap sLrong passlve cavlLaLlon ls obLalned aL 0 barg
and maxlmal flow raLe. upon a conLlnuous lncrease ln backpressure a momenL ls reached
afLer abouL 18 mln where Lhe ball sLlll does noL vlbraLlon and no cavlLaLlon was observed.
1hls momenL ls lndlcaLed ln flgure 4.11.a by a plnk verLlcal llne. Soon however, Lhe ball
resumed lLs vlbraLlon accompanled by sLrong acLlve cavlLaLlon and a sLrong sound slgnal up
Lo 8 barg backpressure. When subsequenLly Lhe backpressure was reduced, acLlve cavlLaLlon
conLlnued unLll passlve cavlLaLlon occurred.
1he passage of Lhe 'no vlbraLlon, no cavlLaLlon' reglme wenL unnoLlced or was obscured by
Lhe hysLeresls effecL. upon Lhe sLepwlse lowerlng of Lhe flow raLe aL 0 barg passlve
cavlLaLlon was followed by vlbraLlon. MosL llkely Lhe amounL of acLlve cavlLaLlon was agaln
mlnor and wenL unnoLlced. 1he fllm record of Lhls experlmenL shows LhaL Lhere was no
vlbraLlon and no cavlLaLlon durlng Lhe 'plnk verLlcal llne' momenL. 1he LenLaLlve correlaLlon
of Lhls experlmenL wlLh Lhe varlous reglmes ls shown ln flgure 4.11.b. 1he acLlve cavlLaLlon
boundary llne ls an lnferred sLralghL llne flLLed wlLh Lhe LesL daLa prlmarlly on Lhe basls of Lhe
nolse measuremenLs and vlsual observaLlon of cavlLaLlon feaLures. 1he poslLlon of Lhls
LranslLlon llne varled for each experlmenL and may be lnfluenced by Lhe gas slze, however
Lhls aspecL was noL lnvesLlgaLed ln deLall.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
99

44.45 mm baII in 46.00 mm pipe with de-aerated water
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
Passive cav
Active cav Vib Vib
No Vib
Vib Active cavitation
Passive cav
Active cav Active cav
44.45 mm baII in 46.00 mm pipe with de-aerated water
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
Passive cav
Active cav Vib Vib
No Vib
Vib Active cavitation
Passive cav
Active cav Active cav
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
active cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
active cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
b
4,56)% T8779 "G 4&=B- E)%336)%- %#%)5D "#@ 3=6#@ @"*" ?%)363 *,+% >=) " 3*%%& C"&& => TT8TX
++ ,# " TY8WW ++ E,E%- CG U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38

1he sound level aL maxlmal flow raLe (see flgure 4.12) also lncreases wlLh Lhe backpressure
from abouL 77 d8(C) aL 0 barg up Lo 90 d8(C) aL 2.3 barg backpressure whlle Lhe ball sLands
sLlll wlLh passlve cavlLaLlon. uurlng Lhe dlp ln sound level from 2.3 Llll 3.6 barg, l.e. aL Lhe plnk
verLlcal llne momenL Lhe ball sLands sLlll wlLhouL cavlLaLlon. AfLer Lhls momenL Lhe ball sLarLs
vlbraLlon aL a sound level up Lo abouL 98 d8(C) from 3.6 Llll 9 barg. AfLer lnlLlaLlon of
vlbraLlon aL 3.6 barg acLlve cavlLaLlon was seen LhaL slowly dlmlnlshed aL lncreaslng
backpressure. upon a decrease ln backpressure Lhe reverse sound paLLern was seen, only
Lhe dlp ls mlsslng.

Sound IeveI at maximum fIow at increasing backpressure for
a 44.45 mm baII in a 46.00 mm pipe
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
S
o
u
n
d

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
(
c
)
)
De-aereted rusty water De-aereted water 1 De-aereted water 1 with N2
De-aereted water 2 De-aereted water 2 with N2
Sound IeveI at maximum fIow at increasing backpressure for
a 44.45 mm baII in a 46.00 mm pipe
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
S
o
u
n
d

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
(
c
)
)
a
Sound IeveI at maximum fIow at decreasing backpressure
for a 44.45 mm baII in a 46.00 mm pipe
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
S
o
u
n
d

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
(
c
)
)
Sound IeveI at maximum fIow at decreasing backpressure
for a 44.45 mm baII in a 46.00 mm pipe
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
S
o
u
n
d

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
(
c
)
)
b
4,56)% T87M9 :=6#@ &%?%& >=) " TT8TX ++ C"&& ,# " TY8WW ++ E,E% "* +"K,+"& >&=B )"*% "G "*
,#<)%"3,#5 "#@ CG "* @%<)%"3,#5 C"</E)%336)%8

1he energy consumed by Lhe Lool can be calculaLed from Lhe pressure drop over Lhe Lool
Llmes Lhe flow raLe. llgure 4.13.a shows LhaL Lhls energy decreases aL maxlmal flow raLe and
lncreaslng backpressure up Lo 3.8 barg for experlmenLs wlLh Lhe 44.43 mm ball ln Lhe 46.00
mm plpe wlLhouL and wlLh nlLrogen gas ln[ecLlon. AL 3.8 barg backpressure Lhe ball sLarLs
vlbraLlng wlLh acLlve cavlLaLlon whlch caused a [ump ln energy consumed by Lhe Lool. When
Lhe backpressure ls decreased agaln as shown ln flgure 4.13.b Lhe energy dlp ls much less
pronounced - [usL as Lhe dlp ln sound level - aL Lhe LranslLlon from acLlve Lo passlve
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
100

cavlLaLlon and occurs aL a lower backpressure. 1he energy consumpLlon furLher decreases
gradually.

Energy spent in the tooI at maximum fIow at increasing
backpressure for a 44.45 mm baII in a 46.00 mm pipe
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
E
n
e
r
g
y

(
k
W
)
Energy spent in the tooI at maximum fIow at increasing
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
E
n
e
r
g
y

(
k
W
)
a
Energy spent in the tooI at maximum fIow at decreasing
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
E
n
e
r
g
y

(
k
W
)
Energy spent in the tooI at maximum fIow at decreasing
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
Backpressure (barg)
E
n
e
r
g
y

(
k
W
)
b
4,56)% T87O9 h#%)5D 3E%#* ,# *A% *==& >=) *A% TT8TX ++ C"&& ,# *A% TY8WW ++ E,E% "* +"K,+"&
>&=B )"*% "#@ "G "* ,#<)%"3,#5 "#@ CG "* @%<)%"3,#5 C"</E)%336)% >=) ?"),=63 *DE%3 => B"*%)8

lrom flgure 4.13 also Lhe paLLern of energy spenL over Lhe Lool aL lncreaslng and decreaslng
backpressure can be esLlmaLed. 1hls ls schemaLlcally done ln flgure 4.14, where Lhe
LranslLlon Lhrough Lhe dlfferenL reglmes ls also lndlcaLed. 1he energy spenL over Lhe Lool ls a
beLLer measure Lhan Lhe pressure drop, because for a cenLrlfugal pump Lhe maxlmal flow
depends on Lhe pressure drop vla Lhe C relaLlonshlp. lf Lhe backpressure ls lncreased aL
maxlmal flow from aLmospherlc, passlve cavlLaLlon ls vlslble Lo polnL 8. AL polnL C Lhe
reglme of 'no vlbraLlon, no cavlLaLlon' swlLches Lo 'vlbraLlon, acLlve cavlLaLlon'. 1he energy
spenL over Lhe Lool suddenly [umps up Lo provlde Lhe energy needed for vlbraLlon. lf Lhe
backpressure ls furLher lncreased, acLlve cavlLaLlon ls dlmlnlshed and more energy ls
consumed by Lhe Lool for vlbraLlon. AL polnL u acLlve cavlLaLlon ls compleLely suppressed
resulLlng ln a 'vlbraLlon only' reglme. When Lhe backpressure ls agaln decreased acLlve
cavlLaLlon re-sLarLs aL polnL u and survlves aL a backpressure much lower Lhan LhaL
correspondlng wlLh polnL C, unLll Lhe passlve cavlLaLlon energy level ls approached aL polnL l.
1hls behavlour ls furLher evldence of slgnlflcanL hysLeresls.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
101

E
n
e
r
g
y

s
p
e
n
d

o
v
e
r

t
o
o
l
0
barg
Backpressure
Hysteresis
No Vib Active cavitation Passive cav Vibration
Active cavitation Passive cav Vibration
B
A
D
C
F
E
E
n
e
r
g
y

s
p
e
n
t

o
v
e
r

t
o
o
l
E
n
e
r
g
y

s
p
e
n
d

o
v
e
r

t
o
o
l
0
barg
Backpressure
Hysteresis
No Vib Active cavitation Passive cav Vibration
Active cavitation Passive cav Vibration
B
A
D
C
F
E
E
n
e
r
g
y

s
p
e
n
t

o
v
e
r

t
o
o
l

4,56)% T87T9 :<A%+% => *A% %#%)5D 3E%#* =?%) *A% *==& B,*A " TT8TX ++ C"&& ,# *A% TY8WW ++
E,E% "5",#3* *A% C"</E)%336)% "* +"K,+"& >&=B )"*%8

Comparlng flgure 4.6. for a small sLeel ball wlLh a gap of 1.300 mm wlLh flgure 4.11. for a
large sLeel ball wlLh a gap of 1.430 mm demonsLraLes LhaL Lhe vlbraLlon effecLs of Lhe large
sLeel ball are much more pronounced. 1hls lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe vlbraLlon energy lncreases wlLh
Lhe ball slze for balls wlLh Lhe same speclflc gravlLy and comparable gap slze. Comparlng
flgure 4.10. for a relaLlvely llghLwelghL small Sl
3
n
4
ball wlLh a gap of 1.040 mm wlLh flgure 4.6
for a small sLeel ball wlLh a gap of 1.300 mm shows a hlgher sound level Lhan for Lhe
llghLwelghL ball ln splLe of a smaller gap, whlch lllusLraLes LhaL ball mass and Lravel dlsLance
are only Lwo parameLers of a complex behavlour of Lhe Lools.
J%J%J% W17"3 '32 Q)7*,3 -'77;
A serles 2 experlmenL was also performed for a nylon ball wlLh a 44.43 mm dlameLer. 1he
resulLs presenLed ln flgure 4.13 reveal LhaL when Lhe flow raLe ls lncreased ln sLeps aL 0 barg,
Lhe ball sLops vlbraLlng lf Lhe flow exceeds 13 m
3
/hr and passlve cavlLaLlon sLarLs. 1hls flow
reglme of passlve cavlLaLlon can be more clearly seen for Lhe nylon ball from Lhe lowerlng ln
sound level Lhan for Lhe sLeel balls. 1he sound level lncreases agaln when aL full flow and
gradually lncreaslng backpressure Lhe ball resumes vlbraLlon mosL llkely wlLh acLlve
cavlLaLlon aL 12 mln. 1hls conLlnues unLll Lhe backpressure was reversed and Lhe experlmenL
was sLopped premaLurely aL 7.3 barg by closlng of Lhe flow because Lhe nylon ball became
Loo much damaged as seen ln flgure 4.16. 1hls also demonsLraLes Lhe large pressure exerLed
by Lhe flow on Lhe ball aggravaLed by Lhe waLer hammer effecL durlng acLlve cavlLaLlon. 1he
damage caused by bounclng agalnsL Lhe lnLernal wall of Lhe plpe ls also seen as an eroded
rlng around Lhe ball (see flgure 4.16.b.)

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
102

44.45 mm NyIon baI in 46.00 mm pipe
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
Act cav Vibration Active cavitation
No Vib
Pas cav
44.45 mm NyIon baI in 46.00 mm pipe
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
Act cav Vibration Active cavitation
No Vib
Pas cav
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
active cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
active cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
b
4,56)% T87X9 "G 4&=B- E)%336)% "#@ 3=6#@ @"*" ?%)363 *,+% >=) " $D&=# C"&& => TT8TX ++ ,# "
TY8WW ++ E,E%- CG U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
a
10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
b
10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
c
4,56)% T87Y9 ]"+"5%@ $D&=# C"&& => TT8TX ++8

A serles 2 experlmenL wlLh a 44.43 mm uelrln ball shows slmllar resulLs alLhough Lhe passlve
cavlLaLlon reglme observable around 13 mln where Lhe sound level suddenly drops, ls much
less pronounced Lhan wlLh Lhe nylon ball and ls already flnlshed before Lhe backpressure ls
lncreased (see flgure 4.17). ln plcLure 4.18.a a large cavlLaLlon cloud ls vlslble aL Lhe lefL hand
slde underneaLh Lhe plpe afLer 13.19 mln, and ln plcLure 4.18.b a smaller cloud aL Lhe rlghL
hand slde wlLh a less dense cloud as a re-bounce aL Lhe lefL hand slde. ln plcLure 4.18.c slx
seconds laLer aL 13:31 mln Lhe re-bounces are even beLLer vlslble. 1hls experlmenL was also
sLopped aL 3 barg backpressure because of damage of Lhe ball. 1he acLlve cavlLaLlon plumes
seen ln Lhls experlmenL were very sLrong ln comparlson Lo Lhose ln oLher experlmenLs ln
splLe of Lhe facL LhaL Lhe supporL damaged Lhe uelrln maLerlal.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
103

44.45 mm DeIrin baI in 46.00 mm pipe
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
Flow (m/h) Ppump (barg) Backpressure (barg)
Active cavitation Vibration
44.45 mm DeIrin baI in 46.00 mm pipe
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
Flow (m/h) Ppump (barg) Backpressure (barg)
Active cavitation Vibration
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
active cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
active cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
b
4,56)% T87Q9 "G 4&=B- E)%336)% "#@ @"*" ?%)363 *,+% >=) " ]%&),# C"&& => TT8TX ++ ,# " TY8WW
++ E,E% CG U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
a
10 mm
Rebounce
10 mm 10 mm
Rebounce
b
10 mm
Rebounce
10 mm 10 mm
Rebounce
c
4,56)% T87\9 !<*,?% <"?,*"*,=# <&=6@3 C%&=B *A% ]%&),# C"&& "* " >&=B )"*% => 7X8\+
O
À) ">*%)
7O97[- 7O9MX "#@ 7O9O7+,# 3A=B,#5 )%C=6#<% >%"*6)%38

J%K% !""7 M)'*
1he experlmenLs wlLh nylon and uelrln balls exempllfy LhaL Lhe forces on Lhe ball and
supporL are very hlgh and for weaker maLerlals desLrucLlve. 1he conLacL of a ball wlLh a flaL
surface qulckly leads Lo sLresses beyond elasLlc llmlLs. ln general lL was found LhaL lf Lhe
supporL was made of sofLer maLerlal Lhan Lhe ball, Lhe supporL would plasLlcally deform and
form a seaL by beddlng ln of Lhe ball. lf Lhe ball was sofLer Lhan Lhe supporL Lhe ball would
flaLLen. AlLhough a supporL below Lhe ball ls a very slmple consLrucLlon, care musL be Laken
ln Lhe deslgn of Lhe ball and supporL LhaL no sLresses occur beyond elasLlc llmlLs, and LhaL
preferably wear reslsLanL maLerlals should be selecLed.
lor sLeel balls an eroded rlng around Lhe ball and a rlng abraded ln Lhe lnslde plpe wall can
be noLlced afLer a whlle. 1he ball roLaLes axlally ln Lhe plpe and reflecLs agalnsL Lhe wall aL
every bounce, resulLlng ln slgnlflcanL frlcLlon beLween Lhe ball and Lhe plpe wall. Agaln lf Lhe
maLerlal of Lhe wall ls sofLer Lhan Lhe ball a rlng of wear develops ln Lhe wall and ln Lhe
reverse case Lhe ball mosLly shows wear as ln Lhe case of Lhe nylon ball (see flgure 4.16).
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
104

lL ls sLrlklng LhaL Lhe ball, aparL from slgnlflcanL roLaLlon around a more or less verLlcal axls,
does noL roLaLe around any oLher dlrecLlon. ln a verLlcal poslLlon of Lhe Lool apparenLly no
forces develop for 'non axlal' roLaLlon, oLher aLLlLudes of Lhe Lool have noL been
lnvesLlgaLed.
J%R% F7,@:7"@
1he cyllndrlcal body (see flgure 4.2), rounded aL Lhe Lop and wlLh a reversed v-shaped lndenL
aL Lhe boLLom LhaL could Lumble over an angle of a few degrees across Lhe supporL, had Lhe
Lendency Lo remaln sLaLlc ln Lhe flow. ln rare cases when lL sLarLed Lo osclllaLe acLlve
cavlLaLlon was seen and alLernaLely a verLlcal row of cavlLaLlon clouds were formed on elLher
slde. 1hls ls shown ln flgure 4.19. for aLmospherlc backpressure and a maxlmal flow of
11.2m
3
/hr.

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% T87[9 !<*,?% <"?,*"*,=# >=) *A% >&,E>&=E => TX8WW++ @,"+%*%) "* W C")5 "#@ " >&=B =>
778M+
O
À)8
As Lhe fllp-flop was less successful ln generaLlng acLlve cavlLaLlon Lhan expecLed,
experlmenLs were sLopped afLer a few lnlLlal Lrlals.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
103

J%T% ."347=;,"3;
- ln Lhls sLudy Lhe vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon behavlour of a supporLed body freely
movlng ln laLeral dlrecLlons by Lhe flow ln a plpe was sLudled as a funcLlon of Lhe flow
raLe and Lhe amblenL or backpressure aL varlous narrow gap slzes. 1he bounclng of
Lhe body, mosLly a ball made of sLeel, nylon or uelrln, agalnsL Lhe lnLernal wall of Lhe
sLeel plpe lnduced vlbraLlon of Lhe plpe wall. lor a glven ball slze, ball maLerlal and
gap raLlo Lhe occurrence of vlbraLlon wlLh or wlLhouL cavlLaLlon or merely of
cavlLaLlon depended on Lhe flow raLe and Lhe backpressure.
- CavlLaLlon caused clouds of lmplodlng bubbles downsLream of Lhe ball. CavlLaLlon
could be elLher acLlve cavlLaLlon lf Lhe vlbraLlon of Lhe ball conLrlbuLed Lhrough a
waLer hammer effecL Lo Lhe sLaLlc pressure drop ln Lhe gap, or passlve cavlLaLlon lf
Lhe flow raLe ln Lhe gap sufflced Lo lower Lhe sLaLlc pressure below Lhe vapour
pressure of Lhe llquld. ln case of passlve cavlLaLlon Lhe ball sLood sLlll. lor acLlve
cavlLaLlon clouds of bubbles were formed aL elLher slde of Lhe ball, whlle for passlve
cavlLaLlon Lhe bubbles developed symmeLrlcally around Lhe ball. 8ecause Lhe ball was
LoLally accommodaLed lnslde Lhe plpe, cavlLaLlon could only be observed lf Lhe
passlng flow LransporLed Lhe bubbles ouL of Lhe plpe.
- AL a glven backpressure acLlve cavlLaLlon could be lnduced aL lower flow raLes Lhan
passlve cavlLaLlon. 8oLh acLlve cavlLaLlon and passlve cavlLaLlon were suppressed aL
hlgher backpressures. CavlLaLlon could however be achleved wlLhln Lhe llmlLs of Lhls
30 bar LesL clrculL up Lo abouL 10 bar. vlbraLlon of Lhe ball could be achleved up Lo
Lhe maxlmal reachable backpressures of 10 bar aL relaLlvely low flow raLes.
- AL a glven gap slze and backpressure varlous reglmes were observed aL lncreaslng
flow raLes: (l) no vlbraLlon and no cavlLaLlon aL very low flow raLes, (ll) vlbraLlon wlLh
bounclng buL wlLhouL cavlLaLlon aL hlgher flow raLes, (lll) vlbraLlon wlLh bounclng and
acLlve cavlLaLlon and (lv) aL sLlll hlgher flow raLes passlve cavlLaLlon wlLhouL vlbraLlon.
1he flow raLes needed Lo achleve acLlve and passlve cavlLaLlon lncrease subsLanLlally
aL hlgher backpressures. SlgnlflcanL hysLeresls ls seen aL all LranslLlons beLween
reglmes where Lhe ball behavlour changes from no vlbraLlon lnLo vlbraLlon or vlsa
versa.
- 1he vlbraLlon energy lncreases wlLh Lhe ball slze for balls wlLh Lhe same speclflc
gravlLy and comparable gap slze. 1he energy ls also larger for heavler balls of Lhe
same slze.
- 8ecause of Lhe sLrong force exerLed by Lhe flow, Lhe waLer hammer effecL on Lhe ball
and Lhe roLaLlon of Lhe ball around lLs verLlcal axls, elLher Lhe boLLom area of Lhe ball
ls flaLLened or Lhe supporL bar ls deformed by sLresses beyond Lhe elasLlc llmlLs of Lhe
maLerlal and by wear. llaLLenlng of Lhe ball and/or deformaLlon of Lhe supporL
hamper free movemenL of Lhe ball ln Lhe flow. lor weaker ball maLerlals as nylon or
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
106

uelrln Lhe boLLom of Lhe ball even showed an lndenL from Lhe supporL. 8ounclng of
Lhe ball agalnsL Lhe lnLernal plpe wall durlng vlbraLlon caused a rlng of wear elLher on
Lhe wall or Lhe ball or boLh.
- SupporLed bodles hamper an early observaLlon of elLher acLlve or passlve cavlLaLlon.
A body such as a ball hanglng on a fllamenL ls Lherefore beLLer sulLed, especlally
when Lhe boLLom end of Lhe ball ls hanglng [usL lnslde or sllghLly ouLslde of Lhe plpe.

J%X% H):)*)34);
1. karllkov, v. , 8echlchenko, n.1. , Sholomovlch, C.l. , lluld uynamlcs, vol. 33, no 2
(2000)
2. 8rennen, C.L. , Cxfd unl ress (1993)
3. lranzlnl, !.8., llnnemore, L.!., ChapLer 12 ln lluld Mechanlcs wlLh Lnglneerlng
appllcaLlons", 9
Lh
ed. 1997, McCraw-Plll
4. lvannlkov, v.l. , lvannlkov, l.v. , aLenL uS 6703396 (2004)aLenL lvannlkov

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
107

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
108

.6'@5)* KB .'/,5'5,"3 '32 /,-*'5,"3 -1 :7"M '7"38 ' 6'38,38 -'77 ,3 ' 4"3,4'7
6"=;,38 ,3 ' KU -'* 5);5 4,*4=,5
K%A% >35*"2=45,"3
ln ChapLer 4 Lhe behavlour of a supporLed ball LhaL can move laLerally by Lhe passlng flow ln
a sLralghL verLlcal plpe wlLh a narrow gap beLween Lhe ball and Lhe plpe wall was sLudled.
1hls was done for balls of varlous slzes and denslLles aL dlfferenL downsLream pressures ln
Lhe chamber downsLream of Lhe plpe. 1he sLudy was focused on Lhe ldenLlflcaLlon of
reglmes where upon a change ln behavlour of Lhe ball dlfferenL physlcal phenomena such as
vlbraLlon/bounclng of Lhe ball - wlLh or wlLhouL cavlLaLlon - occurred LhaL could supporL
dlfferenL appllcaLlons.
lL was observed LhaL a cerLaln mlnlmal flow raLe ls requlred Lo lnduce vlbraLlon of Lhe ball ln
con[uncLlon wlLh lLs bounclng agalnsL Lhe plpe wall, Lhe onseL of whlch ls slgnalled by a
sLrong lncrease ln acousLlc sound. 1he colllslons of Lhe ball wlLh Lhe plpe cause vlbraLlons ln
Lhe plpe wall. lrom Lhe Lool pressure waves are Lhen emlLLed lnLo Lhe surroundlng llquld.
lor condensed flulds cavlLaLlon can be observed ln reglons of hlgher flow raLes due Lo Lhe
lncreased pressure drop ln Lhe gap nexL Lo Lhe ball, and lmplodlng cavlLaLlon bubbles are
LransporLed by Lhe flow downsLream of Lhe gap. 1wo Lypes of cavlLaLlon can be
dlsLlngulshed, so-called acLlve cavlLaLlon where Lhe body vlbraLes ln Lhe plpe and so-called
passlve cavlLaLlon where Lhe body sLands sLlll.
1he reglmes wlLh acLlve and wlLh passlve cavlLaLlon are lndlcaLed ln flgure 3.1 LhaL ls
composed from observaLlons made ln ChapLer 4. lor passlve cavlLaLlon Lhe flow raLe musL
sufflce Lo decrease Lhe sLaLlc pressure ln Lhe gap below Lhe vapour pressure of Lhe llquld.
CavlLaLlon bubbles wlll Lhen nucleaLe and grow ln Lhe gap durlng Lhelr furLher LransporL. lor
acLlve cavlLaLlon Lhe pressure drop ln Lhe gap ls parLlally provlded by a waLer hammer effecL
caused by vlbraLlon of Lhe body. 8y bounclng agalnsL Lhe wall Lhe body frequenLly cuLs off
parL of Lhe flow sLream.
lrom Lhe reglme charL ln flgure 3.1 lL can be seen LhaL Lhe LranslLlon llne for passlve
cavlLaLlon follows a parabollc relaLlonshlp as Lhe lncrease ln dynamlc pressure requlred Lo
lower Lhe sLaLlc pressure below vapour pressure relaLes Lo Lhe square of Lhe fluld veloclLy,
hence flow raLe, as can also be calculaLed from Lhe pressure coefflclenL and Lhe cavlLaLlon
number. 1he LranslLlon beLween acLlve cavlLaLlon and vlbraLlon ls expecLed Lo be a sLralghL
llne because Lhe occurrence of acLlve cavlLaLlon ls lnduced by waLer hammer effecLs LhaL are
sLralghL proporLlonal Lo fluld veloclLy. 1he vlbraLlon reglme Lhus wldens up aL hlgher
backpressures.
AL hlgh flow raLes and backpressures a reglme exlsLs wlLhouL vlbraLlon of Lhe ball and
wlLhouL any cavlLaLlon. 1hls probably happens when Lhe Lurbulence ln Lhe wake of Lhe ball
becomes Loo hlgh (above Lhe crlLlcal 8e number) Lo susLaln Lhe llfL forces needed for
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
109

osclllaLlng Lhe ball. 1hls LranslLlon llne beLween a vlbraLlng and a non-vlbraLlng ball ls
approxlmaLely horlzonLal because Lhe crlLlcal 8e number corresponds wlLh one flow raLe.
1he reglme charL clearly demonsLraLes LhaL a vlbraLlng ball makes lL posslble Lo sLlll have
cavlLaLlon aL hlgher backpressures - as needed for a number of appllcaLlons - Lhan can be
achleved wlLhouL vlbraLlon aL Lhe same flow raLe.
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
Backpressure
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation

4,56)% X879 d%#%),< C%A"?,=6) => *A% C"&& "* @,>>%)%#* >&=B )"*%3 "#@ C"</E)%336)%3 "3
)%<=)@%@ ,# NA"E*%) T8
1he larger slzed hlgh denslLy balls produced hlgher vlbraLlon energles Lhan Lhe smaller hlgh
denslLy balls, whlle Lhe low denslLy large balls gave more acLlve cavlLaLlon under furLher
slmllar condlLlons. Powever, boLLom supporLed low denslLy balls of polymer maLerlals were
more prone Lo damage caused by sLress levels beyond Lhelr elasLlc sLress llmlLs as lnduced
by Lhe fluld flow. AcLlve cavlLaLlon and Lhe occurrence of varlous flow reglmes could also less
easlly be recognlzed for smaller balls Lhan for larger.
1he plpe only had one lengLh from where lL was enclosed by Lhe lld of Lhe chamber Llll Lhe
end of Lhe plpe, and was made from sLeel. 8oLh lengLh and Lype of maLerlal have an effecL
on Lhe flexlblllLy of Lhe plpe and Lhus on Lhe waves emlLLed by Lhe plpe. 1hls effecL was noL
sLudled. 8oLLom supporLed balls were as menLloned ln ChapLer 4 poslLloned LoLally lnslde
Lhe verLlcal plpe whlch hampered early observaLlon of cavlLaLlon. 8oLLom supporLed balls
also do noL allow Lhe gap beLween Lhe ball and Lhe lnner plpe wall Lo be changed easlly and
conLlnuously.
ln Lhls chapLer large slze hanglng balls LhaL can move freely ln passlng flow wlLh varlous gap
raLlos are LesLed. A hanglng ball can be poslLloned parLly ouLslde Lhe plpe, and does noL
suffer from wear aL lLs conLacL area wlLh Lhe supporL. ln addlLlon by chooslng a plpe
conslsLlng of a sLralghL parL aL Lhe Lop and a sllghLly conlcal parL aL Lhe boLLom, Lhe gap
beLween Lhe ball and Lhe lnner plpe wall can be ad[usLed by changlng Lhe helghL of Lhe ball
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
110

ln Lhe conlcal plpe. 1hls enables efflclenL sLudy of Lhe effecL of Lhe gap raLlo on Lhe flow
reglmes for Lhe same ball slze.
1

K%C% !""7; M,56 ' 6'38,38 -'77 ,3 ' 4"3,4'7 6"=;,38
rellmlnary experlmenLs wlLh hanglng balls were performed wlLh a 44.43 mm dlameLer
nylon ball hanglng on a uyneema sLrlng ln a sLralghL verLlcal sLeel plpe wlLh an lnner
dlameLer of 46.00 mm, see flgure 3.2.
ln subsequenL serles of experlmenLs Lhe sLrlng was replaced by a long sLeel rod LhaL
connecLed Lhe verLlcally ad[usLable plunger of a hydraullc cyllnder aL Lhe Lop wlLh Lhe 44.43
mm dlameLer sLeel ball aL Lhe boLLom. 1he houslng of Lhe ball aL Lhe end of Lhe plpe was a
20 mm long conlcally shaped Lube wlLh a dlameLer of 44.30 mm aL Lhe Lop and a dlameLer of
46.00 mm aL Lhe boLLom, see flgure 3.3. Several Lypes of sLeel were used for Lhe plpe wlLh
Lhe houslng. 8y changlng Lhe volume ln Lhe hydraullc cyllnder Lhe helghL of Lhe plunger and
Lhus Lhe helghL of Lhe ball, and Lherefore Lhe gap, could be ad[usLed, see Lable 3.1.
FLOW
Ball
FLOW
Ball

4,56)% X8M9 b"#5,#5 C"&& =# " 3*),#5 ,# " 3*)",5A* A=63,#5 63%@ >=) %KE&=)"*=)D %KE%),+%#*38

FLOW
Hydraulic
Cylinder
Ball
FLOW
Hydraulic
Cylinder
Ball
a
FLOW
Ball
Hydraulic
Cylinder
FLOW
Ball
Hydraulic
Cylinder
b
FLOW
Ball
Hydraulic
Cylinder
FLOW
Ball
Hydraulic
Cylinder
c
4,56)%3 X8O8"- C- <9 b"#5,#5 C"&& =# " )=@ B,*A %,*A%) " C"&&1=,#* =) " &=#5 *==& ! =) <=+E"<*
*==& ( ,# " <=#,<"& A=63,#58

1
1he resulLs of Lhls chapLer have been Lhe sub[ecL of a paper called 'Pydrodynamlc cavlLaLlon aL elevaLed
backpressure' for Lhe 8
Lh
lnLernaLlonal Symposlum on CavlLaLlon CAv 2012
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
111

1he helghLs of Lhe balls ln Lhe conlcal Lool are glven ln Lable 3.1 LogeLher wlLh Lhe nomlnal
gap raLlo S = /u
ball
, where (Lhe gap slze) ls deflned here as Lhe lnLernal dlameLer d
plpe
of
Lhe conlcal houslng aL Lhe helghL of Lhe cenLre of Lhe ball mlnus Lhe ball dlameLer u
ball
, and
Lhe nomlnal blockage raLlo 8 = u
ball
2
/ d
plpe
2
.

PelghL of Lhe ball ulameLer conlcal houslng
aL glven ball helghL
nomlnal gap
raLlo S
nomlnal blockage
raLlo 8
(mm) (mm) (m/m) (m2/m2)
0 46.00 0.033 0.934
10 43.23 0.018 0.963
12 43.10 0.013 0.971
14 44.93 0.011 0.978
16 44.80 0.008 0.984
18 44.63 0.004 0.991
20 44.30 0.001 0.998

0"C&% X879 ^%&"*,=#3A,E C%*B%%# C"&& A%,5A* 5"E "#@ C&=</"5% )"*,=8
1he 44.43 mm ball and Lhe lower end of Lhe rod were connecLed wlLh elLher a ball [olnL or
wlLh bearlngs. 1he ball ln Lhe [olnL, belng a small ball screwed Lo Lhe rod, was locaLed lnslde
a small bell houslng LhaL was connecLed Lo Lhe large sLeel ball of Lhe Lool (see flgure 3.3a).
1he curvaLures of Lhe ball [olnL and Lhe bell were flLLed by pollshlng and grease faclllLaLed
roLaLlon of Lhe ball and lLs laLeral vlbraLlon as a pendulum (see flgure 3.4).
10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% X8T9 i=,#* C%*B%%# C") "#@ C"&& "#@ @,3+"#*&%@ <=#,<"& A"#5,#5 *==& B,*A C"&& 1=,#* &",@
@=B# ,# A=),H=#*"& E=3,*,=#8
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
112

ln a laLer verslon of Lhe Lool Lhe ball [olnL was replaced by bearlngs and Lhe dlameLer of Lhe
rod was subsLanLlally lncreased Lo avold lLs rupLure, see flgures 3.3.b and 3.3. ln Lhe flnal
verslon Lhe Lool was also made smaller by shorLenlng of Lhe bearlng houslng, see flgures
3.3.c and 3.6.

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% X8X9 a=#5 3,H%@ *==& ! => 7TX ++ &%#5*A B,*A C%"),#538

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% X8Y9 N=+E"<* *==& ( => [X ++ &%#5*A B,*A C%"),#53

!1@); ": )?@)*,#)35;
1he Lools were poslLloned ln Lhe 30 bar LesL clrculL descrlbed ln ChapLer 3, where Lhe fluld
flow was generaLed by Lwo cenLrlfugal pumps ln serles. 1he LoLal flow always corresponded
wlLh Lhe maxlmal ouLpuL of Lhe pumps. 1he flow Lhrough Lhe Lool was regulaLed by ad[usLlng
Lhe flow Lhrough Lhe bypass. 1he pressure ln Lhe chamber downsLream of Lhe Lool, called
Lhe backpressure, could be varled by changlng Lhe pressure ln an accumulaLor. 1he Lool lnleL
pressure Lhus equalled Lhe pump pressure mlnus Lhe dynamlc pressure loss beLween Lhe
pump and Lhe Lool, whlch was very low due Lo Lhe large dlameLer of Lhe lnLerconnecLlng
plpe work. 1he pressure drop over Lhe Lool equalled Lhe Lool lnleL pressure mlnus Lhe
backpressure.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
113

ln a number of experlmenLs Lhe acousLlc frequency, and ln all cases Lhe LoLal sound level was
recorded by Lwo sensors ln Lhe fluld. 1he followlng serles of experlmenLs were performed:
- 1he flrsL serles of experlmenLs was done wlLh a large nylon ball hanglng on a
uyneema sLrlng ln a sLralghL verLlcal plpe. 1he flow raLe was sLepwlse lncreased and
aL maxlmal flow raLe Lhe backpressure was lncreased, and subsequenLly decreased
unLll aL 0 barg backpressure Lhe flow raLe was agaln lowered ln sLeps.
- 1he second serles of experlmenLs was performed wlLh a ball connecLed wlLh a ball
[olnL Lo a rod LhaL was aLLached Lo a plunger ln a hydraullc cyllnder. WlLh Lhe plunger
Lhe helghL of Lhe ball could be changed ln lLs conlcal houslng. WlLh Lhe ball helghL
also Lhe gap beLween Lhe ball and Lhe houslng was changed. AL a backpressure of 9
barg Lhe flow raLe was gradually lncreased unLll Lhe ball reached a subsequenL
reglme or unLll Lhe maxlmal flow was reached. 1hen Lhe reverse procedure was
followed where Lhe flow raLe was decreased aL 9 barg backpressure unLll Lhe nexL
reglme was enLered or Llll Lhe mlnlmal flow was reached. AfLer LhaL Lhe ball was
ralsed by 1 mm and Lhe procedure was repeaLed. 1hls happened unLll Lhe maxlmal
helghL of Lhe ball or Lhe mlnlmal gap was reached.
- SubsequenLly nlne serles of experlmenLs each aL a consLanL backpressure beLween
0.3 and 8.3 barg were done wlLh a sLeel ball aLLached Lo a rod wlLh bearlngs ln a long
slzed Lool A. 1he backpressure was lowered ln sLeps of 1 barg beLween Lhe serles of
experlmenLs.
- 1he long slzed Lool was Lhen redeslgned Lo a shorLer lengLh Lo flL poLenLlally ln a
smaller space (compacL Lool 8). ln Lhe nexL slx serles of experlmenLs Lhe shorLer Lool
was used for slmllar experlmenLs as for Lhe medlum slzed Lool wlLh bearlngs.
- An addlLlonal serles of experlmenLs was performed wlLh a ball hanglng on a rod ln
compacL Lool 8, where aL a more or less consLanL flow raLe and a glven ball helghL Lhe
backpressure was flrsL lncreased ln small sLeps Llll maxlmal backpressure, and Lhen
decreased ln small sLeps. ln anoLher serles Lhe backpressure and ball helghL were
kepL consLanL and Lhe flow raLe was changed ln sLeps.
lor Lhe lasL serles of experlmenLs also Lhe frequencles and pressure ampllLudes emlLLed by
Lhe Lool were measured aL Lwo dlsLances from Lhe plpe wall by means of plezo-elecLrlcal
sensors. 1hese slgnals were by lourler LransformaLlon converLed lnLo frequency specLra and
Lhe pressure ampllLudes were calculaLed.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
114

K%E% H);=75; '32 2,;4=;;,"3
<-&4"#& 0'$ % =9"'( 2%"" 3%(1)(1 '( % >9(--/% &#$)(1
A nylon ball wlLh a dlameLer of 44.43 mm was mounLed ln a verLlcal sLralghL sLeel plpe wlLh a
46.00 mm lnner dlameLer. 1he nylon ball was flaLLened aL Lhe boLLom and resLed on a sLeel
supporL LhaL maLched Lhe shape of Lhe mlsslng ball segmenL (see flgure 3.7). A 4mm
dlameLer uyneema sLrlng wlLh a Lenslle sLrengLh of 7300 n wenL Lhrough Lhe cenLre of Lhe
ball and was fasLened wlLh a knoL underneaLh Lhe supporL. 1he sLrlng was enclosed by a
bralded sleeve of poly-eLhylene flbre and knoLLed around a horlzonLal bar aL Lhe Lop. When
Lhe sLrlng no longer galned lengLh by sLreLchlng due Lo forces exerLed by Lhe flow on Lhe
ball, an experlmenL was sLarLed. 1he ball was lnlLlally poslLloned lnslde Lhe houslng wlLh lLs
lowesL polnL 2 cm above Lhe end of Lhe plpe.

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% X.Q9 $D&=# C"&& =# ]D#%%+" 3*),#5

63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00
NyIon baII hanging on a Dyneema string
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active
cavitation
Dyneema
string
overstretched
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active
cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
no vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active
cavitation
Dyneema
string
overstretched
b
4,56)% X8\9 "G 4&=B "#@ E)%336)% @"*" ?%)363 *,+% >=) " TT8TX++ $D&=# C"&& ,# " TY8WW ++
E,E% *,&& =?%)3*)%*<A,#5 => *A% ]D#%%+" 3*),#58 CG U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38

1he flow raLe Lhrough Lhe Lool was lncreased sLepwlse Llll maxlmal value by closlng Lhe
bypass valve aL a backpressure of 0 barg, see flgure 3.8. AparL from a few anomalles ln Lhe
flow raLes, Lhe sound level ln flgure 3.8 shows LhaL vlbraLlon of Lhe ball occurs Llll a flow raLe
of abouL 12 m
3
/hr was reached. AL all flow raLes beyond 6.7 m
3
/hr acLlve cavlLaLlon clouds
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
113

lefL Lhe plpe as shown ln flgure 3.9. 1hls flgure however, only shows Lhe mosL dense
cavlLaLlon clouds wlLh a lengLh of abouL 10 mm. 1he plume of cavlLaLlon bubbles underneaLh
Lhe plpe LhaL could be seen by Lhe naked eye had a lengLh of aL leasL 0.2 m. 1he dense
clouds of cavlLaLlon bubbles were generaLed aL spoLs close Lo where Lhe ball bounced
agalnsL Lhe plpe wall, and lefL Lhe plpe as separaLe clouds. AL abouL 12 m
3
/hr Lhe ball
sLopped vlbraLlng and no longer cavlLaLlon bubbles as clouds were observed underneaLh Lhe
plpe (see flgures 3.8 for Lhe flow and sound levels and flgure 3.10, lefL hand slde).

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% X8[9 N&=6@ => "<*,?% <"?,*"*,=# C6CC&%3 "* >&=B )"*%3 => Y8Q +
O
À)- Q8\ +
O
À) "#@ [8\
+
O
À) >=) " TT8TX++ $D&=# C"&& ,# " TY8WW ++ E,E%8

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
a b
4,56)% X87W9 "G $= <"?,*"*,=# C6CC&%3 "* " >&=B )"*% => "C=6* 7M +
O
À) "#@ CG " ),#5 =>
E"33,?% <"?,*"*,=# C6CC&%3 "* " >&=B )"*% => "C=6* 7X +
O
À)8

AL hlgher flow raLes passlve cavlLaLlon was seen as a rlng or shower of bubbles leavlng Lhe
plpe as ln flgure 3.10 (rlghL hand). Pere agaln Lhe lengLh of dense bubbles was abouL 13 mm
and Lhe shower of less dense bubbles was aL leasL 0.2 m. 1he large gas bubbles floaLlng
around ln Lhe chamber demonsLraLe LhaL cavlLaLlon serves as a means for degasslng.
Comparlson of Lhe phoLos ln flgure 3.9 and 3.10 shows LhaL apparenLly a reglme exlsLs
beLween acLlve and passlve cavlLaLlon where Lhe ball sLops vlbraLlng, and where no
cavlLaLlon bubbles are observed
AL LoLal closure of Lhe bypass, Lhus aL maxlmal flow Lhrough Lhe Lool Lhe backpressure was
ralsed, and Lhe flow raLe lncreased posslbly due Lo suppresslon of Lhe passlve cavlLaLlon. AL
even hlgher backpressure Lhe ball resumed lLs vlbraLlon, whlch caused Lhe flow raLe Lo drop
and Lhe pump pressure Lo lncrease Lo dellver Lhe energy for vlbraLlon. 1he lncreased
pressure drop over Lhe ball comblned wlLh sLrong vlbraLlon resulLed ln oversLreLchlng of Lhe
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
116

uyneema sLrlng Lo Lhe polnL LhaL Lhe ball proLruded ouL of Lhe plpe and Lhe measuremenL
became unrellable (flgure 3.11).

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% X8779 ("&& E)=*)6@,#5 =6* => *A% E,E% ">*%) " >&=B )"*% => "C=6* 7Q +
O
À).
ln Lhe nexL experlmenL Lhe sLrlng broke aL a pressure drop of 7 barg over Lhe ball, whlch
equals a force of abouL 1100 n, whlle Lhe Lenslle sLrengLh of Lhe uyneema sLrlng was 7300 n.
1he fallure of Lhe sLrlng may be caused by dynamlc sLresses, however, Lhe ball was also
observed Lo be conLlnuously roLaLlng, causlng wear Lo Lhe flxed uyneema sLrlng. lL was
concluded LhaL Lhe ball should be free Lo roLaLe.

<-&4"#& 0'$ % &#--" 2%"" 3%(1)(1 6)#3 % 2%""?')(# '( % $',
1o faclllLaLe roLaLlon and laLeral movemenL of Lhe ball wlLh mlnlmal frlcLlon a ball [olnL was
selecLed Lo connecL Lhe ball wlLh Lhe rod. A conlcal Lool was used Lo ad[usL Lhe gap slze by
changlng Lhe helghL of Lhe ball.
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00
ConicaI tooI with baII-joint
Ptool (bar) Energy (kW) Sound level (dB(C))
Pull ball up
Rod broken
Active cav Passive cav Vibration No vibration
Flow
unreliable

4,56)% X87M9 4&=B "#@ E)%336)% @"*" ?%)363 *,+% "* "C=6* [ C") C"</E)%336)% >=) " C"&&
A"#5,#5 =# " C"&& 1=,#* ,# " <=#,<"& <A"+C%)8

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
117

ln Lhls experlmenL Lhe flow raLe Lhrough Lhe Lool was dlrecLly lncreased Llll lLs maxlmal value,
and Lhen Lhe backpressure was ralsed. AL abouL 8 barg Lhe ball sLarLed Lo vlbraLe (aL abouL 3
mln), whlch Lemporarlly unseLLled Lhe flow meLer durlng one mlnuLe. ln Lwo sLeps Lhe ball
helghL was lncreased, and Lherefore Lhe gap was decreased. As a resulL Lhe pump pressure
lncreased and Lhe flow raLe decreased. AL Lhls poslLlon of Lhe ball acLlve cavlLaLlon occurred
as ls shown ln flgure 3.13 by Lwo subsequenL snapshoLs. 1he lengLh of Lhe shower
underneaLh Lhe plpe as seen by Lhe naked eye buL noL on Lhe phoLo was agaln abouL 0.2 m
long. 1he shape of Lhe cloud ln Lhe lefL hand plcLure also lllusLraLes LhaL Lhe ball ls roLaLlng.
AL Lhls gap Lhe pressure drop over Lhe ball and Lhe dynamlc loadlng due Lo Lhe sLrong
vlbraLlons caused rupLurlng of Lhe rod. 1herefore a Lhlcker and Lhus sLronger rod was chosen
for Lhe nexL serles of experlmenLs. lnsLead of a ball [olnL bearlngs were used Lo allow low
frlcLlon roLaLlon and laLeral movemenL of Lhe ball aL hlgher loadlng condlLlons.

10
mm
10
mm
10
mm

4,56)% X87O9 !<*,?% <"?,*"*,=# B"3 #=*,<%@ "* " +"K,+"& >&=B )"*% => 7O8[ +
O
À) "#@ "
C"</E)%336)% => [ C")5 ,# " +%@,6+ 3,H%@ *==& B,*A " C"&& 1=,#*8

<-&4"#& 0'$ % &#--" 2%"" 3%(1)(1 6)#3 2-%$)(1& '( % $', )( #''" @
nlne serles of experlmenLs were done wlLh a sLeel ball ln a conlcal houslng and wlLh a rod
connecLed aL Lhe Lop Lo Lhe hydraullcally ad[usLable plunger. Lach serles was performed
afLer a sLepwlse decrease ln backpressure wlLh lnLervals of 1 barg from 8.3 Llll 0.3 barg.
AL a glven backpressure a number of experlmenLs were performed where Lhe lnlLlal gap was
varled by changlng Lhe helghL of Lhe ball ln Lhe conlcal houslng. 1he helghL was chosen Lo be
zero when Lhe cenLre of Lhe ball was aL Lhe boLLom of Lhe houslng. 1he ball was moved
upward wlLh a hydraullc sysLem and Lhe hlgher Lhe ball was ralsed Lhe smaller Lhe gap
became. AL a selecLed lnlLlal helghL of Lhe ball, l.e. aL a glven lnlLlal gap, Lhe flow raLe was
lncreased unLll a change ln behavlour was observed of Lhe ball or Lhe fluld, such as vlbraLlon
of Lhe ball or Lhe occurrence of elLher acLlve or passlve cavlLaLlon.
AL a change all flow and pressure daLa were reglsLered before Lhe nexL sLep was made unLll
Lhe maxlmal flow raLe was reached. 1hen Lhe flow raLe was lowered ln one sLep Llll mlnlmal
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
118

flow raLe. 1hereafLer Lhe ball was pulled up for anoLher 1 Lo 2 mm unLll Lhe nexL lnlLlal
helghL of Lhe ball was reached, and Lhe procedure was repeaLed (see flgure 3.14a as an
example for Lhe serles experlmenLs aL a backpressure of 4.3 barg).
When ln Lhe course of a slngle experlmenL Lhe flow raLe was lncreased, Lhe pressure drop
over Lhe ball also lncreased causlng compresslon ln Lhe hydraullc sysLem for Lhe plunger and
some sagglng of Lhe ball. 1he resulLlng change ln helghL was always reglsLered and
accounLed for ln Lhe resulLs.
1hese nlne serles of experlmenLs Lhus provlded lnformaLlon aL lncreaslng flow raLes abouL
Lhe reglmes of no vlbraLlon, vlbraLlon wlLh bounclng of Lhe ball, acLlve and passlve cavlLaLlon
ln Lhe 3-dlmenslonal space, deflned by Lhe flow raLe Lhrough Lhe Lool, Lhe backpressure and
Lhe helghL of Lhe ball or Lhe gap. ln a number of cases a reglme of no vlbraLlon of Lhe ball
was ldenLlfled beLween Lhe reglmes of acLlve and passlve cavlLaLlon, where no cavlLaLlon
was vlslble underneaLh Lhe plpe.
Pow Lhe reglmes were deduced from a serles of experlmenLs aL one backpressure of for
example 4.3 barg ln flgure 3.14a wlll be dlscussed ln deLall. A slngle experlmenL aL 4.3 barg
backpressure and an lnlLlal ball helghL of 14.7 mm ls glven ln flgure 3.14b. AL Lhe lowesL flow
raLes wlLh an opened bypass valve Lhe flow meLer mosLly does noL funcLlon properly when
Lhe ball vlbraLes aL a low frequency as can be seen ln flgure 3.14b beLween 24 and 23.3 mln.
upon sllghLly closlng of Lhe bypass valve Lhe ball sLarLed vlbraLlng and bounclng aL a hlgher
frequency and acLlve cavlLaLlon sLarLed aL a flow raLe of 7.4 m
3
/hr, whlle Lhe sound reached
a level of 101 d8(C). 1he acLlve cavlLaLlon observed aL LhaL momenL ls shown ln flgure 3.13.
AL a flow raLe of abouL 13 m
3
/hr acLlve cavlLaLlon could more clearly be seen. AL a maxlmal
flow raLe of 14.3 m
3
/hr vlbraLlon of Lhe ball sLopped. 1he sound level decreased Llll abouL 84
d8(C) and passlve cavlLaLlon sLarLed aL a flow raLe of 14.7 m
3
/hr. asslve cavlLaLlon sLablllzes
Lhe ball by developlng symmeLrlcally around Lhe roLaLlng ball ln Lhe gap and sLops roLaLlon of
Lhe ball. unforLunaLely no plcLure was Laken from Lhls speclflc passlve cavlLaLlon evenL, buL
from flgure 3.16 where passlve cavlLaLlon ls shown aL dlfferenL condlLlons ln parLlcular aL a
lower backpressure, Lhe symmeLrlcal behavlour of passlve cavlLaLlon can be clearly seen.
8ecause of Lhe hlgher pressure dlfferenLlal over Lhe ball aL Lhe hlgher flow raLes, alr
enLrapped ln Lhe plunger was compressed resulLlng ln some sagglng of Lhe ball. When Lhe
flow raLe was lowered Llll abouL 6 m
3
/hr vlbraLlon of Lhe ball resumed. 1hls flow raLe of 6
m
3
/hr ls much lower Lhan Lhe flow raLe of 14.3 m
3
/hr where Lhe ball sLopped vlbraLlng ln an
lncreaslng flow. 1hls demonsLraLes Lhe occurrence of hysLeresls beLween a vlbraLlng and
non-vlbraLlng reglme. 1he process sLeps Lhrough Lhe reglmes aL a backpressure of 4.3 barg
and a helghL of abouL 14.3 mm are glven ln flgure 3.14c. 1hereafLer Lhe flow raLe was
decreased Lo lLs mlnlmal value and Lhe nexL experlmenL aL anoLher lnlLlal ball helghL was
sLarLed.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
119

63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
45,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 40:00 45:00
ConicaI tooI A
Initial ball height (mm)
-20.5 10.9 13.0 14.7 16.0 17.5 19.0 dB(C)
transparent grey:
flow rate unreliable
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
45,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 40:00 45:00
ConicaI tooI A
Initial ball height (mm)
-20.5 10.9 13.0 14.7 16.0 17.5 19.0 dB(C)
transparent grey:
flow rate unreliable
a

63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
24:00 25:00 26:00 27:00 28:00 29:00 30:00 31:00 32:00
ConicaI tooI A
Flow rate
unreliable
Flow rate
unreliable
Active cav Passive cav Vibration Vibration
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
24:00 25:00 26:00 27:00 28:00 29:00 30:00 31:00 32:00
ConicaI tooI A
Flow rate
unreliable
Flow rate
unreliable
Active cav Passive cav Vibration Vibration
b
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
c

4,56)% X87T9 4&=B "#@ E)%336)% @"*" ?%)363 *,+% >=) " 3*%%& C"&& ,# " +%@,6+ 3,H%@ *==& B,*A
<=#,<"& A=63,#5 "* T8X C")5 C"</E)%336)%8 "G :%?%# %KE%),+%#*3 ")% E)%3%#*%@ "* "C=6* T8X
C")5 C"</E)%336)% "#@ "* ,#<)%"3,#5 ,#,*,"& C"&& A%,5A*38 CG 0,+% 3*)%*<A%@ ?,%B => *A%
%KE%),+%#* "* "# ,#,*,"& C"&& A%,5A* => 7T8Q ++8 <G U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
120

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% X87X9 :6C3%;6%#* C6)3*3 => "<*,?% <"?,*"*,=# "* " >&=B )"*% => 7.4 +
O
À) "#@ "
C"</E)%336)% => T8X C")58

10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% X87Y U"33,?% <"?,*"*,=# "* " >&=B )"*% => 7X8M +
O
À) "#@ " C"</E)%336)% => W8W C")58
8y evaluaLlng Lhe nlne serles of experlmenLs Lhe varlous reglmes could be dellneaLed ln flow
raLe versus ball helghL ploLs, each for one parLlcular value of Lhe backpressure (flgure 3.17
for a backpressure of 4.3 barg).

0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
10,0 12,0 14,0 16,0 18,0 20,0
f
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
3
/
h
r
)
Ball Height (mm)
FIow rate versus baII height
at a backpressure of 4.5 barg
No vibration Vibration Active cavitation Passive cavitation

4,56)% X87Q9 ^%5,+%3 ,# " >&=B )"*% ?%)363 C"&& A%,5A* E&=* "* " C"</E)%336)% => T8X C")58

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
121

1he daLa from Lhe nlne serles of experlmenLs (each serles aL a glven backpressure) can also
be assembled ln ploLs where for a selecLed narrow range of ball helghLs Lhe flow raLes are
ploLLed agalnsL Lhe backpressures, and where Lhe dlfferenL reglmes are marked wlLh sLrlped
grey llnes. 1hls has been done for Lhree ball helghLs of 14-13 mm, 13-16 mm and 16-17 mm
ln flgure 3.18a, b, c. Pow Lhe reglmes were deLermlned, ls schemaLlcally lndlcaLed ln flgure
3.18d.
ln all Lhree cases passlve cavlLaLlon ls seen Lo be promoLed by low backpressures and hlgh
flow raLes as can be expecLed. 1he maxlmal flow raLe depends on Lhe ball helghL. AcLlve
cavlLaLlon already happens aL lower flow raLes Lhan passlve cavlLaLlon, buL dles ouL aL hlgher
backpressures. AL backpressures beyond 10 barg only vlbraLlon of Lhe ball remalns ln a large
flow domaln. 1he effecL of Lhe ball helghL on Lhe poslLlonlng of Lhe reglmes ls observable.

0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
f
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
3
/
h
r
)
Backpressure (barg)
Regimes in fIow rate versus backpressure pIots
for 14-15 mm baII height
a
0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
f
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
3
/
h
r
)
Backpressure (barg)
b

0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
f
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
3
/
h
r
)
Backpressure (barg)
c
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
d
4,56)% X87\9 ^%5,+%3 ,# >&=B )"*% ?%)363 C"</E)%336)% E&=*3 >=) C"&& A%,5A*3 => 7T7X ++- 7X
7Y ++ "#@ 7Y7Q ++8 @G e?%)?,%B => *A% )%5,+%38

<-&4"#& 0'$ % &#--" 2%"" 3%(1)(1 6)#3 2-%$)(1& '( % $', )( *'/5%*# #''" A
A compacL Lool was deslgned Lo flL lnLo a smaller space for example lf Lhe Lool needs Lo be
poslLloned perpendlcular Lo Lhe well-bore axls Lo pro[ecL Lhe ouLflow Lo Lhe well-bore wall.
1hls Lool also appeared Lo have Lhe advanLage LhaL Lhe counLer balance of Lhe ball ls larger,
whlch allows Lhe ball Lo vlbraLe aL a lower llfL force. 1he 44.43 mm ball and lLs conlcal
houslng were made from sLalnless sLeel. 1he helghL of Lhe ball could be measured dlglLally.
Slmllar serles of experlmenLs were carrled ouL as for Lool A where for lncreaslng flow raLes
Lhe reglmes were marked aL a consLanL backpressure and lncreaslng ball helghLs. Cnly here
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
122

Lhe helghL of Lhe ball was changed ln sLeps of 2-3 mm lnsLead of 1-2 mm. 1he flow raLe was
lncreased per ball helghL unLll Lhe nexL reglme was reached.
1he daLa from Lhe nlne serles of experlmenLs were rearranged ln flgure 3.19, where for
selecLed narrow ranges of ball helghLs Lhe flow raLes were ploLLed agalnsL Lhe
backpressures. ln Lhese ploLs Lhe dlfferenL reglmes are clearly vlslble.
0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
F
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
/
h
r
)
Backpressure (barg)
a
0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
F
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
/
h
r
)
Backpressure (barg)
b
0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
F
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
/
h
r
)
Backpressure (barg)
c
0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
F
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
/
h
r
)
Backpressure (barg)
d
4,56)% X87[9 U&=*3 => >&=B )"*% ?%)363 C"</E)%336)% >=) C"&& A%,5A*3 => [77 ++- 777O ++-
7O7X ++ "#@ 7X7Q ++8
lor ball helghLs up Lo 3 mm no vlbraLlon of Lhe ball was lnduced by de flow. robably Lhe ball
was hanglng Loo much ouL of Lhe houslng and Lhe surface area of Lhe plpe wall downsLream
of Lhe ball dld noL sufflce Lo lnduce enough llfL force by Lhe flow for vlbraLlon. 1lll 9 mm ball
helghL vlbraLlon buL no acLlve cavlLaLlon was seen (flgure 3.19a). AL all ball helghLs Lhe ball
sLopped vlbraLlng aL lncreaslng flow raLe beyond Lhe reglme of acLlve cavlLaLlon before
passlve cavlLaLlon was observed. AL ball helghLs of 17-19 mm no acLlve cavlLaLlon was
observed. WlLh a very narrow gap and fasL vlbraLlon a waLer hammer effecL by cuLLlng off
Lhe flow could probably noL develop sufflclenLly Lo conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe pressure drop ln Lhe
gap Lo geL acLlve cavlLaLlon. llgure 3.19 demonsLraLes LhaL passlve cavlLaLlon was generaLed
aL hlgh Lo maxlmal flow raLes up Lo a backpressure of 7 barg. Surprlslngly Lhe reglmes for
Lool A and Lhe compacL Lool 8 were noL ldenLlcal. lor Lool A passlve cavlLaLlon for example
sLarLs aL a sllghLly hlgher flow raLe. 1hls could be caused by a dlfference ln flow raLe
upsLream of Lhe ball due Lo a dlfference ln lengLhs of Lhe Lools as well as by a dlfference ln
maLerlal of Lhe houslng of Lhe ball. 1he hlgher flow raLe ln Lool A needed for acLlve cavlLaLlon
could be relaLed Lo Lhe hlgher llfL force needed Lo swlng Lhe ball.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
123

ln flgure 3.20a Lhe flow raLes ln Lhe compacL Lool 8 ln case of acLlve cavlLaLlon were ploLLed
for all ball helghLs versus Lhe backpressure aL an lncreaslng flow raLe. 1hls glves qulLe a
spread ln Lhe volumeLrlc flow daLa because of Lhe varlous ball helghLs. Powever, lf Lhe flow
veloclLles ln Lhe gap were ploLLed agalnsL Lhe backpressure as ln flgure 3.20b Lhe daLa polnLs
for Lhe mlnlmal flow veloclLles where Lhe onseL of acLlve cavlLaLlon was observed more or
less form a sLralghL llne (see solld llne). 1hls conflrms LhaL Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe
onseL of acLlve cavlLaLlon and backpressure ls approxlmaLely llnearly relaLed Lo Lhe fluld
veloclLy and physlcally relaLed Lo waLer hammer effecLs. LxLrapolaLlon of Lhls sLralghL llne
suggesLs an end polnL aL mlnus 1 barg (vacuum), see doLLed llne ln flgure 3.20b.

0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
f
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
3
/
h
r
)
Backpressure (barg)
Active cavitation regime in fIow rate versus
backpressure pIots for 7-21 mm baII height
Active cavitation
a
0,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
50,0
60,0
70,0
80,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0
f
l
o
w

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

i
n

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

g
a
p

(
m
/
s
)
Backpressure (barg)
Active cavitation regimes in fIow veIocity in the
baII gap versus backpressure pIots for 7-21 mm
baII height
Active cavitation
b
4,56)% X8MW9 "G U&=* => >&=B )"*% F+
O
À)) "#@ "<*,?% <"?,*"*,=# "# CG >&=B ?%&=<,*D ,# *A% C"&&
5"E F+`3G ?%)363 *A% C"</E)%336)% "* ,#<)%"3,#5 >&=B )"*% >=) "&& *%3*%@ C"&& A%,5A*38

B9&#-$-&)& ,4$)(1 *3%(1- )( 2%*75$-&&4$- %# % 1)+-( 0"'6 $%#- %(, 2%"" 3-)13#
ln earller experlmenLs (ChapLer 4 and ln secLlon 3.4.3.) where Lhe backpressure was flrsL
lncreased and subsequenLly decreased aL consLanL flow raLe lL was observed LhaL dlfferenL
border llnes were obLalned beLween Lhe varlous reglmes lf a LranslLlon was made from a
reglme wlLh a vlbraLlng ball Lo a reglme wlLh a sLaLlonary ball and ln Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon.
1hls phenomenon of hysLeresls ls furLher explored here ln experlmenLs wlLh a 44.43 mm ball
hanglng wlLh bearlngs on a rod ln Lhe compacL Lool 8.
AL flve dlfferenL lnlLlal flow raLes and a consLanL ball helghL Lhe backpressure was flrsL
sLepwlse lncreased Llll lLs maxlmal value was reached, and LhereafLer sLepwlse decreased.
lnlLlal flow raLes were selecLed beLween abouL 3.3 and 13.0 m
3
/hr by regulaLlng Lhe bypass
flow. lor Lhe lowesL lnlLlal flow raLe of 3.3 m
3
/hr, Lhe progress of Lhe experlmenL ls
presenLed ln flgure 3.21a. upon Lhe lncrease ln backpressure from 0 Llll 4.3 barg an lncrease
followed by a decrease ln sound level durlng passlve cavlLaLlon was observed colncldlng wlLh
an lncrease and decrease of Lhe A over Lhe Lool.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
124

63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0
2,5
5,0
7,5
10,0
12,5
15,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 40:00 45:00 50:00 55:00 00:00
ConicaI compact tooI B
hysteresis
pas cav act cav vibration no vibration pas cav no vib
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
b
4,56)% X8M79 "G 4&=B )"*%- E)%336)% "#@ 3=6#@ &%?%& ?%)363 *,+% >=) " A%,5A* => 7X ++- CG
U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38
AL 4.3 barg Lhe ball sLarLed Lo vlbraLe, whlle Lhe sound level and Lhe A over Lhe Lool
lncreased, and consequenLly Lhe flow raLe decreased. When Lhe maxlmal backpressure was
reached, Lhe backpressure was subsequenLly sLepwlse lowered and acLlve cavlLaLlon was
observed beLween 4 and 3 barg. 1he ball sLopped vlbraLlng aL a backpressure of 3 barg, wlLh
consequenL dropplng of Lhe A over Lhe Lool, an lncrease of Lhe flow raLe and a decrease ln
sound level. 1he hysLeresls effecL ls beLLer shown ln a ploL of Lhe flow versus Lhe
backpressure as glven ln flgure 3.21b where Lhe varlous reglmes are presenLed.

0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
0,000 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
f
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

(
m
3
/
h
r
)
Backpressure (barg)
FIow rate versus backpressure
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
no vibration,
passive cavitation
b
4,56)% X8MM9 "G 4&=B )"*% ?%)363 C"</E)%336)% F5=,#5 6E "#@ @=B#G >=) X @,>>%)%#* ,#,*,"& >&=B
)"*%3 "#@ " C"&& A%,5A* => 7X ++ >=) <=#,<"& *==& (- CG :/%*<A => *A% E)=<%@6)% => *A% >,?%
%KE%),+%#*3 "* ?"),=63 ,#,*,"& >&=B )"*%3 "5",#3* " )%5,+% <A")*8
1he flve experlmenLs aL varlous lnlLlal flow raLes are presenLed LogeLher ln flgures 3.22a and
b. AL backpressures below 1 barg Lhe onseL of passlve cavlLaLlon happens aL lower flow raLes
Lhan wlLh hlgher backpressures for unknown reasons mosL llkely relaLed Lo Lhe experlmenLal
seL-up. A clearly deflned llne can be drawn ln flgure 3.22a LhaL marks Lhe boundary beLween
Lhe reglme of passlve cavlLaLlon aL hlgh flow raLes and low backpressures, and Lhe reglme aL
hlgher backpressures where nelLher cavlLaLlon nor vlbraLlon can be seen. llgures 3.22a and b
also lndlcaLe LhaL no hysLeresls happens upon crosslng of Lhe boundary beLween Lhe 'no
vlbraLlon, passlve cavlLaLlon' and Lhe 'no vlbraLlon, no cavlLaLlon' reglmes, because Lhe ball
sLands sLlll ln boLh reglmes. 1here ls a sllghL dlscrepancy beLween Lhls boundary where
passlve cavlLaLlon sLarLs aL lncreaslng flow raLe and LhaL ln flgure 3.19c for furLher ldenLlcal
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
123

operaLlng condlLlons. 1hls ls mosL llkely caused by Lhe facL LhaL for Lhe lasL serles of
experlmenLs a new Lool was used LhaL had noL yeL suffered from wear. 1he gap was Lhus less
aL Lhe same ball helghL. 1he reglme charL also lndlcaLes LhaL cavlLaLlon can be suppressed by
an lncrease ln surroundlng pressure, buL LhaL vlbraLlon can be provoked up Lo hlgh
backpressures.

B9&#-$-&)& ,4$)(1 *3%(1- )( 0"'6 $%#- %# % 1)+-( 2%*75$-&&4$- %(, 2%"" 3-)13# %(,
0$-C4-(*9 '0 +)2$%#)'( '0 #3- #''"
AddlLlonal experlmenLs were performed wlLh conlcal Lool 8 aL varlous backpressures (3.3
and 7.3 barg) and ball helghLs (12, 13 and 18 mm) where Lhe flow raLe was sLepwlse
lncreased and subsequenLly decreased. 1hls ls lllusLraLed for an experlmenL aL a consLanL
backpressure of 3.3 barg and a ball helghL of 13 mm ln flgure 3.23 a and b. 1lll 8 mlnuLes Lhe
flow raLe was Loo low (<1.3 m
3
/hr) Lo be rellably measured and Llll 16 mlnuLes Lhe low
frequency of abouL 130 Pz, as reglsLered by Lhe sensors dlsLurbed Lhe flow meLer. AL abouL
17 mlnuLes aL polnL 1 ln flgure 3.23 Lhe sound level caused by vlbraLlon and bounclng of Lhe
ball agalnsL Lhe plpe lncreased and Lhe frequency emlLLed by Lhe Lool was abouL 410 Pz. AL
Lhls polnL a flow raLe of 3.0 m
3
/hr could be rellably measured. AL polnL 2 aL a flow raLe of 6.0
m
3
/hr Lhe ball was sLlll vlbraLlng and acLlve cavlLaLlon clouds lefL Lhe plpe. AL polnL 3 Lhe
vlbraLlon of Lhe ball sLopped causlng Lhe pressure drop over Lhe ball Lo decrease, and Lhe
flow raLe Lo [ump Lo 7.8 m
3
/hr. AL Lhls flow raLe passlve cavlLaLlon appeared. AL a furLher
rlse ln flow raLe Llll lLs maxlmal value was reached aL polnL 4 more passlve cavlLaLlon was
seen. AfLer 37 mlnuLes Lhe flow raLe was lowered sLepwlse and passlve cavlLaLlon slowly
dlsappeared. AL a flow raLe of 6.0 m
3
/hr aL polnL 3 cavlLaLlon was no longer seen underneaLh
Lhe ball LhaL was sLandlng sLlll. AL polnL 6 Lhe ball resumed lLs vlbraLlon.
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 40:00 45:00 50:00 55:00 00:00
Hyster
esis
1 2 3 4 5 6 Flow rate
unreliable
Flow rate
unreliable
passive cav act cav no vibration no vib vibration vibration
63,0
70,0
77,0
84,0
91,0
98,0
105,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 40:00 45:00 50:00 55:00 00:00
Hyster
esis
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 Flow rate
unreliable
Flow rate
unreliable
passive cav act cav no vibration no vib vibration vibration passive cav act cav no vibration no vib vibration vibration
a
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
0
bara
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
0
barg
vibration,
no cavitation
vibration,
active cavitation
no vibration,
passive
cavitation
Backpressure
no vibration,
no cavitation
b
4,56)% X8MO9 "G 4&=B )"*%- E)%336)% "#@ 3=6#@ &%?%& ?%)363 *,+% >=) " C"</E)%336)% => O8X C")5
"#@ " C"&& A%,5A* => 7X ++- CG U)=<%33 3*%E3 *A)=65A *A% )%5,+%38

1he hysLeresls beLween Lhe upward and downward flow can be more clearly seen lf Lhe
pressure drop over Lhe ball ls ploLLed agalnsL Lhe flow raLe as demonsLraLed by Lhe polnLs 1
Lo 6 ln flgure 3.24a (plnk llne). ln boLh polnL 2 and polnL 3 Lhe flow raLe equals 6.0 m
3
/hr
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
126

whlle aL Lhe flrsL polnL Lhe ball conLlnued Lo vlbraLe whlle aL polnL 3 Lhe ball was sLandlng
sLlll.
ln flgure 3.24a also anoLher lllusLraLlve experlmenL wlLh hysLeresls ls shown. 1he experlmenL
aL 7.3 barg backpressure wlLh Lhe same ball helghL (purple llne), showed ldenLlcal resulLs Llll
a flow raLe of 3.0 m
3
/hr. ln boLh cases Lhe ball vlbraLed wlLh acLlve cavlLaLlon. AL hlgher flow
raLes however, Lhe ball kepL vlbraLlng wlLh acLlve cavlLaLlon ln case of Lhe hlgher
backpressure (purple llne), whlle aL Lhe lower backpressure (plnk llne) Lhe ball sLopped
vlbraLlng and passlve cavlLaLlon developed.
All numbered polnLs ln flgure 3.24a are locaLed on Lhe plnk llne of Lhe experlmenL aL 3.3
barg. When polnL 2 for a vlbraLlng ball and acLlve cavlLaLlon ls compared wlLh polnL 3 for a
sLaLlonary ball wlLhouL passlve cavlLaLlon, boLh aL Lhe same flow raLe, a dlfference ln
pressure drop over Lhe ball ls noLlced. 1hls energy dlfference LhaL equals Lhe flow raLe Llmes
Lhe pressure drop ls abouL 1200 W. Comparlson of polnL 7 on Lhe purple and polnL 3 on Lhe
plnk llne, boLh aL Lhe same ball helghL buL aL a dlfferenL backpressure, aL a flow raLe of 7.8
m
3
/hr shows a dlfference ln energy of around 1800 W for a vlbraLlng ball wlLh acLlve
cavlLaLlon and a sLaLlonary ball wlLh passlve cavlLaLlon. lor flow raLes hlgher Lhan 7.8 m
3
/hr
Lhe dlfference ln pressure drop decreases, buL Lhe vlbraLlon energy remalns abouL Lhe same
because Lhe flow raLe lncreases.
lor Lhe experlmenLs ln flgure 3.24b a slmllar reglme paLLern ls observed for Lhe Lwo
experlmenLs wlLh dlfferenL ball helghLs buL for Lhe lower hanglng ball (blue llne) hlgher flow
raLes are requlred for acLlve cavlLaLlon owlng Lo Lhe larger gap. A hysLeresls effecL ls also
here clearly vlslble.

0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 12,0 14,0 16,0
P
t
o
o
l

(
b
a
r
)
flow rate (m3/hr)
Pressure drop over the baII versus the fIow rate at
two backpressures for a baII height of 15 mm
No vibration Vibration Active cavitation
Passive cavitation backpressure 3,5 barg backpressure 7,5 barg
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 12,0 14,0 16,0
P
t
o
o
l

(
b
a
r
)
flow rate (m3/hr)
two backpressures for a baII height of 15 mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
a
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 12,0 14,0 16,0
P
t
o
o
l

(
b
a
r
)
flow rate (m3/hr)
two baII heights and a backpressure of 7.5 barg
Passive cavitation height ball 12 mm height ball 15 mm
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 12,0 14,0 16,0
P
t
o
o
l

(
b
a
r
)
flow rate (m3/hr)
two baII heights and a backpressure of 7.5 barg
Passive cavitation height ball 12 mm height ball 15 mm
b
4,56)% X8MT9 U)%336)% @)=E =?%) *A% C"&& ?%)363 *A% >&=B )"*% >=) O %KE%),+%#*3 B,*A <=#,<"&
<=+E"<* *==& (8 2# "G *A% )%36&*3 ")% <=+E")%@ >=) *B= C"</E)%336)%3 "#@ " C"&& A%,5A* => 7X
++ FQ8X C")5 >=) *A% E6)E&% &,#% "#@ O8X C")5 >=) *A% E,#/ &,#%G- BA,&% ,# CG *A% )%36&*3 ")%
<=+E")%@ >=) *B= C"&& A%,5A*3 B,*A " C"</E)%336)% => Q8X C")5 F7X ++ >=) *A% E6)E&% &,#%- ,8%8
*A% 3"+% &,#% "3 ,# >,56)% X8MT"- "#@ 7M ++ >=) *A% C&6% &,#%G8

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
127

lor Lhe flow raLes lndlcaLed ln flgure 3.23a by Lhe polnLs 1 Lo 6, whlch are Lhe same polnLs 1
Lo 6 shown ln flgure 3.24a, Lhe frequency (f) and Lhe relaLlve power () of Lhe waves emlLLed
by Lhe Lool and recelved by Lhe Lwo sensors are glven ln flgure 3.23. 1he blue slgnals come
from Lhe close-by sensor poslLloned [usL underneaLh Lhe edge of Lhe plpe, and Lhe red
slgnals come from a sensor furLher away from Lhe Lool buL aL Lhe same helghL. 1he power
deLermlnes Lhe ampllLude of Lhe wave aL Lhe prevalllng frequency.
When Lhe Lool ls vlbraLlng as ln polnL 1 Lhe self-exclLed vlbraLlon frequency of Lhe Lool ls
abouL 410 Pz and also Lhe hlgher harmonlcs of LhaL frequency are vlslble. AL 410 Pz Lhe
power of Lhe wave as lndlcaLed by Lhe close-by sensor ls slmllar.
lor Lhe flow raLes where acLlve cavlLaLlon occurs as aL polnL 2 Lhe self-exclLed frequency ls
490 Pz wlLh a hlgh power of 610, whlle Lhe average power level lles above 10
-2
. 1he average
power level Lhus lles hlgher Lhan wlLhouL acLlve cavlLaLlon.
AL polnL 3 and aL maxlmal flow raLe aL polnL 4 Lhere ls passlve cavlLaLlon and no vlbraLlon,
and Lhe sound level ls also hlgher Lhan 10
-2
. ln Lhese lasL Lwo specLra Lhe frequencles
beLween 900 and 1000 Pz wlLh a low power of 6 and 3.4 mlghL be caused by unexplalned
vlbraLlon ln Lhe equlpmenL.
AL a flow raLe decreaslng Llll 6.0 m
3
/hr as aL polnL 3 Lhe ball remalns non-vlbraLlng wlLh a low
sound level, and wlLh an unexplalned very low power frequency peak of 0.8 aL abouL 1300
Pz.
lor a flow raLe aL polnL 6 of 3.2 m
3
/hr, Lhe ball resumes lLs vlbraLlon and agaln a sharp
frequency peak aL abouL 430 Pz wlLh a hlgh power of 113 ls vlslble LogeLher wlLh lLs hlgher
harmonlcs.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
128

10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
o
w
e
r

polnL 1) vlbraLlon
flow raLe 3.0 m
3
/hr, f = 410 Pz,
max
= 130
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
o
w
e
r

polnL 2) acLlve cavlLaLlon
flow raLe 6.0 m
3
/hr, f = 490 Pz,
max
= 610
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
o
w
e
r

polnL 3) passlve cavlLaLlon
flow raLe = 7.8 m
3
/hr, f = 960 Pz,
max
= 6
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
o
w
e
r

polnL 4) passlve cavlLaLlon aL max flow
flow raLe = 12.0 m
3
/hr, f = 980 Pz,
max
= 3.4
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
o
w
e
r

polnL 3) no vlbraLlon
flow raLe = 6m
3
/hr, f = 1300 Pz,
max
= 0.8
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
o
w
e
r

polnL 6) vlbraLlon
flow raLe = 3.2 m
3
/hr, f = 430 Pz,
max
= 113
4,56)% X8MX9 U=B%) FUG "#@ >)%;6%#<,%3 F>G => *A% B"?%3 %+,**%@ CD *A% *==& "* *A% >&=B )"*%3
,#@,<"*%@ CD *A% E=,#*3 7 *= Y ,# >,56)% X8MO" "#@ X8MT"8 (&6% 3,5#"&3 )%&"*% *= *A% <&=3%CD
3%#3=) "#@ )%@ 3,5#"&3 *= *A% @,3*"#* 3%#3=)8
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
129

1hls sequence of speclflc frequencles LhaL can be dlsLlngulshed from Lhe power level durlng
lncreaslng and decreaslng flow raLe ls beLLer lllusLraLed ln flgure 3.26.
ln Lhe experlmenL aL 7.3 barg backpressure and a ball helghL of 13 mm (purple llne), Lhe
frequency of Lhe vlbraLlng Lool lles beLween 400 and 300 Pz up Lo 6.0 m
3
/hr. AfLer a [ump
Lhe frequency lncreases from 600 Lo 730 Pz wlLh lncreaslng flow raLe whlle Lhe Lool keeps
vlbraLlng and acLlve cavlLaLlon ls produced. A hysLeresls effecL ls noLed when decreaslng Lhe
flow raLe. 1he [ump may be relaLed Lo a change ln vlbraLlon mode.
1he hlgh frequency aL polnL ls 3 relaLes Lo a low peak power feaLure of
max
= 0.8 ln non
vlbraLlng mode and ls probably relaLed Lo a resonance effecL ln Lhe LesL equlpmenL.

0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 12,0 14,0 16,0
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
H
z
)
flow rate (m3/hr)
Frequency versus the fIow rate at two
backpressures for a baII height of 15 mm
1
2
3
4
5
6

4,56)% X8MY9 4)%;6%#<,%3 => *A% +"K,+6+ E=B%) E%"/3 ?%)363 *A% >&=B )"*%3 >=) *A% *B=
%KE%),+%#*3 B,*A <=#,<"& *==& ( B,*A C"&& A%,5A* 7X ++ E)%3%#*%@ ,# >,56)% X8MT8

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
130

K%J% ."347=;,"3;
lrom Lhe resulLs Lhe followlng concluslons could be drawn:
- A hanglng ball also offers Lhe opporLunlLy Lo use a conlcal houslng lnsLead of a
sLralghL one, where Lhe gap can be ad[usLed by Lhe poslLlonlng of Lhe hanglng ball ln
Lhe houslng. AnoLher advanLage of a hanglng ball ls Lhe ellmlnaLlon of wear and
damage caused by Lhe boLLom supporL.
- LxperlmenLs wlLh a hanglng ball have provlded a much beLLer lnslghL ln Lhe behavlour
of Lhe Lools because Lhe occurrence of cavlLaLlon and of vlbraLlon and roLaLlon of Lhe
ball could be beLLer observed. 1he use of a conlcal houslng and equlpmenL Lo
remoLely ad[usL Lhe poslLlon of Lhe ball ln Lhe conlcal houslng, and Lhereby Lhe gap,
permlLs a good analysls of Lhe flow and vlbraLlon reglmes LhaL are encounLered
wlLhln Lhe physlcal llmlLaLlons of Lhe LesL clrculL.
- An experlmenL wlLh a nylon ball hanglng on a uyneema sLrlng experlenced
premaLure fallure well wlLhln Lhe nomlnal Lenslonal sLrengLh of Lhe sLrlng due Lo
Lorslonal wear and posslble dynamlc overloadlng resulLlng from waLer hammer
effecLs. lL was concluded LhaL frlcLlon free roLaLlon of Lhe ball was lmporLanL for good
vlbraLlon acLlon of Lhe Lool. 1he experlmenLs followlng Lhe 'uyneema' LesLs were
carrled ouL wlLh verLlcal Lools and a hanglng ball LhaL could roLaLe and laLerally move
wlLh mlnlmal frlcLlon.
- 1he vlbraLlon reglme ls bounded by a parabollc llne and - aL hlgher backpressure and
flow raLe - by an almosL horlzonLal llne.
- 1he LranslLlon beLween Lhe vlbraLlng and sLaLlc condlLlon of Lhe ball ls sub[ecL Lo
slgnlflcanL hysLeresls.
- ln Lhe vlbraLlon reglme Lhere ls a llnear LranslLlon llne beLween acLlve cavlLaLlon and
vlbraLlon only, Lhe LranslLlon lLself ls pracLlcally free of hysLeresls.
- 1he reglmes mosL lmporLanLly demonsLraLe LhaL wlLh a vlbraLlng ball cavlLaLlon ls sLlll
posslble aL hlgh backpressures and aL flow raLes lower Lhan needed for passlve
cavlLaLlon wlLhouL vlbraLlon. 1he reglmes also demonsLraLe LhaL vlbraLlon of Lhe ball
ls feaslble up Lo hlgh backpressures aL moderaLe flow raLes.
- vlbraLlon of conlcal Lool 8 provldes a wave energy specLrum wlLh a maxlmum power
peak aL 400 Lo 730 Pz dependlng on Lhe flow raLe and a serles of up Lo 10 hlgher
harmonlcs. AcLlve cavlLaLlon lncreases Lhe average power level compared Lo Lhe
vlbraLlon only reglme.
- 1he onseL of acLlve cavlLaLlon aL lncreaslng backpressure relaLes more or less llnearly
wlLh fluld veloclLy and ls Lherefore relaLed Lo lmpulse domlnaLed effecLs such as
waLer hammer.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
131

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
132

.6'@5)* RB +,;='7,;'5,"3 '32 '3'71;,; ": 612*"213'#,4'771 ,32=4)2 #"/)#)35
": ' -'77 6'38,38 ,3 ' 4"3,4'7 6"=;,38
R%A% >35*"2=45,"3
ln Lhe former Lwo chapLers Lhe vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon behavlour of elLher supporLed or
hanglng balls ln a bounded flow Lhrough a plpe was reporLed. 1he gap raLlo S = /u
ball
wlLh
= u
plpe
- u
ball
where u
ball
= ball dlameLer and u
plpe
= lnLernal plpe dlameLer, was kepL aL a
small value below abouL 0.033. 1he behavlour of Lhe ball was sLrongly affecLed by Lhe raLe of
Lhe passlng flow and by Lhe pressure downsLream of Lhe ball, Lhe so-called backpressure.
varlous reglmes could be dlsLlngulshed LhaL were relaLed Lo Lhe behavlour of Lhe ball. 1he
LranslLlons beLween Lhe reglmes noL only depended on Lhe flow raLe and on Lhe
backpressure, buL also on ball characLerlsLlcs such as lLs slze and denslLy, on Lhe gap raLlo, as
well as on oLher Lool and fluld parameLers.
AL hlgher flow raLes self-exclLed vlbraLlon of Lhe ball ls lnduced by flow lnsLablllLles ln
con[uncLlon wlLh bounclng of Lhe ball agalnsL Lhe lnLernal plpe wall and roLaLlon of Lhe ball
abouL an axls parallel Lo Lhe flow dlrecLlon. 1he vlbraLlon becomes more powerful as Lhe
flow raLe lncreases, and elLher acLlve cavlLaLlon where Lhe ball osclllaLes, or passlve
cavlLaLlon where Lhe ball sLands sLlll ln Lhe cenLre of Lhe flow may occur. asslve cavlLaLlon
sLarLs lf Lhe sLaLlc pressure ln Lhe gap decreases below Lhe vapour pressure of Lhe waLer, and
bubbles are formed. AL lower flow raLes an addlLlonal pressure drop ls needed Lo lnduce
cavlLaLlon whlch comes from Lhe dynamlc pressure drop caused by vlbraLlon of Lhe ball ln
Lhe fluld. 1hls vlbraLlon cuLs off Lhe fluld flow and causes Lhe so-called waLer hammer effecL.
AL hlgher backpressure Lhe flow reglmes are shlfLed ln Lhe dlrecLlon of hlgher flow raLes as
has been lllusLraLed ln ChapLer 3.
8ecause ln all Lhe experlmenLs Lhe ball was poslLloned for a ma[or parL lnslde Lhe houslng,
belng elLher a sLralghL or conlcal houslng, observaLlons of Lhe behavlour of Lhe ball ln
relaLlon Lo vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon evenLs were largely hampered. lor Lhls reason Lhe focus
of Lhls sLudy has been Lhe developmenL of Lechnlques Lo beLLer vlsuallze Lhe movemenL of
Lhe ball lnslde lLs houslng, and Lo relaLe lLs osclllaLlng behavlour Lo Lhe bounclng frequency
agalnsL Lhe lnLernal plpe wall as measured acousLlcally, and when vlslble wlLh Lhe formaLlon
of clouds of acLlve cavlLaLlon bubbles. lf feaslble also Lhe paLLern of Lhe flow LhaL leaves Lhe
plpe would be vlsuallzed.
lor Lhls purpose Lhe parL of Lhe ball proLrudlng from Lhe end of Lhe plpe ln Lhe 30 bar LesL
clrculL descrlbed ln ChapLer 3 was lllumlnaLed by a sheeL of llghL emlLLed by a hlgh power
cold llghL source mounLed on an arm [usL ouLslde a vlewlng wlndow of Lhe chamber, and
phoLographlc lmages and fllms were made wlLh a hlgh speed camera poslLloned ln fronL of
an opposlLe vlewlng wlndow. 1o follow Lhe roLaLlon of Lhe ball marks were grafLed ln Lhe
surface of Lhe ball and Lhe ball was lllumlnaLed by a dlverglng cold llghL beam nexL Lo Lhe
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
133

hlgh speed camera whlle Lhe roLaLlon was recorded. 1he flow paLLern was made vlslble by
addlLlon of parLlcles LhaL could floaL ln waLer.
R%C% OL=,@#)35
1he poslLlonlng of Lhe cold llghL source and Lhe hlgh speed colour dlglLal camera ln fronL of
Lwo opposlLe vlewlng wlndows ln Lhe Lool chamber of Lhe 30 bar LesL clrculL descrlbed ln
ChapLer 3 ls skeLched ln flgure 6.1a.

Light source
High speed camera
Sensor 1
Sensor 2
Light source
High speed camera
Sensor 1
Sensor 2
a
Light source High speed camera
Sensor 1
Sensor 2
Light source High speed camera
Sensor 1
Sensor 2
b
4,56)% Y87 N)=333%<*,=#"& ?,%B >)=+ *A% *=E => *A% *%3* <A"+C%) 3A=B,#5 "G 2&&6+,#"*,=# =>
*A% ?,C)"*,#5 C"&& "#@ <"+%)" E=3,*,=# B,*A " 3A%%* => &,5A*- CG 2&&6+,#"*,=# => *A% ?,C)"*,#5
"#@ )=*"*,#5 C"&& "#@ <"+%)" E=3,*,=# B,*A " @,?%)5,#5 &,5A* C%"+8

1he 1 Lo 2 mm Lhlck sheeL of polarlsed llghL parallel Lo Lhe plpe axls ls provlded by a LLu flbre
opLlc lllumlnaLor (8LvCx, SLC-30s). 1he phoLographlc lmages and Lhe fllms made by Lhe
dlglLal camera (MlkroLron, LoSens, MC3011) come from a sLralghL beam of llghL reflecLed by
Lhe lllumlnaLed ball underneaLh Lhe plpe and by Lhe end secLlon of Lhe plpe wall. 8y Laklng
plcLures wlLh Lhe camera under an angle wlLh Lhe llghL sheeL as shown ln llg 6.1a, Lhe
osclllaLlng movemenL of Lhe ball wlLh respecL Lo Lhe lnner plpe wall could be mosL clearly
recorded.
olyamlde mlcrocapsules LhaL are more or less spherlcal wlLh a mean dlameLer of 30 m
(uanLac uynamlcs S-30) were added Lo Lhe llquld for flow vlsuallzaLlon. 1hese capsules are
small enough Lo be good flow Lracers, and large enough Lo scaLLer sufflclenL llghL for
deLecLlon by Lhe camera.
lor vlsuallzaLlon of Lhe roLaLlon of Lhe ball a dlverglng beam from Lhe llghL source was
dlrecLed Lowards Lhe ball, and Lhe llghL source was poslLloned nexL Lo Lhe camera as
skeLched ln flgure 6.1b. Cn Lhe boLLom parL of Lhe hanglng ball 13 evenly spaced lndenLs
were grafLed LhaL could be seen underneaLh Lhe ball.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
134

R%E% H);=75; '32 2,;4=;;,"3
ln all Lhree experlmenLs a sLeel ball was used wlLh an lnlLlal dlameLer of 44.43 mm ln a
conlcal houslng wlLh an lnlLlal dlameLer of 44.30 mm aL Lhe Lop wldenlng Lo 46.00 mm aL Lhe
boLLom of Lhe houslng. 1hls houslng was connecLed aL Lhe Lop Lo a sLralghL plpe, as
descrlbed ln ChapLer 3 for Lhe shorL Lool wlLh bearlngs.
1he operaLlng condlLlons for Lhe Lhree experlmenLs are glven ln Lable 6.1. 1he plcLures from
Lhe camera were used ln Lhe flrsL Lwo experlmenLs Lo analyse Lhe osclllaLlng behavlour of
Lhe ball aL dlfferenL flow raLes and backpressures, and Lo vlsuallze flow phenomena ln Lhe
fluld LhaL leaves from Lhe gap.
ln experlmenL 1 Lhe ball was vlbraLlng wlLhouL acLlve cavlLaLlon leavlng Lhe plpe aL a flow
raLe of 3.3 m
3
/hr and a backpressure of 2.8 barg. 1he ball was locaLed aL a helghL of 14 mm
ln Lhe houslng, resulLlng ln a gap of 0.33 mm and a gap raLlo of 0.011.
lcLures were made wlLh a speed of 3999 frames per second. 1he LoLal number of frames ln
experlmenL 1 LhaL were analysed Lo calculaLe Lhe frequency of Lhe osclllaLlng behavlour of
Lhe ball was 2270 frames. A slngle frame conslsLed of 230 x 230 plxels, and Lhe slze of one
plxel was 63 x 63 m.
LxperlmenL 1 LxperlmenL 2 LxperlmenL 3
8eglme vlbraLlon AcLlve cavlLaLlon vlbraLlon/roLaLlon
Camera speed (frames/s) 3999 3999 2000
1oLal of frames 2270 2270 2270
8all helghL (mm) 14 14 14
llow raLe (m
3
/hr) 3.3 3.7 2.8
pump (barg) 6.77 3.01 7.39
back (barg) 2.8 1.18 3.37
v
plpe
average (m/s) 0.6 0.6 0.3
Average flow movemenL ln
plpe beLween frames (m)
143 161 249
v
gap
average (m/s) 26.1 29.0 22.4
Average flow movemenL ln
gap beLween frames (m)
6319 7246 11190
Slze 1 plxel (m x m) 63 x 63 47 x 47 88 x 88
lrame slze (plxels) 230 x 230 400 x 200 960 x 360
0"C&% Y879 eE%)"*,#5 <=#@,*,=#38
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
133

R%E%A% O?@)*,#)35 A
1wo plcLures correspondlng wlLh frame 3 and frame 8 are glven ln flgure 6.2. 1hese plcLures
represenL Lhe conLour llnes of Lhe ball ln Lhe plpe. ln Lhe upper plcLure Lhe ball ls maxlmally
Lo Lhe lefL wlLh respecL Lo Lhe lnner plpe wall seen aL Lhe rlghL hand slde of Lhe plcLure, and
ln Lhe lower plcLure Lhe ball has moved maxlmally Lo Lhe rlghL. 1he dlsLance beLween Lhe
Lwo poslLlons ls marked by Lhe Lwo verLlcal blue llnes. 1he polnLs where Lhe ball acLually
collldes wlLh Lhe lnner plpe wall are locaLed hlgher up lnslde of Lhe plpe and cannoL be seen
ln Lhe conLour plcLures.

Frame 3
Frame 8
5 mm
nner
pipe
wall
nner
pipe
wall
Frame 3
Frame 8
5 mm
nner
pipe
wall
nner
pipe
wall

4,56)% Y8M9 0B= >)"+%3 >=) %KE%),+%#* 7 B,*A *A% C"&& ,# *B= %K*)%+% E=3,*,=#38
1he horlzonLal poslLlons of Lhe ball durlng lLs movemenL from one slde of Lhe plpe Lo Lhe
oLher are drawn on Lhe verLlcal axls ln flgure 6.3 (expressed ln mm or ln plxels) as a funcLlon
of Llme for Lhe flrsL 19 frames of experlmenL 1. 1he change ln poslLlon of Lhe ball ls deduced
from Lhe average movemenL of a large number of polnLs lylng on Lhe conLour llne of Lhe ball
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
136

as marked ln flgure 6.2 by a red llne. 1he boLLom and Lhe Lop of Lhe slnusoldal curve ln flgure
6.3 correspond wlLh Lhe momenLs of colllslon of Lhe ball wlLh Lhe lefL and Lhe rlghL hand slde
of Lhe plpe. 1he Llme beLween Lwo subsequenL exLremes ln poslLlon Lhus represenLs half of
Lhe ampllLude of Lhe osclllaLlon and Lhe Llme beLween Lwo maxlma allows calculaLlon of Lhe
frequency of Lhe colllslons.
position of the baII versus frame number and time
-0,4
-0,3
-0,2
-0,1
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
frame number
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

(
m
m
)
-6,1
-4,6
-3,1
-1,5
0,0
1,5
3,1
4,6
6,1
0 1 2 3 4
time (ms)
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

(
p
i
x
e
l
)

4,56)% Y8O9 U=3,*,=# => *A% C"&& >=) *A% >,)3* 7[ >)"+%3 "3 " >6#<*,=# => *,+%8
Closer observaLlon of Lhe phoLographlc lmages of frame 3 and especlally of frame 8 reveals
Lhe exlsLence of whlLe clouds of lllumlnaLed polyamlde parLlcles. 1hese parLlcles LhaL were
added as flow Lracers and expecLed Lo be evenly dlspersed ln Lhe fluld, apparenLly became
clusLered due Lo Lhe formaLlon of vorLlces below Lhe plpe exlL. 1hls clusLerlng of parLlcles
and Lhe hlgh veloclLy of Lhe fluld comlng ouL of Lhe gap prevenLs a lv analysls of Lhe fluld
for veloclLy calculaLlons.
lrom a lasL lourler 1ransform (ll1) analysls of Lhe LoLal number of 2270 frames Laken
durlng experlmenL 1, Lhe frequencles correspondlng wlLh Lhe maxlmal ampllLude of Lhe ball
movemenL expressed ln plxels could be derlved as presenLed ln flgure 6.4. 1he flrsL and
followlng harmonlcs are seen ln Lhe flgure and Lhe frequency of Lhe flrsL harmonlc wlLh
ampllLude of 3 plxels ls 437 Pz. 1hls ampllLude dlffers from Lhe value of 4.3 plxels ln flgure
6.3 due Lo Lhe ll1 analysls.
1he frequency was also calculaLed from a ll1 analysls of Lhe pressure ampllLude daLa
recorded by Lhe pressure sound sensors poslLloned ln Lhe chamber nexL Lo and sllghLly
below Lhe Lool. 1he frequency derlved from Lhese measuremenLs ls 433 Pz and agrees well
wlLh Lhe frequency from Lhe analysls of Lhe ball movemenL.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
137

ll1 ball movemenL daLa ll1 sound sensor daLa (8lue = sensor 1, 8ed
= sensor 2)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
Ball vibration
Frequency (Hz)
P
i
x
e
l
s
Ball movement
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
Ball vibration
Frequency (Hz)
P
i
x
e
l
s
Ball movement

10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

i
n

a
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
s
Pressure fluctuation
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

i
n

a
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
s

flow raLe 3.3 m
3
/h, f = 437 Pz, A = 3 flow raLe 3.3 m
3
/h, f = 433 Pz,
max
= 433
4,56)% Y8T9 440 "#"&D3,3 => *A% +=?%+%#* => *A% C"&& %KE)%33%@ "3 E,K%&3 ! =) "3 E)%336)%
"+E&,*6@% >)=+ *A% 3=6#@ 3%#3=)38
ln flgure 6.3 all devlaLlons ln poslLlon of Lhe ball for each Llme cycle durlng Lhe whole
experlmenL of 2270 frames are ploLLed on Lop of each oLher. 1he ampllLudes remaln abouL
Lhe same durlng Lhe whole experlmenL and Lhe maxlmal movemenL of Lhe ball from lefL Lo
rlghL remalns abouL 0.33 mm and corresponds wlLh Lhe gap slze aL a ball helghL of 14 mm.

position of the baII during each subsequent cycIe
-0,4
-0,3
-0,2
-0,1
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0 0,5 1 1,5 2
time (ms)
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

(
m
m
)

4,56)% Y8X9 E=3,*,=#3 => *A% C"&& @6),#5 ,*3 +=?%+%#* ,# M 36C3%;6%#* *,+% <D<&%3 E&=**%@ =#
*=E => %"<A =*A%)8
R%E%C% O?@)*,#)35 C
ln experlmenL 2 Lhe flow raLe was lncreased Lo 3.7m
3
/hr and Lhe average veloclLy ln Lhe gap
Lo 29.0 m/s. Also Lhe frame and plxel slzes were changed. under Lhese condlLlons Lhe ball
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
138

was vlbraLlng more vlgorously and acLlve cavlLaLlon was observed (see flgure 6.6). ln frame
89 a small cloud of whlLe lllumlnaLed parLlcles appears [usL ouLslde of Lhe plpe. 1lll frame 93
Lhls cloud becomes larger and flows down. ln frame 93 aL flrsL acLlve cavlLaLlon ls spoLLed
LhaL furLher develops lnLo a large cloud of cavlLaLlon bubbles ln frame 94. 1hls cloud
dlslnLegraLes ln frame 93 ln a number of vorLlces of bubbles. ln frame 94 a second cavlLaLlon
vorLex develops lefL from Lhe whlLe cavlLaLlon cloud as a dark shadow because Lhls vorLex
appears ln Lhe shadow of Lhe ball. ln Lhe nexL frames 93 and 96 Lhls second cavlLaLlon vorLex
ls even beLLer observable because Lhe flrsL vorLex ls Lhen dlsappearlng by lmploslon of Lhe
bubbles. ln frame 98, cavlLaLlon ls no longer observed.
87
98
97
96
95
93
94
92
91
90
89
88

4,56)% Y8Y9 0B%&?% >)"+%3 >=) %KE%),+%#* M 3A=B,#5 "<*,?% <"?,*"*,=# FO[[[ >E3G8 0A% BA,*%
"))=B 3A=B3 *A% +=?%+%#* => *A% C"&&8
1he horlzonLal poslLlons of Lhe ball for Lhese parLlcular frames are ploLLed ln flgure 6.7 as a
funcLlon of Llme and frames. Also for Lhls cycle a slnusoldal curve ls observed, alLhough lLs
shape ls sllghLly dlsLorLed by Lhe cavlLaLlon, and probably also Lo some exLenL by Lhe less
clear conLrasL beLween Lhe conLour of Lhe ball and Lhe fluld. lrom Lhe flgure 6.7 Lhe
dlrecLlon of Lhe ball movemenL as lndlcaLed ln flgure 6.6 by arrows ln Lhe frames were
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
139

deduced. 1hls shows LhaL cavlLaLlon ls observed underneaLh Lhe plpe as Lhe ball moves lnLo
Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe wall.
position of the baII versus frame number and time
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
87 89 91 93 95 97 99
frame number
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

(
m
m
)
0,0
2,1
4,2
6,3
8,4
10,5
12,6
14,7
21,5 22,0 22,5 23,0 23,5 24,0 24,5
time (ms)
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

(
p
i
x
e
l
)

4,56)% Y8Q9 U=3,*,=# => *A% C"&& >=) *B%&?% >)"+%3 >)=+ %KE%),+%#* M "3 " >6#<*,=# => *,+%8
lrom a lasL lourler 1ransform (ll1) analysls of Lhe LoLal number of 2270 frames Laken
durlng experlmenL 2, Lhe frequencles correspondlng wlLh Lhe maxlmal ampllLude of Lhe ball
movemenL expressed ln plxels could be derlved as presenLed ln flgure 6.8. 1he flrsL and
followlng harmonlcs are seen ln Lhe flgure and Lhe frequency of Lhe flrsL harmonlc ls 331 Pz.
1he frequency was also calculaLed from a ll1 analysls of Lhe pressure ampllLude daLa
recorded by Lhe pressure sound sensors. 1he hlghesL peak ln Lhls frequency specLrum ls 700
Pz buL Lhls ls Lhe second harmonlc. 1he flrsL harmonlc ls also clearly seen and has a
frequency of 330 Pz LhaL agrees well wlLh LhaL from Lhe movemenL of Lhe ball.
ll1 ball movemenL daLa ll1 sound sensor daLa (8lue = sensor 1,
8ed = sensor 2)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
Ball vibration
Frequency (Hz)
P
ix
e
ls
Ball movement
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
Ball vibration
Frequency (Hz)
P
ix
e
ls
Ball movement

10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
m
p
li
t
u
d
e

i
n

a
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
s
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
Fourier plot
frequency (Hz)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
m
p
li
t
u
d
e

i
n

a
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
s

flow raLe 3.69 m
3
/h, f = 331 Pz, A =3.8 flow raLe 3.69 m
3
/h, f = 700 & 330 Pz,
max
=
238 & 70
4,56)% Y8\9 440 "#"&D3,3 => *A% +=?%+%#* => *A% C"&& %KE)%33%@ "3 E,K%&3 ! =) "3 E)%336)%
"+E&,*6@% U
+"K
>)=+ *A% 3=6#@ 3%#3=)38
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
140

ln an experlmenL under ldenLlcal operaLlng condlLlons buL wlLh a frame raLe of 3600 frames
per second slmllar resulLs were obLalned, buL Lhe occurrence of vorLlces durlng acLlve
cavlLaLlon are more clearly ldenLlfled as can be seen from Lhe phoLos ln flgure 6.9.

273
275
274
276
278
277
279
280
281
282
283
284
271
272
285

4,56)% Y8[9 0B%&?% >)"+%3 >=) @6E&,<"*% => %KE%),+%#* M 3A=B,#5 "<*,?% <"?,*"*,=# FXYWW >E3G8
0A% BA,*% "))=B 3A=B3 *A% @,)%<*,=# => +=?%+%#* => *A% C"&&8
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
141

R%E%E% O?@)*,#)35 E
ln experlmenL 3 a dlverglng llghL beam was used, resulLlng ln a lower llghL lnLenslLy Lhan ln
Lhe prevlous experlmenLs. ln order Lo capLure enough llghL Lhe hlgh speed camera could only
record aL 2000 frames/s. 1he flow was reduced Lo 2.8 m
3
/hr and Lhe backpressure lncreased
Lo 3.3 barg Lo avold acLlve cavlLaLlon because a clear lmage of Lhe lndenLs ln Lhe lower parL
of Lhe hanglng ball was needed. lrom former observaLlons lL was known LhaL Lhe ball always
roLaLed durlng vlbraLlon, and LhaL only ln case of passlve cavlLaLlon no roLaLlon occurred.
lrom flgure 6.10 lL can be seen LhaL Lhe ball roLaLes Lo Lhe nexL of Lhe 13 evenly spaced
grafLed lndenLs. 1he ball roLaLes wlLh 1.7 revoluLlons per second. ln some cases Lhe ball
roLaLed under furLher slmllar condlLlons ln Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon. Movle recordlngs
conslsLenLly show slmulLaneous vlbraLlon and roLaLlon, Lhls can however noL be shown ln
Lhls reporL ln sLlll plcLures.

Frame 78
Frame 1
10 mm
Frame 78
Frame 1
10 mm

llgure 6.109 4)"+% 7 "#@ Q\ => %KE%),+%#* O 3A=B,#5 )=*"*,=# => *A% C"&&8

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
142

R%J% ."347=;,"3;
- uurlng vlbraLlon Lhe ball ls always roLaLlng elLher clockwlse or counLer clockwlse
around an axls parallel wlLh Lhe dlrecLlon of flow.
- 1he ball vlbraLes wlLh a consLanL ampllLude and frequency aL a glven flow raLe and
gap slze ln condlLlons wlLhouL observable acLlve cavlLaLlon followlng a slnusoldal
dlsplacemenL versus Llme relaLlonshlp.
- ln case of acLlve cavlLaLlon Lhe frequency also remalns consLanL for a consLanL flow
raLe, however Lhe dlsplacemenL versus Llme relaLlonshlp shows dlsLorLlon, probably
caused by Lhe cavlLaLlon effecL.
- 1he frequency of vlbraLlon calculaLed by ll1 analysls from Lhe ball movemenLs agrees
wlLh Lhose obLalned by ll1 analysls from pressure daLa recorded by sound sensors.
- 1he movemenL of Lhe ball durlng vlbraLlon ls conslsLenL wlLh Lhe gap slze.
- lf acLlve cavlLaLlon occurs, lL ls observed Lo be leavlng Lhe plpe when Lhe ball moves
Lowards Lhe plpe wall.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
143

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
144

.6'@5)* TB .'/,5'5,"3 '32 /,-*'5,"3 -1 :7"M '7"38 ' -"55"# ;=@@"*5)2 -'77 ,3
' EKU -'* 5);5 4,*4=,5
T%A% >35*"2=45,"3
An lmporLanL alm of Lhls sLudy ls Lhe deslgn of a Lool conslsLlng of a free movlng body ln a
houslng, LhaL operaLes elLher by vlbraLlon of Lhe body, mosLly a ball, or by cavlLaLlon or by
boLh acLlons LogeLher ln an envlronmenL of aLmospherlc up Lo hlgh backpressure. Cleanlng
of waLer or oll wells for example Lo resLore Lhe permeablllLy of Lhe porous rock formaLlon ln
Lhe lnflow horlzon or Lo clean Lhe wellbore lLself should be an lmporLanL appllcaLlon of a
vlbraLlon based cleanlng Lool.
1he waves lnduced by vlbraLlon of Lhe ball wlLh frequencles of 100 Lo 1000 Pz are able Lo
dlsrupL assemblles of Llny parLlcles LhaL cause blockage of Lhe pores. 1he peneLraLlon depLh
of waves ln Lhls frequency range ls several declmeLres and Lhe power of Lhese vlbraLlons ls
noL much affecLed by Lhe backpressure. CavlLaLlon ls much more affecLed by Lhe
backpressure. 1o lnduce cavlLaLlon aL hlgher surroundlng pressures Lhe flow raLe has Lo be
subsLanLlally lncreased.
Shock waves from lmplodlng cavlLaLlon bubbles have a lower peneLraLlon depLh, and Lhelr
cleanlng acLlon Lherefore remalns llmlLed Lo surface cleanlng of Lhe well bore from foullng or
mlneral scale layers and Lhe cleanlng of gravel beds behlnd fllLer Lubes ln Lhe lmmedlaLe
vlclnlLy of Lhe well bore.
ln Lhe 30 bar LesL clrculL LesLs could only be performed up Lo a maxlmal backpressure of 10
barg. 8oLh passlve and acLlve cavlLaLlon dled ouL aL backpressures of 8 Lo 9 barg aL Lhe
maxlmal flow raLes LhaL could be achleved wlLh Lhls LesL clrculL. ln order Lo perform
experlmenLs aL sufflclenLly hlgh flow raLes and aL backpressures as encounLered ln deep
wells, a new 330 barg LesL clrculL was assembled ln urachLen. 1hese experlmenLs allowed
sLudy of Lhe dependence of Lhe reglmes where no vlbraLlon, vlbraLlon comblned wlLh
bounclng, acLlve or passlve cavlLaLlon or a comblnaLlon of vlbraLlon and acLlve cavlLaLlon
occurred, on Lhe flow raLe aL hlgh backpressures behlnd Lhe ball for dlfferenL gaps beLween
Lhe ball and Lhe houslng of Lhe Lool.
8ecause a 330 barg LesL clrculL ls much more demandlng Lo operaLe Lhan Lhe 30 barg LesL
loop, only a llmlLed number of selecLed LesLs were done ln Lhe 330 barg clrculL. 1hls chapLer
dlscusses Lhese experlmenLs wlLh a flow passlng along a boLLom supporLed ball ln a sLralghL
horlzonLal Lool aL hlgh backpressures. SufflclenLly hlgh flow raLes were generaLed by a
'Carden uenver' Lrlplex plunger pump. 8alls of varlous dlameLers and Lypes of maLerlal were
used ln houslngs of Lwo dlameLers.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
143

8ecause aL hlgh flow raLes Lhe force exerLed by Lhe ball on Lhe supporL was very hlgh,
slgnlflcanL wear or even breakage of Lhe supporL occurred. 1herefore Lhe behavlour of Lhe
Lool was analysed where Lhe elasLlc llmlLs and sLrengLh of Lhe supporL were exceeded.

T%C % Q);4*,@5,"3 ": 56) EKU -'* 5);5 4,*4=,5
1o bulld Lhe new LesL clrculL ln urachLen Lhe former exploraLory LesL clrculL ln Assen was
dlsmanLled and modlfled Lo meeL new speclflcaLlons. A ma[or modlflcaLlon Lo obLaln a
closed clrculL concerned Lhe Lrlplex plunger pump. 1he orlglnal pump was only sulLable for
low sucLlon pressures and for 330 barg aL Lhe dlscharge slde. So Lhe pump had Lo be
dlsmanLled and rebullL Lo make also Lhe sucLlon manlfold sulLable for 330 barg pressure.
1he Lool ln Lhe LesL chamber remalned horlzonLal, and Lhe loop was bullL from carbon sLeel
ollfleld componenLs, see flgure 7.1. All flow-llnes had an lnLernal dlameLer of 2". 1he LesL
clrculL also had coollng faclllLles and Lhe LoLal volume of Lhe closed clrculL was 0.3 m
3
. lor
each run Lhe sysLem was flushed and refllled wlLh Lap waLer. no degasser was lnsLalled.
8efore Lhe sLarL of an experlmenL Lhe sysLem was pressurlzed by use of a small alr drlven
plsLon pump unLll Lhe requlred pressure was reached. 1he maxlmum flow raLe LhaL could be
achleved wlLh Lhe pump was 40 m
3
/hr.
1he pulsaLlon caused by Lhe plunger pump was prevenLed by Lwo pulsaLlon dampeners pre-
charged wlLh nlLrogen. 1he horlzonLally poslLloned Lool could be equlpped [usL as ln Assen
wlLh a cyllndrlcal plpe of 18.30 mm lnner dlameLer as houslng, buL also wlLh a houslng of
46.00 mm lnner dlameLer. ln Lhe smaller houslng four sLeel balls and one Sl
4
n
3
ball were
LesLed, whlle ln Lhe larger houslng Lwo sLeel balls and one Sl
4
n
3
ball were LesLed. A cyllndrlcal
supporL bar was aLLached Lo Lhe end of Lhe plpe Lo reLaln Lhe ball lnslde Lhe plpe, see flgure
7.2. 1he Lool was placed lnslde Lhe LesL chamber Lhrough a sLufflng box and spaced ouL ln
fronL of four vlewlng wlndows wlLh a dlameLer of 40 mm. Cne of Lhese wlndows was used
for lllumlnaLlon wlLh a halogen lamp, and anoLher conLalned a pressure sensor.

4,56)% Q879 OXW C")5 *%3* <,)<6,* ,# ])"<A*%# B,*A " <&=3%@ 3D3*%+- " E6+E B,*A A,5A E)%336)%
36<*,=#- *B= E6&3"*,=# @"+E%#%)3- " *%3* <A"+C%) "#@ A,5A E)%336)% E,E% B=)/8
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
146

4,56)% Q8M9 A=),H=#*"& *%3* <A"+C%) B,*A ?,%B,#5 B,#@=B3 "#@ B,*A *==& ,#3,@%8

T%E% H);=75; '32 2,;4=;;,"3
nlne serles of experlmenLs were performed: flve serles wlLh 4 small sLeel balls, one serles
wlLh a small Sl
3
n
4
ball ln an 18.30 mm dlameLer plpe, Lwo serles wlLh 2 large sLeel balls and
one serles wlLh a large Sl
3
n
4
ball ln a 46.00 mm dlameLer plpe, see Lhe flrsL 4 columns ln
Lable 7.1. ln one experlmenL wlLh a small sLeel ball a very small amounL of nlLrogen gas was
added. lor each serles wlLh a flxed comblnaLlon of ball and plpe slze a number of
experlmenLs were done sLarLlng aL varlous lnlLlal backpressures (column 6) and aL a number
of hlgher average pump pressures (see column 7). 1he pump pressure was kepL aL a more or
less consLanL value durlng each experlmenL, excepL for 4 experlmenLs. uurlng an experlmenL
Lhe flow raLe was lncreased sLepwlse whlch caused an lncreaslng pressure drop over Lhe ball
aL a decreaslng backpressure. 1he range of mlnlmal and maxlmal flow raLes LhaL were
reached for a serles of experlmenLs ls also glven ln Lable 7.1. (column 3).
1hree serles of experlmenLs (serles 4, 3 and 9) wlll be dlscussed ln deLall. 1he flrsL serles
concerns experlmenLs wlLh a 17.46 mm dlameLer sLeel ball ln a plpe wlLh an lnner dlameLer
of 18.30 mm aL lnlLlal backpressures of 48, 100, 130, 210 and 260 barg and aL four average
pump pressures of 73, 110, 170 and 220 barg and aL one decreaslng pump pressure. lor an
lnlLlal backpressure of 48 barg Lhe sLepwlse lncrease ln flow raLe from 8.3 Llll 18.3 m
3
/hr
caused Lhe backpressure Lo decrease Llll 16 barg, and Lhe fluld force exerLed on Lhe ball and
Lhus on Lhe conLacL area beLween Lhe ball and Lhe supporL Lo become as hlgh as 1300 n
excludlng waLer hammer forces, see Lable 7.2. , resulLlng ln deformaLlon of Lhe conLacL area
beLween ball and supporL.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
147

Serles 8all
dlameLer
lpe
dlameLer
MaLerlal llow raLe
range
mln - max
lnlLlal backpressure Average pump
pressure
mm mm m3/hr barg barg
1 16.67 18.30 sLeel 8.4 - 26.4 40 - 60 - 130 - 180 -
230
30 - 100 - 130 - 200 -
230 (decreaslng)
2 17.00 18.30 sLeel 7.8 - 30.8 40 - 83 - 140 - 200 -
230
30 - 100 - 130 - 210 -
230
3 17.46 18.30 sLeel 7.8 - 22.3 48 - 100 - (130)* -
210 - (260)
73 - 110 - (170)* -
220- (280 decreaslng)
4 17.46 18.30 sLeel +
nlLrogen
8.1 - 22.2 (60) - 80 - 100 (80) - 100 - 130
3 17.46 18.30 Sl
3
n
4
7.8 - 21.0 30 - 70 - 130 80 - 100 - 200
6 18.00 18.30 sLeel 2.1 - 9.6 30 60 (lncreaslng Lo 260)
7 42.86 46.00 Sl
3
n
4
13.3 - 23.2 30 30
8 44.43 46.00 sLeel 8.4 - 34.8 8 - 43 - (93) - (130)
-200 - 230
13 - 30 - (100) - (130)
- 200 - 230
(decreaslng)
9

43.00 46.00 sLeel 8.4 - 38.1 10 - 40 - 100 - 130 -
(200) - (230)
13 - 30 - 100 - 130 -
(200) - (230)
0"C&% Q879 hKE%),+%#*"& <=#@,*,=#3j g %KE%),+%#*3 C%*B%%# E")%#*A%3,3 ")% <=#3,@%)%@ #=*
)%&,"C&% C%<"63% => " *== &")5% >&6,@ >=)<% B"3 %K%)*%@ =# *A% C"&&8 0A% *%3*3 C%*B%%# C)"</%*3
FG D,%&@%@ @=6C*>6& )%36&*38
AL Lhe four lower flow raLes ln Lable 7.2 vlbraLlon of Lhe ball occurred. noLlceable vlbraLlon ls
always accompanled by bounclng of Lhe ball agalnsL Lhe lnner wall of Lhe plpe. AL flow raLes
of 16.2 and 17.9 m
3
/hr vlbraLlon lncreases Lhe pressure drop ln Lhe gap due Lo Lhe waLer
hammer effecL and acLlve cavlLaLlon occurred. AL Lhe Lwo hlghesL flow raLes passlve
cavlLaLlon was observed for a non-vlbraLlng ball. 1hls lmplles LhaL for a ball of 17.46 mm
dlameLer ln a plpe of 18.30 mm lnner dlameLer passlve cavlLaLlon was obLalned aL an almosL
Lhree Llmes hlgher backpressure Lhan could be reached for Lhe same ball-plpe comblnaLlon
ln ChapLer 4 because a Lwo Llmes hlgher flow raLe could be lmposed.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
148

llow raLe
m
3
/hr
8ackpressure
barg
ump-pressure
barg
lorce on ball
n
8eglme
8.3 48 72 360 vlbraLlon
13.3 39 73 793 vlbraLlon
16.2 33 73 894 acLlve cavlLaLlon
17.9 33 78 1061 acLlve cavlLaLlon
18.3 16 80 1302 passlve cavlLaLlon
0"C&%Q8M9 4,)3* %KE%),+%#* >)=+ 3%),%3 T B,*A " 7Q8TY ++ C"&& ,# "# 7\8XW ++ E,E% "* "#
,#,*,"& C"</E)%336)% => T\ C")5 "#@ "# "?%)"5% E6+E E)%336)% => QX C")58
1he observed reglmes of vlbraLlon wlLh bounclng of Lhe ball and of elLher acLlve or passlve
cavlLaLlon are also shown flgure 7.3.a where Lhe flow raLe ls ploLLed versus Lhe backpressure.
17,46 mmsteel ball in 18,50 mmpipe
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 100 200 300
backpressure (Bar)
f
lo
w

(
m
3
/
h
r
)Still
Vibration
Active cavitation
Passive cavitation
a
17,46 mmsteel ball in 18,50 mmpipe
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 100 200 300
backpressure (Bar)
f
lo
w

(
m
3
/
h
r
)Still
Vibration
Active cavitation
Passive cavitation
b
4,56)% Q8O9 "G ^%5,+%3 >=) *A)%% %KE%),+%#*3 3*")*,#5 "* @,>>%)%#* C"</E)%336)%3 >)=+ 3%),%3 T
"#@ CG )%5,+%3 >=) "&& %KE%),+%#*3 >)=+ 3%),%3 T "#@ X8
ln splLe of Lhe chance LhaL some damage had been lnfllcLed on Lhe supporL aL Lhe hlghesL
flow raLe, Lhe nexL experlmenL aL an lnlLlal backpressure of 100 barg was performed wlLh Lhe
same Lool. ln Lhls experlmenL Lhe backpressure decreased from abouL 100 barg Lo 7.3 barg
as Lhe flow raLe was lncreased sLepwlse from 8.6 m
3
/hr Lo 19.4 m
3
/hr (see flgure 7.4. and
Lable 7.3.). AL a low flow raLe of 8.6 m
3
/hr no vlbraLlon of Lhe ball was observed buL aL a flow
raLe of 12.3 m
3
/hr and 81 barg backpressure vlbraLlon was noLlced (see also flgure 7.3.a, b).
AL a flow raLe of 13.4m
3
/hr and a backpressure of 63 barg Lhe ball sLlll vlbraLed and a
cavlLaLlon cloud of 1 cm lengLh was formed (flgure 7.3.c).
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
149

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 50 100 150 200 250
time (sec)
B
a
r
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
m
3
/
h
r
Pump pressure (Bar)
Back pressure (Bar)
Temp water (C)
Flow (m3/hr)

4,56)% Q8T9 4&=B )"*% "#@ E)%336)%3 ?%)363 *,+% >=) " 7Q8TY ++ 3*%%& C"&& ,# "# 7\8XW ++
E,E%8

llow raLe
m
3
/hr
8ackpressure
barg
ump pressure
barg
lorce on ball
n
8eglme
8.6 100 112 283 no vlbraLlon (flgure 7.3.a)
12.3 81 103 360 vlbraLlon (flgure 7.3.b)
13.4 63 110
1110
acLlve cavlLaLlon (flgure
7.3.c)
17.1 64 111
1110
passlve cavlLaLlon (flgure
7.3.d)
19.4 7.3 126
2789
passlve cavlLaLlon (flgure
7.3.e)
0"C&% Q8O9 hKE%),+%#* B,*A *A% 7Q8TY ++ C"&& ,# *A% 7\8XW E,E% "* "# ,#,*,"& C"</E)%336)% =>
7WW C")5 "#@ "# "?%)"5% E6+E E)%336)% => 77W C")58
Slnce aL 13.4 m
3
/hr Lhe ball ls vlbraLlng and Lhe cavlLaLlon cloud appears aL Lhe narrow slde
of Lhe gap, we are deallng wlLh acLlve cavlLaLlon. 8y lncreaslng Lhe flow raLe Lo 17.1m
3
/hr
passlve cavlLaLlon sLarLed Lo occur aL a backpressure of 64 barg all around a non-vlbraLlng
ball. So Lhese flow raLes apparenLly sufflce Lo lnvoke elLher acLlve or passlve cavlLaLlon aL a
backpressure of 63 Lo 64 barg, see also flgure 7.3.a. asslve cavlLaLlon was sLlll seen aL a flow
raLe of 19.4m
3
/hr aL a pressure drop of abouL 118 bar over Lhe ball. 1hls pressure drop over
Lhe ball lnduced a fluld force of abouL 2789 n on Lhe conLacL area beLween Lhe ball and Lhe
supporL.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
130

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
a b c d e
4,56)% Q8X9 U,<*6)%3 *A)=65A " TW ++ ?,%B,#5 B,#@=B => *A% >&=B @=B#3*)%"+ => *A% 7\8XW
++ E,E% =6*&%* 3A=B,#59 "G #= ?,C)"*,=#- CG ?,C)"*,=# B,*A=6* <"?,*"*,=#- <G "<*,?% <"?,*"*,=#-
@G E"33,?% <"?,*"*,=#- %G E"33,?% <"?,*"*,=#
AfLer lowerlng Lhe flow raLe Llll abouL 8 m
3
/hr, Lhe nexL experlmenL was sLarLed aL an lnlLlal
backpressure of 130 barg and a consLanL pump pressure of 170 barg (noL shown ln Lable 1).
ulrecLly afLer Lhls measuremenL Lhe Lool was dlsmanLled, because Lhe observaLlons dld noL
meeL Lhe expecLaLlons. lndeed a clear lndenL was observed on Lhe supporL LhaL was also
broken off aL one slde, see flgure 7.6. AfLer replaclng Lhe supporL, Lhe Lhlrd experlmenL of
serles 4 aL an lnlLlal backpressure of 210 barg and a pump pressure of 220 barg was
performed. 1he observaLlons aL four flow raLes ln Lhls experlmenL have been added Lo flgure
7.3.a. 1he fourLh polnL aL a flow raLe of 17.1 m
3
/hr showed unexpecLedly LhaL Lhe ball dld
noL vlbraLe, buL no passlve cavlLaLlon was observed. AL a force of 1110 n exerLed by Lhe ball
on Lhe supporL an lndenL as shown ln flgure 7.6 could easlly have been formed and have
sLablllzed Lhe ball before Lhe pressure drop ln Lhe gap as needed for elLher acLlve or passlve
cavlLaLlon was reached.
10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% Q8Y9 ]"+"5% ,#>&,<*%@ =# *A% 36EE=)* CD *A% >&6,@ >=)<% =# *A% 7Q8TY ++ C"&&8
Slnce ln serles 3 only Lraces of nlLrogen gas were added, Lhls serles can be consldered as a
dupllcaLe of serles 4. 1he flndlngs abouL Lhe reglmes from Lhls serles have Lherefore been
merged wlLh Lhose of serles 4 ln flgure 7.3.b. Cnly one polnL aL a flow raLe of 19.8 m
3
/hr and
a backpressure of 70 barg wlLh passlve cavlLaLlon does noL flL ln Lhe LoLal reglme plcLure.
So from flgure 7.3 lL can be deduced LhaL vlbraLlon wlLh bounclng of Lhe ball can be obLalned
aL flow raLes beLween abouL 7.0 and 17.0 m
3
/hr up Lo backpressures of 200 barg aL lower
flow raLes of abouL 7.0 m
3
/hr. AcLlve cavlLaLlon occurs up Lo 63 barg backpressure lf Lhe flow
raLe ls lncreased above 13.0 m
3
/hr, changlng lnLo passlve cavlLaLlon aL 64 barg backpressure
and a flow raLe of 17.0 m
3
/hr.
ln serles 9 experlmenLs were performed wlLh a 44.43 mm dlameLer sLeel ball ln a plpe wlLh
an lnner dlameLer of 46.00 mm aL lnlLlal backpressures of 8, 43, 93, 130, 200 and 230 barg
and aL flve average pump pressures of 13, 30, 100, 130 and 200 barg and aL one decreaslng
pump pressure. lor an lnlLlal backpressure of 8 barg Lhe sLepwlse lncrease ln flow raLe from
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
131

8.4 Llll 34.8 m
3
/hr aL more or less consLanL pump pressure caused Lhe backpressure Lo
decrease and passlve cavlLaLlon was observed for a non-vlbraLlng ball (see flgure 7.7).
44,45 mm steeI baII in 46,00 mm pipe
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
0 100 200 300
backpessure (Bar)
f
I
o
w

(
m
3
/
h
r
)
Still
Vibration
Strong noise
Active cavitation
Passive cavitation

4,56)% Q8Q9 ^%5,+%3 >=) "&& %KE%),+%#*3 3*")*,#5 "* @,>>%)%#* C"</E)%336)%3 >)=+ 3%),%3 [8
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Flow (m3/hr)
Pump pressure (Bar)
Back pressure (Bar)
Temp water (C)
time (s)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Flow (m3/hr)
Pump pressure (Bar)
Back pressure (Bar)
Temp water (C)
time (s)

4,56)% Q8\9 4&=B )"*% "#@ E)%336)%3 ?%)363 *,+% >=) " TT8TX ++ 3*%%& C"&& ,# " TY8WW ++ E,E%8
ln Lhe experlmenL wlLh an lnlLlal backpressure of 43 barg Lhe flow raLe was lncreased from
8.4 m
3
/hr Llll 30.0 m
3
/hr aL a sllghLly decreaslng pump pressure of abouL 43 barg as shown ln
flgure 7.8. AL Lhe hlghesL flow raLe of 30.0 m
3
/hr vlbraLlon suddenly sLopped and afLer
dlsmanLllng Lhe supporL was seen Lo be broken, see flgure 7.9. 1hls happened afLer Lhe ball
was sub[ecLed Lo approxlmaLely 20 bar pressure dlfferenLlal, resulLlng ln a force on Lhe ball
and supporL of some 3100 n, excludlng posslble addlLlonal forces due Lo waLer hammer. 1he
erraLlc pressure flucLuaLlons may have been caused by bendlng and fallure lnlLlaLlon of Lhe
supporL bar.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
132

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% Q8[9 ]"+"5% ,#>&,<*%@ =# *A% 36EE=)* CD *A% >&6,@ >=)<% => OW8WW +
O
À) =# *A% TT8TX
++ C"&&8
AL a flow raLe of 26.4 m3/hr acLlve cavlLaLlon was expecLed aL a backpressure of 39 barg. 1he
experlmenL aL an lnlLlal backpressure of 130 barg showed lnconslsLenL resulLs and was
dlscarded. 1he resulLs abouL Lhe reglmes of Lhe experlmenLs are glven ln flgure 7.7. lL follows
from Lhls flgure LhaL passlve cavlLaLlon only occurred aL low backpressures, as could be
expecLed, buL Lhe maxlmal backpressure for cavlLaLlon was noL deLermlned. vlbraLlons
however, could be lnduced aL backpressures beyond 200 barg even aL flow raLes above 20
m
3
/hr.
1he experlmenLs wlLh Lhe 43.00 mm dlameLer sLeel ball ln Lhe 46.00 mm sLeel plpe showed
comparable resulLs. Surprlslngly however, Lhe 42.86 mm dlameLer Sl
3
n
4
ball ln Lhe 46.00
sLeel plpe wlLh a larger gap raLlo of S =
gap
/u
ball
= (d
plpe
- u
ball
)/u
ball
= 0.073 and a blockage
raLlo of u
ball
2
/ d
plpe
2
= 0.87 dld noL sLarL Lo vlbraLe and bounce.
T%J% <5*);; "3 -'77 '32 ;=@@"*5
1he urachLen experlmenLs show clearly LhaL elLher Lhe ball or Lhe boLLom supporL ls very
qulckly mechanlcally overloaded. Cenerally Lhe yleld sLrengLh of Lhe ball maLerlal was hlgher
Lhan Lhe yleld sLrengLh of Lhe maLerlal of Lhe supporL. arLlcularly lf Lhe supporL ls a flaL or
cyllndrlcal surface Lhe sLress aL Lhe conLacL polnL of Lhe spherlcal ball and Lhe supporL ls so
hlgh LhaL plasLlc deformaLlon occurs ln Lhe supporL, resulLlng ln 'beddlng-ln' of Lhe ball. 1hls
has been observed ln many experlmenLs. 1here ls also evldence LhaL Lhe vlbraLlons cause
faLlgue as ln several cases Lhe supporL showed brlLLle fallure. ln facL many of Lhe urachLen
experlmenLs were dlsLurbed by deformaLlon of Lhe supporL.
1he knowledge area concernlng Lhe analysls of Lhe ball and boLLom supporL problem ls
conLacL mechanlcs. LxploraLory work has been done Lo analyse Lhe lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe
ball and Lhe supporL assumlng a flaL and concave supporL. lf Lhe ball ls axlally consLralned Lhe
sLaLlc force l on Lhe ball can be esLlmaLed from Lhe pressure dlfferenLlal over Lhe ball:

ball ball
P D F A =
2
4 / 1 t (7.1)
1hls formula has been used ln Lhe precedlng secLlons. 1he forces on Lhe supporL bar uslng
Lhls formula are shown ln flgure 7.10. WaLer hammer durlng vlbraLlon may cause hlgher
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
133

forces Lhan predlcLed wlLh formula 7.1., buL Lhese are dlfflculL Lo quanLlfy and have been
excluded from Lhe analysls.
Force acting on baII as function of differentiaI pressure
over the baII excIuding water hammer effects
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
F due to deItaP [N]
D
e
I
t
a

P

o
v
e
r

b
a
I
I

[
b
a
r
]
Ball mm 44,45
Ball mm 17,46

4,56)% Q87W9 4=)<%3 =# " C"&& "3 >6#<*,=# => *A% E)%336)% @,>>%)%#<% =?%) *A% C"&&- %K<&6@,#5
B"*%) A"++%) %>>%<*3 ,# *A% <"3% => " ?,C)"*,#5 C"&&8
8oark's lormula's for SLress and SLraln [1] page 702, Lable 14.1, based on Lhe Lheorles of
PerLz allows Lhe calculaLlon of Lhe conLacL area, maxlmum conLacL sLress, and dlsplacemenL
caused by an elasLlc sphere pressed wlLh force l onLo an elasLlc flaL or concave surface:
lf

sup
2
sup
2
/ ) 1 ( / ) 1 ( E E C
ball ball E
v v + = (7.2)
ln whlch C
L
= elasLlclLy consLanL, v = olsson raLlo, L = modulus of elasLlclLy and sup =
supporL and for a ball on a flaL surface

ball D
D K = (7.3)
and for a ball on a concave supporL surface wlLh a radlus of curvaLure of r
concave

) 2 /( 2
concave ball concave ball D
r D r D K = (7.4)
Lhen

3 / 1
) ( 721 . 0
E D contact
C FK r = (7.3)

3 / 1 2
max ,
) ) /( ( 918 . 0
E D contact
C K F = o

(7.6)

3 / 1 2
max ,
) / ) (( 040 . 1
D E impression
K FC d = (7.7)
ln whlch r
conLacL
ls Lhe radlus of Lhe area of conLacL beLween Lhe ball and Lhe supporLlng
surface, o
conLacL, max
Lhe maxlmum Lenslon and d
lmpresslon, max
Lhe maxlmum lndenLaLlon,
assumlng elasLlc deformaLlon. lf L
ball
= L
supporL
and v
ball
= v
supporL
= 0.3 Lhen
3 / 1
) / ( 881 . 0 E FK r
D contact
= (7.8)

3 / 1 2
max ,
) / ( 616 . 0
D contact
K FE = o

(7.9)

3 / 1 2 2
max ,
)) /( (
D impression
K E F d = (7.10)
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
134

1he load condlLlons for Lhe supporL bar lLself are esLlmaLed from Lhe followlng formulas [2,
Ch C2], assumlng LhaL Lhe cyllndrlcal supporL bar wlLh a lengLh of u
plpe
ls supporLed aL Lhe
plpe wall, buL oLherwlse free:
4 /
max pipe
FD M = (7.11)
ln whlch M
max
ls Lhe maxlmum momenLum generaLed ln Lhe supporL bar and ln Lhe case LhaL
Lhe bar ls flxed Lo Lhe plpe wall:
8 /
max pipe
FD M = (7.12)
1he resulLlng Lenslon ln a cyllndrlcal supporL bar wlLh a dlameLer d
sb
ls:
I d M
sb
/ 2 / 1
max max
= o (7.13)
ln whlch l ls Lhe momenL of lnerLla of a round bar:
64 /
4
sb
d I t = (7.14)
1he conLacL beLween a ball and Lhe supporL bar and Lhe subsequenL beddlng process ls
geomeLrlcally complex. lor Lhe sake of slmpllclLy lL has been assumed LhaL Lhe beddlng ln
occurs from a flaL surface. Powever for Lhe sLrengLh analysls of Lhe bar Lhe cyllndrlcal shape
of Lhe bar ls Laken lnLo accounL. 1he above formulas Lhus allow Lhe slmpllfled analysls for
Lhe small Lool LhaL was equlpped wlLh a supporL bar of 6 mm dlameLer shown ln flgure 7.11.
Behaviour under Ioad for a 17.46 mm baII in 18.50 mm pipe
for a 6 mm support bar
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 20 40 60 80 100
DeIta P over baII [bar]
s
t
r
e
s
s

[
N
/
m
m
^
2
]
0
5
10
15
20
r [mm], F Iat/F [%]
sigma bending free [N/mm^2]
sigma max [N/mm^2]
r concave [mm]
r ball [mm]
F lat/F [%]

4,56)% Q8779 a="@ <=#@,*,=#3 >=) " 7Q8TY ++ C"&& ,# "# 7\8XW ++ E,E% B,*A " Y ++ 36EE=)*
C") "3 >6#<*,=# => *A% E)%336)% @,>>%)%#*,"& =?%) *A% C"&&8 )
<=#<"?%
,3 *A% "EE)=K,+"*% )"@,63 =>
*A% C%@@,#5 36)>"<% "336+,#5 E&"3*,< @%>=)+"*,=# C%D=#@ <=#*"<* 3*)%33%3 => 7WWW $`++
M
8
Assumlng a maxlmum allowable normal sLress ln Lhe supporL bar of 1000 n/mm
2
lL can be
seen LhaL a 6 mm supporL bar ls sufflclenLly sLrong for Lhe applled pressured dlfferenLlals
over Lhe ball. lf lL ls assumed for slmpllclLy LhaL plasLlc deformaLlon Lakes place for sLresses
beyond 1000 n/mm
2
and Lhe maLerlal of Lhe ball ls harder Lhan Lhe maLerlal of Lhe bar, Lhe
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
133

ball wlll bed lLself lnLo Lhe supporL bar, as seen ln flgure 7.6. uue Lo Lhe vlbraLlon of Lhe ball
and assumlng an lnlLlally flaL conLacL surface beLween Lhe ball and Lhe supporL, Lhe beddlng
surface develops as shown ln flgure 7.12.
10 mm
10 mm 10 mm
a
10 mm
10 mm 10 mm
b
4,56)% Q87M9 :<"&%@ @)"B,#53 => " 7Q8TY ++ C"&& F5)%DG ,# "# 7\8XW ++ E,E% F&,5A* C&6%G "#@ "
Y ++ )=6#@ 36EE=)* C") B,*A C%@@,#5 )"@,, 3A=B# >=) " E)%336)% @,>>%)%#*,"& => "G MX C") "#@
CG => 7WW C")- _ 5"E
An lnlLlally flaL supporL surface would Lhus be rolled by Lhe vlbraLlng ball lnLo a concave
shape wlLh a radlus r
concave
such LhaL Lhe conLacL sLress ls 1000 n/mm
2
or less for Lhe
maxlmum force applled on Lhe ball for all poslLlons of Lhe ball durlng random vlbraLlon.
CompleLe beddlng ln resulLs ln a spherold lmpresslon wlLh a beddlng radlus LhaL can be
approxlmaLed wlLhln x from Lhe cenLrellne of Lhe Lool by r
concave
belng Lhe locus of polnLs
LhaL fulfll Lhe condlLlon LhaL for polnL conLacL no sLresses ln excess of 1000 n/mm
2
are
generaLed. 1he plasLlcally deformed maLerlal ls rolled ouL Lo Lhe sldes Lo form a shape wlLhln
Lhe maxlmum Lenslon llmlL. 8eddlng-ln resulLs ln a laLeral force counLeracLlng Lhe
hydrodynamlc force LhaL pulls Lhe ball Lo Lhe wall, because Lhe reacLlon force for Lhe axlal
force acLlng on Lhe ball ls normal Lo Lhe bedded-ln surface, Lhls force can be approxlmaLed
by Laklng Lhe laLeral force componenL of Lhe force normal Lo Lhe beddlng surface wlLh r
concave

aL x, as shown ln flgure 7.13.

4,56)% Q87O9 a"*%)"& >=)<% <=6#*%)"<*,#5 *A% &"*%)"& AD@)=@D#"+,< >=)<% =# *A% C"&& >=) *A%
<"3% 3A=B# ,# >,56)% Q87M CG
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
136

ln acLual pracLlce Lhe laLeral force wlll be larger because Lhe sldes of Lhe beddlng lmpresslon
wlll provlde a llne lnsLead of a polnL supporL aL 1000 n/mm
2
Lo Lhe ball. As menLloned
before Lhe beddlng-ln process of a ball lnLo a cyllndrlcal supporL bar ls geomeLrlcally more
complex and a full analysls ls consldered beyond Lhe scope of Lhls sLudy. ln quallLaLlve sense
however, Lhe beddlng lmprlnL of a ball lnLo a cyllndrlcal bar ls of an elllpsoldal shape (see
flgures 7.6 and 7.9) resulLlng ln lower laLeral forces ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe shorL axls Lhan ln
Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe long axls and probably some preferred dlrecLlon of vlbraLlon, hence
dlrecLlvlLy of Lhe Lool perpendlcular Lo Lhe cyllndrlcal supporL bar.
AL hlgh dlfferenLlal pressures r
concave
comes very close Lo Lhe radlus of Lhe ball, resulLlng ln
lncreased laLeral force counLeracLlng vlbraLlon of Lhe ball. Cnce Lhe ball has been vlbraLlng aL
hlgh dlfferenLlal pressure Lhe beddlng lmprlnL wlll have been made ln Lhe supporL bar for
LhaL parLlcular dlfferenLlal pressure level. lf Lhe Lool ls Lhen operaLed aL a lower dlfferenLlal
pressure, Lhe ball wlll be less free Lo move Lhan lf Lhe Lool would noL have been sub[ecLed Lo
Lhe hlgh dlfferenLlal pressure.
lor Lhe larger Lool equlpped wlLh an 8 mm cyllndrlcal supporL bar, Lhe condlLlons durlng Lhe
urachLen LesLs have been dlfferenL, as shown ln flgure 7.13.
Behaviour under Ioad for a 44.45 mm baII in 46.00 mm pipe
for an 8 mm diameter support bar
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 10 20 30 40 50
DeIta P over baII [bar]
s
t
r
e
s
s

[
N
/
m
m
^
2
]
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
r [mm]; F Iat/F [%]
sigma bending free [N/mm^2]
sigma bending fixed [N/mm^2]
sigma max [N/mm^2]
r concave [mm]
r ball [mm]
F lat / F [%]

llgure 7.13: a="@ <=#@,*,=#3 >=) " TT8TX ++ C"&& ,# " TY8WW ++ E,E% B,*A "# \ ++ 36EE=)*
C") "3 >6#<*,=# => *A% E)%336)% @,>>%)%#*,"& =?%) *A% C"&&8 )
<=#<"?%
,3 *A% "EE)=K,+"*% )"@,63 =>
*A% C%@@,#5 36)>"<% "336+,#5 E&"3*,< @%>=)+"*,=# C%D=#@ <=#*"<* 3*)%33%3 => 7WWW $`++
M

1he larger Lool has been llmlLed by Lhe sLrengLh of Lhe supporL bar, wlLh fallure predlcLed aL
approxlmaLely 28 bar pressure dlfferenLlal ln Lhe case of free or polnL wlse suspenslon of Lhe
supporL bar, whlch ls consldered Lhe mosL llkely case as Lhe supporL bar loosely flLLed ln
holes ln Lhe wall ln Lhe plpe. lallure ls llkely aL lower pressure dlfferenLlal due Lo faLlgue,
whlch ls conslsLenL wlLh Lhe observaLlons shown ln flgures 7.8 and 7.9. 8efore fallure, Lhe
supporL bar may have plasLlcally ylelded and deformed by bendlng, lnLerferlng wlLh free
laLeral moLlon of Lhe ball.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
137

AL Lhe Llme of Lhe experlmenLs, Lhe weak naLure of Lhe supporL bar was noL recognlzed. 1he
LesL wlLh Lhe larger Lool wlll have been less lnfluenced by beddlng ln.
10 mm
10 mm
10 mm 10 mm

4,56)% Q87T9 :<"&%@ @)"B,#5 => " TT8TX ++ C"&& F5)%DG ,# " TY8WW ++ E,E% F&,5A* C&6%G "#@ "#
\ ++ )=6#@ 36EE=)* C") B,*A C%@@,#5 )"@,, 3A=B# >=) " E)%336)% @,>>%)%#*,"& => MX C")- _
5"E
Smaller balls are more senslLlve Lo vlbraLlon sLablllzaLlon due Lo beddlng ln, lf lL ls assumed
LhaL Lhe hydrodynamlc laLeral force ls proporLlonal Lo Lhe axlal force on Lhe ball. 1hls ls
lllusLraLed by flgure 7.13.
F Iat as %of hydronamic axiaI force acting on baII @ 24 bar
pressure difference across baII
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
0,5 1 1,5 2
Gap [mm]
F

I
a
t

/

F
17.46 mmball
44.45 mmball

4,56)% Q87X9 a"*%)"& >=)<% @6% *= C%@@,#5,# "3 E%)<%#*"5% => AD@)=@D#"+,< "K,"& >=)<% "<*,#5
=# " 7Q8TY ++ "#@ " TT8TX ++ C"&& "3 >6#<*,=# => 5"E 3,H%8
As a resulL of Lhe beddlng-ln effecL for Lhe small Lool and Lhe weakness and fallure of Lhe
large Lool, mosL LesLs aL hlgher pressure dlfferenLlals had Lo be excluded for Lhe
deLermlnaLlon of Lhe Lool reglmes.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
138

T%K% ."347=;,"3;
- 1he vlbroCav Lool has been LesLed ln horlzonLal poslLlon for a llmlLed number of
LesLs, uslng boLLom supporLed balls ln plpes wlLh an lnLernal dlameLer of 18.30 mm
and 46.00 mm aL flow raLes of up Lo 38 m
3
/hr and backpressures of up Lo 200 bar.
- AcLlve cavlLaLlon was vlsually observed aL up Lo a backpressure of 63 barg. vlbraLlon
was observed aL up Lo 200 barg backpressure. 1hls backpressure was Lhe maxlmum
operaLlonally achlevable and Lhere ls no evldence LhaL vlbraLlon would cease aL even
hlgher backpressure, however lf Lhe flow raLe becomes Loo hlgh Lhe ball may sLop
vlbraLlng.
- Lven aL low pressure dlfferenLlals over Lhe ball Lhe yleld sLrengLh of Lhe sLeel ball and
supporL ls easlly exceeded due Lo Lhe small conLacL area beLween Lhe ball and a flaL
or cyllndrlcal supporL leadlng Lo plasLlc deformaLlon of Lhe sofLesL componenL. lf Lhe
supporL ls made of sofLer maLerlal, Lhe ball wlll bed lLself ln by plasLlc deformaLlon of
Lhe supporL, whlch ulLlmaLely leads Lo a sLable slLuaLlon wlLh sLress levels below Lhe
plasLlc llmlLs.
- 8eddlng-ln lnLerferes wlLh Lhe freedom of Lhe ball Lo vlbraLe as lL generaLes a laLeral
force counLeracLlng Lhe laLeral force LhaL causes Lhe ball Lo vlbraLe. Smaller balls are
more senslLlve Lo vlbraLlon sLablllsaLlon due Lo beddlng ln Lhan larger balls aL Lhe
same pressure dlfferenLlal of Lhe ball.
- AL hlgh pressure dlfferenLlals and larger Lools care musL be Laken for Lhe mechanlcal
sLrengLh of Lhe supporL lLself, Laklng accounL of faLlgue due Lo Lhe hlgh cycllc sLresses
when vlbraLlng. 1hese aspecLs are polnLs of aLLenLlon for Lhe deslgn of Lhe Lools.
- 8eddlng-ln lnfluences already aL low pressure dlfferenLlals Lhe free laLeral moLlon of
boLLom supporLed balls. Panglng balls do noL suffer from Lhls problem, provlded LhaL
Lhe hanglng suspenslon ls properly deslgned wlLh low lnLernal frlcLlon characLerlsLlcs.

T%R% H):)*)34);
1. ?oung, W.C. , 8udynas, 8.C. , 8oarks lormulas for SLress and SLraln, McCraw-Plll
2. olyLechnlsch zakboek[e, uuLch verslon, secLlon C2

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
139

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
160

.6'@5)* XB >32=;5*,'7 5*,'7; :"* 47)'3,38 ' @"*"=; #)2,=# '*"=32 ' M)77-"*)
X%A% F"=7,38 ": 56) ,3:7"M 6"*,S"3 ,3 M)77-"*);
Cll and waLer wells are connecLed wlLh permeable reservolr rock, Lhrough whlch flulds flow
Lo Lhe well bore. 1he lnflow lnLerval can be several meLers long ln wells wlLh a low
lncllnaLlon Lo hundreds of meLers ln near horlzonLal reservolr peneLraLlons. 1here ls a wlde
varleLy of reservolr rock, such as sand sLone or carbonaLe rock and Lhe rock may have
varlous degrees of consolldaLlon and be undlsLurbed or naLurally fracLured. 1he purpose of
Lhe wells ls ln Lhe ma[orlLy Lo produce or ln[ecL flulds. 1he effecLlve permeablllLy ln Lhe
lmmedlaLe vlclnlLy of Lhe wellbore plays a ma[or role ln Lhe producLlon and ln[ecLlon process,
and lmpalred permeablllLy of Lhe near wellbore lnLerval greaLly lncreases Lhe pressure drop,
because Lhe fluld veloclLy ln Lhe pores ls hlgh compared Lo Lhe veloclLy furLher away from
Lhe wellbore.
1he characLerlsLlcs of Lhe lnflow lnLerval have been exLenslvely sLudled and Lhere are many
reasons why Lhe pressure drop requlred causlng fluld flow from Lhe far fleld ln a permeable
porous reservolr ls hlgher Lhan would be expecLed from a slmple radlal flow model based on
far fleld permeablllLy and poroslLy values. 1hese reasons lnclude devlaLlon of Lhe well bore,
parLlal compleLlon of Lhe reservolr Lhlckness and llmlLed enLry Lhrough perforaLlons
however. lf Lhese facLors are lgnored however, Lhe sLablllsed flow of fluld lnLo Lhe wellbore
of a slngle well ln open communlcaLlon wlLh a bounded radlal reservolr ls glven by Lhe seml-
sLeady sLaLe equaLlon:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
A
=
m
w
e i
S
r
r
h k
P
Q
PI
4
3
ln
2
0
q
t
(8.1)
ln whlch l = roducLlvlLy lndex (m
3
/s.a), C = flow raLe (m
3
/s), A
l
= urawdown = ressure
drop requlred beLween Lhe average fleld pressure and Lhe wellbore (a), k
0
= 'far fleld'
permeablllLy of Lhe reservolr rock (m
2
), h = verLlcal formaLlon Lhlckness (m), q= dynamlc
vlscoslLy (a.s), r
e
= dralnage radlus of Lhe well (m), r
w
= radlus of Lhe well (m) and S
m
=
mechanlcal skln facLor (dlm less) [1,2]. lf Lhe well ls undamaged S
m
wlll be 0 allowlng k
0
Lo be
calculaLed for selecLed values of r
e
. lor Lhe calculaLlons ln Lhls sLudy r
e
= 300 m has been
used, a value commonly used ln Lhe oll lndusLry. 1he flow raLe aL S
m
= 0 has been deslgnaLed
ln Lhls sLudy as C
l
or lnlLlal flow raLe.
1he decrease ln permeablllLy ln Lhe near wellbore area, compared Lo Lhe permeablllLy ln Lhe
far fleld are lnLerrelaLed Lhrough Lhe mechanlcal skln S
m
:

w
d
d
m
r
r
k
k
S ln ) 1 (
0
= (8.2)
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
161

ln whlch , k
d
= permeablllLy of Lhe damaged reglon and r
d
= radlus of damaged reglon.
MaLhemaLlcally S
m
ls only dependenL on Lhe permeablllLy raLlo k
0
/k
d
and noL on Lhe absoluLe
far fleld permeablllLy k
0
, however Lhe damage mechanlsms wlll sLrongly depend on k
0
. 1he
lnverse raLlo k
d
/k
0
ls a measure for Lhe pore damage. lor Lhe undamaged well S
m
= 0.
1he pressure drop assoclaLed wlLh mechanlcal skln S
m
only ls by deflnlLlon [2]:

m skin
S
h k
Q
P )
2
(
0
t
q
= A

(8.3)

ln whlch A
skln
= addlLlonal pressure drop due Lo skln (a). A
skln
can be approxlmaLed
Lhrough an analysls of flow raLes aL a known A
l
uslng Lhe followlng formula:
PI Q Q P P
i i skin
/ ) ( A = A (8.4)
1he relaLlonshlp beLween peneLraLlon depLh L of Lhe 8loL slow wave lnLo a porous maLrlx
deflned as Lhe dlsLance from Lhe wall of Lhe porous maLrlx aL whlch Lhe ampllLude of Lhe
slow wave ls halved can be approxlmaLed by Lhe followlng formulas:
f D L
h
/ 23 . 1 ~ (8.3)
and,
) /(
0
q|
f h
K k D = (8.6)
ln whlch u
h
= Lhe hydraullc dlffuslvlLy (m
2
/s), f = frequency (Pz), k
f
= bulk modulus of pore
fluld (a), and | = poroslLy (-), see also ChapLer 1, secLlon 1.2.3.
lf Sm > 0, Lhe lnflow horlzon ls lmpalred. lmpalrmenL can be caused by many facLors, such as
foullng by colloldal sollds, polymers or emulslons from Lhe drllllng fluld, by crushed
formaLlon due Lo perforaLlng, by flnes of Lhe gravel packlng process and by parLlcles
llberaLed ln Lhe reservolr due Lo fluld flow or maLrlx crushlng or by parLlcles ln ln[ecLlon flulds
or a comblnaLlon of such facLors. 8esLrepo [3] descrlbes a skln facLor characLerlsaLlon
meLhodology LhaL deepens Lhe undersLandlng of Lhe varlous facLors lnvolved and Lhelr
relaLlve lmporLance based on sLaLlsLlcal correlaLlon ln a number of ollflelds.
A well ls normally drllled uslng a drllllng fluld wlLh a hlgher hydrosLaLlc pressure ln Lhe
wellbore Lhan Lhe pressure of Lhe pore fluld ln Lhe formaLlon, a so-called overbalance, Lo
avold reservolr flulds lnvadlng Lhe wellbore and causlng safeLy rlsks or conLamlnaLlon of Lhe
drllllng fluld. 1he drllllng fluld normally conLalns sollds from Lhe drllllng process and addlLlves
Lo conLrol Lhe vlscoslLy and Lhe speclflc welghL and Lo reduce Lhe fluld loss Lo Lhe formaLlon.
lor welghL conLrol, ground barlLe (8aSC
4
) ls normally used and for fluld loss conLrol polymers
LhaL screen ouL on Lhe wellbore face and form a seal LogeLher wlLh flne sollds, referred Lo ln
Lhe drllllng lndusLry as mud cake. 8efore Lhe mud cake ls esLabllshed a cerLaln amounL of
mud and fllLraLe ls ln[ecLed lnLo Lhe near wellbore wlLh pore foullng poLenLlal. lf drllllng fluld
losses are experlenced, maLerlals such as ground coconuL shells, flbres, and flne carbonaLe
parLlcles, generlcally called losL clrculaLlon addlLlves, may be used Lo plug Lhe near wellbore
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
162

area on purpose. 1echnlques exlsL Lo mlnlmlse drlll-ln permeablllLy damage such as Lhe use
of ground CaCC
3
as welghlng maLerlal for reservolr drlll-lns and for reduclng drllllng fluld
losses and Lhe use of PCl Lo remove flne CaCC
3
parLlcles by dlssoluLlon. ln many cases
however, wellbores are lefL lmpalred afLer Lhe drllllng process. 8arlLe flnes cannoL be easlly
dlssolved. underbalanced drllllng, l.e. allowlng Lhe reservolr Lo flow durlng Lhe drllllng
process and Lhus avold reservolr lmpalrmenL, ls galnlng popularlLy as a drlll-ln process,
however lL ls expenslve and less safe Lhan Lhe esLabllshed overbalanced meLhod.
AfLer drllllng Lhe reservolr lnLerval ls commonly proLecLed by lnsLalllng a sLeel caslng across
Lhe open hole secLlon and by placlng cemenL beLween Lhe caslng and Lhe formaLlon. 1he
caslng, cemenL layer and flrsL cenLlmeLres or declmeLres of formaLlon are Lhen exploslvely
perforaLed ln under- or overbalanced condlLlon. 1he exploslve desLrucLlon of sLeel, cemenL
and formaLlon creaLes flnes LhaL are blown lnLo Lhe formaLlon surroundlng Lhe perforaLlon
Lunnels, causlng lmpalrmenL, parLlcularly lf Lhe well ls overbalanced when flrlng Lhe
exploslves. Whlle underbalanced perforaLlng ls preferred Lo avold lmpalrmenL, lL ls noL
always Lechnlcally feaslble.
AnoLher meLhod of securlng Lhe lnflow horlzon ls by placlng a fllLer Lube across Lhe open
hole ln Lhe lnflow lnLerval and by fllllng Lhe annular space beLween Lhe fllLer Lube and Lhe
formaLlon wlLh a layer of narrow slze range well rounded sand, commonly referred Lo as
gravel. 1hls meLhod ls called gravel packlng and ls dlscussed ln more deLall laLer ln Lhls
chapLer. laclng Lhe gravel can also lead Lo lmpalrmenL by flnes LhaL are ln[ecLed lnLo Lhe
formaLlon ln Lhe lmmedlaLe vlclnlLy of Lhe wellbore. 1he skln facLor ls ofLen hlgher, hence
worse, afLer a gravel packlng operaLlon, compared Lo before.
Common Lo Lhe producLlon process ls LhaL all fluld from Lhe far fleld musL LranslL an lnflow
area close Lo Lhe well bore ln a predomlnanLly radlal fashlon. 1he flow of fluld Lhrough pores
and fracLures ln Lhe reservolr rock moblllzes and enLralns sub-pore slzed parLlcles. ressure
changes due Lo Lhe producLlon process lnfluence Lhe sLraln ln Lhe rock maLrlx, whlch may
resulL ln Lhe generaLlon of flne parLlcles due Lo rearranglng and crushlng of Lhe gralns and
scraplng of Lhe graln surfaces. 1hese flnes concenLraLe ln Lhe lnflow area, Lyplcally
represenLlng Lhe flrsL cenLlmeLres Lo declmeLres from Lhe wellbore. arLlcles LhaL
lndlvldually could be enLralned Lhrough Lhe pores lnLo Lhe wellbore form a brldge of sLacked
parLlcles lf sufflclenL parLlcles are forced slmulLaneously Lhrough a pore LhroaL. A swarm
conslsLlng of parLlcles LhaL are slgnlflcanLly smaller Lhan Lhe pore LhroaL dlameLer ls capable
of blocklng pore LhroaLs. lor small parLlcles smaller Lhan Lyplcally 10 m elecLro-klneLlc
forces come lnLo play ln Lhe formaLlon brldges, whlch domlnaLe below a parLlcle slze of 1 m
[4]. A conLlnued supply of parLlcles resulLs ln blocklng more and more pore LhroaLs ln Lhe
flow paLh Lo Lhe wellbore wlLh lncreaslngly flner parLlcles becomlng Lrapped ln developlng
parLlcle brldges. 1hls process resulLs ln progresslve deLerloraLlon of Lhe permeablllLy near
Lhe wellbore, whlch Lhus lmpedes Lhe flow Lo Lhe wellbore. 1he descrlbed mechanlsm
perLalns Lyplcally Lo porous medla such as sand sLone. 1he same plugglng mechanlsm Lends
Lo happen also ln flow Lhrough fracLures ln Lhe narrower passages formed by lrregularlLles of
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
163

Lhe fracLure walls. AccumulaLlon of flnes over Llme commonly leads Lo deLerloraLlon of Lhe
lnflow of reservolr flulds, where homogeneous reservolrs wlLh clean unlform pores are less
conduclve Lo foullng and lnhomogeneous reservolrs wlLh a wlde pore slze dlsLrlbuLlon and
pore flll such as clay parLlcles are very senslLlve Lo foullng.
lf flulds are ln[ecLed lnLo Lhe formaLlon for pressure malnLenance or secondary oll
producLlon, flne solld parLlcles ln Lhe ln[ecLlon fluld or emulslon dropleLs may lmpalr Lhe
near wellbore ln[ecLlon horlzon. CeneraLlon of rusL from Lhe ln[ecLlon condulL due Lo oxygen
conLenL and plck up of rusL parLlcles ln Lhe ln[ecLlon fluld ls also a cause of lmpalrmenL of Lhe
ln[ecLlon horlzon.
llgure 8.1 deplcLs Lwo foullng mechanlsms, Lhe upper one represenLlng and exLernal fllLer
cake wlLh parLlcles LhaL deposlL agalnsL Lhe face of Lhe well bore ln an overbalanced
slLuaLlon, glvlng an lndlcaLlon of Lhe parLlcle slzes lnvolved ln relaLlon Lo Lhe slze of Lhe pore
LhroaLs. 1he lower plcLure shows a foullng process ln Lhe formaLlon lLself wlLh parLlcles LhaL
are much smaller Lhan Lhe pore LhroaLs.
Wellbore
Filter Cake
External Fouling
d
50
(particles) > 1/3 d
50
(pores
thoats)
nternal Fouling
d
50
(particles) < 1/3 d
50
(pores
throats)
After: Abrams
Reservoir rock Wellbore
Filter Cake
External Fouling
d
50
(particles) > 1/3 d
50
(pores
thoats)
nternal Fouling
d
50
(particles) < 1/3 d
50
(pores
throats)
After: Abrams
Reservoir rock Wellbore
Filter Cake Filter Cake
External Fouling
d
50
(particles) > 1/3 d
50
(pores
thoats)
nternal Fouling
d
50
(particles) < 1/3 d
50
(pores
throats)
After: Abrams
Reservoir rock

4,56)% \879 0B= *DE,<"& >=6&,#5 +%<A"#,3+3 "#@ *DE,<"& 3,H%3 => >=6&,#5 E")*,<&%38

1he foullng processes ln oll, gas and waLer wells have a large degree of slmllarlLy ln Lhe way
Lhey form wlLh noLable dlfferences beLween ln[ecLlon and producLlon modes due Lo Lhe flow
dlrecLlon. Powever Lhe manlfesLaLlon and relaLlve lmporLance of Lhe foullng processes are
speclflc ln each case as Lhe acLual slLuaLlon ln a well depends mosLly on a unlque
comblnaLlon of permeablllLy, poroslLy, homogenelLy and foullng mechanlsm.
.=*,?"*,=# >=) B%&&C=)% <&%"#,#5
Wellbore foullng represenLs a very cosLly problem ln Lhe hydrocarbon and waLer lndusLry. lf
Lhe blockages are noL removed, more wells wlll be requlred Lo achleve Lhe same producLlon,
or more pump energy wlll be requlred Lo llfL Lhe reservolr flulds Lo surface. lor ln[ecLlon
wells, lncreaslng ln[ecLlon pressure or decreaslng ln[ecLlon flow cause Lhe same problem.
Many Lechnlques are used Lo clean Lhe damaged lnflow lnLerval, lncludlng flow reversal,
appllcaLlon of sLrong sudden sLrong pressure drops (surglng), hydrodynamlc [eLLlng and
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
164

parLlcle dlssoluLlon. ln Lhe lasL decennlum Lhe use of vlbraLlon Lools has galned lnLeresL as
descrlbed ln ChapLer 1.
X%C% O::)45; ": 612*"213'#,4 /,-*'5,"3 '32 4'/,5'5,"3
urlve fluld ls pumped vla a condulL Lhrough a speclflcally deslgned Lool poslLloned opposlLe
Lhe LreaLmenL horlzon. AL lower flow raLes Lhe ball ln Lhe houslng of Lhe Lool vlbraLes aL a
frequency Lyplcally beLween 100 and 1000 Pz and consumlng 3 kW Lo 30 kW hydraullc
energy, dependlng on Lhe Lool slze, Lool deslgn and flow raLes used. 1he vlbraLlon of Lhe ball
ls accompanled by bounclng of Lhe ball agalnsL Lhe Lool houslng as wlll be descrlbed below,
Lhls causes pressure waves LhaL propagaLe vla Lhe wellbore wall Lhrough Lhe rock maLrlx and
Lhe flulds ln Lhe pores. 1he pressure waves have Lhe poLenLlal Lo desLablllse parLlcles
deposlLed ln Lhe pores and Lo have a de-sLablllslng effecL on parLlcle brldges. 1he flow of
reservolr flulds LransporLs moblllsed parLlcles Lo Lhe wellbore ln Lhe presence of pressure
waves whlch prevenL parLlcle deposlLlon and Lhe formaLlon of new parLlcle brldges.
AlLernaLlvely Lhe parLlcles are LransporLed away from Lhe wellbore Lo places where Lhe
parLlcles deposlL ln condlLlons LhaL are less damaglng Lo Lhe flow processes.
1he vlbraLlng ball cuLs Lhe flow as lL approaches and hlLs Lhe plpe wall, causlng (l) a waLer
hammer effecL enhanclng Lhe vlbraLlon acLlon and Lhe pressure drop over Lhe ball and (ll) a
fluld pulsaLlon effecL allke Lhe effecL of a fluldlc osclllaLor. A slngle vlbraLlon cycle wlLh Lhe
ball movlng from one slde of Lhe plpe Lo anoLher produces pressure waves wlLh dlrecLlvlLy.
1ool roLaLlon adds a Lhlrd pulsaLlon effecL wlLh fluld [eLs belng clrcumferenLlally pro[ecLed
agalnsL Lhe lnner wall of Lhe well aL a very low frequency. Pence a Lrlple effecL ls creaLed
conslsLlng of hammerlng of Lhe ball agalnsL Lhe plpe wall, fluld pulsaLlon aL Lhe same
frequency of hammerlng and a very low fluld pulsaLlon effecL due Lo Lool roLaLlon. AL cerLaln
flow raLes of Lhe drlve fluld and backpressure condlLlons Lhe Lool noL only produces vlbraLlon
of Lhe ball, buL also acLlve cavlLaLlon. AL even hlgher flow raLes vlbraLlon ceases and passlve
cavlLaLlon sLarLs Lo occur. CavlLaLlon causes hlgh frequency shock waves and sucLlon effecLs
ln Lhe lmmedlaLe vlclnlLy of Lhe Lool. 1he shock waves have a llmlLed depLh of peneLraLlon
buL asslsL Lhe enLry of parLlcles lnLo Lhe wellbore, ln con[uncLlon wlLh sucLlon effecLs ln Lhe
cavlLaLlon flare. 1hrough Lhe waLer hammer effecL, acLlve cavlLaLlon can be generaLed aL
much hlgher backpressures Lhan ls Lhe case for passlve cavlLaLlon aL Lhe same flow raLe,
however Lhe maxlmum slmulaLed wellbore pressure aL whlch subsLanLlal cavlLaLlon has been
observed durlng hlgh backpressure experlmenLs ls 63 barg (see ChapLer 7). 1he resulLlng
effecLs of Lhe Lool Lherefore depend on Lhe wellbore pressure prevalllng aL Lhe depLh of
appllcaLlon, wlLh long range propagaLlng pressure waves aL all depLhs and wlLh shorL range
cavlLaLlon effecLs only presenL above approxlmaLely 1000 meLer Lrue verLlcal depLh, as a
hydrosLaLlc pressure gradlenL of 1 bar/10 m ls commonly encounLered.
lf acld soluble parLlcles conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe foullng, Lhe LreaLmenL may be enforced by addlng
acld Lo Lhe drlve fluld.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
163

X%E% >32=;5*,'7 5*,'7; :"* M)77-"*) 47)'3,38
lor Lhe lndusLrlal Lrlals roLaLlng Lools wlLh seml-LangenLlal ouLflow of Lhe drlve fluld and
conLrolled speed of roLaLlon were used Lo pro[ecL Lhe drlve fluld Lo Lhe wellbore wall whlle
Lhe Lool ls moved across Lhe lnflow horlzon, see flgure 8.2. 1o produce Lhe sLrongesL effecL
for a LreaLmenL Lhe largesL Lool ls selecLed LhaL can be lowered lnLo Lhe well, on a condulL
LhaL allows Lhe requlred flow of drlve fluld Lo Lhe Lool.

4,56)% \8M9 ^=*"*,#5 Z,C)=N"? *==& 3A=B,#5 >=6) *"#5%#*,"& 1%*3 => @),?% >&6,@8
1o LesL Lhe poLenLlal of Lhe vlbraLlon and cavlLaLlon LreaLmenLs for cleanlng Lhe lnflow
horlzon ln oll and waLer wells, sulLable candldaLe wells were found for a fleld lnvesLlgaLlon of
Lhe Lechnlque on an lndusLrlal scale. A LoLal of 10 LreaLmenLs were conducLed ln oll wells ln
Cman, Lhree of whlch were comblned wlLh acld LreaLmenL, 10 LreaLmenLs of drlnklng waLer
producLlon wells ln Lhe neLherlands and 7 LreaLmenLs of polluLlon conLrol waLer wells.
All Lrlals were conducLed ln wells wlLh fllLer Lubes across Lhe lnflow lnLerval and wlLh
conLrolled sand flll beLween Lhe fllLer Lube and Lhe wellbore wall. 1he well conflguraLlon ls
also referred Lo as gravel packed well compleLlon (see flgure. 8.4). 1he purpose of gravel
packlng ls Lo sLablllse Lhe formaLlon maLrlx conslsLlng of non- Lo poorly consolldaLed sand.
lor Lhe conLrolled sand flll, well rounded sand ls selecLed wlLh a graln slze dlsLrlbuLlon LhaL
maLches Lhe openlng of Lhe fllLer Lube and Lhe graln slze of Lhe formaLlon sand. 1he Lrlals
dlffered slgnlflcanLly ln LreaLmenL depLh, deploymenL Lechnlque, well geomeLry and
LreaLmenL condlLlons Lo obLaln lnformaLlon for a wlde specLrum of condlLlons and well
conflguraLlons.
X%J% OL=,@#)35 '32 "@)*'5,38 @*"4)2=*)
lor all Lrlals vlbraLlon Lools were used wlLh a ball as freely vlbraLlng body wlLh seml-
LangenLlal ouLflow Lhrough several verLlcal sllLs ln Lhe Lool houslng. 1he sllLs commenced [usL
below Lhe ball.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
166

lor a number of Lrlals (37, all ln Cman) Lhe Lool was lowered lnLo Lhe well on a [olnLed drlll
plpe Lo reach Lhe LreaLmenL lnLerval uslng a well malnLenance holsLlng lnsLallaLlon. uurlng
Lhe LreaLmenL Lhe drlll plpe was roLaLed aL 40 Lo 60 rpm.
lor Lhe remalnder of Lhe Lrlals a drlve fluld condulL was used LhaL could noL be roLaLed, such
as conLlnuous sLeel Lube from a reel (colled Lublng) or relnforced plasLlc plpe from a reel. lor
Lhese Lrlals roLaLlng Lools were used, referred Lo as '8oLo vlbroCav' , mosLly wlLh a houslng
Cu (ouLer dlameLer) of 3.2" (81.28 mm), ln whlch Lhe roLaLlon was caused by reacLlon
forces due Lo Lhe LangenLlal componenL ln Lhe ouLflow of Lhe drlve fluld, as shown ln flgure
8.3. A hydrodynamlc brake was used Lo conLrol Lhe speed of roLaLlon ln order Lo malnLaln
adequaLe radlal lmpacL.
A A'
A A'
Rotating Housing
Free Body
Support
A A'
A A'
Rotating Housing
Free Body
Support

4,56)% \8O9 U),#<,E&% 3/%*<A => " Z,C)=N"? *==& *A"* <"# >)%%&D )=*"*% @6% *= " 3%"&,#5 C%"),#5
"* *A% *=E => *A% *==& F#=* 3A=B#G8 ^=*"*,=# => *A% A=63,#5 ,3 <"63%@ CD *A% *"#5%#*,"&
<=+E=#%#* ,# *A% =6*>&=B => *A% *==&8 F]6),#5 *A% ,#@63*),"& 3<"&% *),"&3- *A% *==& B"3
<=+C,#%@ B,*A " AD@)=@D#"+,< C)"/% *= "?=,@ >)%% 3E,##,#5 => *A% *==&G8
1he drlve fluld was pumped aL raLes of 330 Lo 330 l/mln (Lools wlLh 2.3" or 3.2" houslng), up
Lo 700 l/mln (Lool wlLh 4.3" houslng), pro[ecLlng Lhe ouLflow from Lhe Lool agalnsL Lhe
wellbore wall. When posslble Lhe well was produced aL a flow raLe slgnlflcanLly hlgher Lhan
Lhe drlve fluld pump raLe Lo ensure neL lnflow from Lhe formaLlon Lo enLraln dlslodged
maLerlal lnLo Lhe wellbore and flush Lhls maLerlal ouL of Lhe well wlLh Lhe producLlon flow.
1he general approach durlng a LreaLmenL was Lo sLarL aL Lhe boLLom ln Lhe LreaLmenL
lnLerval and move upwards wlLh a speed of Lyplcally 1 Lo 2 m/mln. uurlng several LreaLmenLs
successlve passes were made Lo enhance Lhe cleanlng effecL.
1he Len Cman oll wells wlLh a wellbore dlameLer of Lyplcally 8.3" aL a verLlcal depLh below
Lhe surface of 1000 Lo 1300 m were provlded across Lhe lnflow horlzon wlLh a wlre wrapped
fllLer Lube, also called wlre wrapped screen, mounLed on Lhe ouLslde of a perforaLed base
plpe as shown ln flgure 8.4.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
167

.
Rotating
tool
Porous rock
1.Gravel
pack
2.Filter
tube
3.Perforated
base pipe
Rotating
tool
Porous rock
1.Gravel
pack
2.Filter
tube
3.Perforated
base pipe

4,56)% \8T9 :<A%+"*,< @)"B,#5 => *A% ,#>&=B A=),H=# F*)%"*+%#* <=#@,*,=#3G ,# e+"# =,& B%&&3
3A=B,#5 "# \8XL B%&&C=)% ,# *A% 3"#@3*=#% E=)=63 )=</ >=)+"*,=#- *A% 5)"?%& E"</ C%*B%%#
*A% B%&&C=)% B"&& "#@ " B,)% B)"EE%@ >,&*%) *6C% B,*A " Y kL e]8 0A% >,&*%) *6C% ,3 +=6#*%@
=# *A% =6*3,@% => " E%)>=)"*%@ C"3% E,E% B,*A T kL e] "#@ *DE,<"&&D =#% 7W ++ e] A=&% E%) X
<+ &%#5*A8 0A% *)%"*+%#* *==& ,3 3A=B# ,#3,@% *A% C"3% E,E%.
uue Lo operaLlonal consLralnLs ln Lhe Cman Lrlals and sub-hydrosLaLlc pressure condlLlons ln
Lhe wells, lL was noL posslble Lo produce Lo surface durlng Lhe LreaLmenL, so Lhe drlve fluld
and moblllsed maLerlal were ln[ecLed lnLo Lhe formaLlon. 1hls was consldered hlghly
undeslrable aL Lhe Llme buL no alLernaLlve exlsLed. WaLer was used as drlve fluld and on
several wells baLch volumes of 13 hydrochlorlc acld were added Lo dlssolve acld soluble
flnes.
1he Len Lrlals ln uuLch drlnklng waLer wells were dlsLlncLly dlfferenL from Lhe Cman wells ln
depLh (13 Lo 184 m) well bore dlameLer (16" Lo 32") and lnflow lnLerval compleLlon where
polyeLhylene fllLer Lube ls used wlLh many verLlcal sllLs wlLh a wldLh of Lyplcally 0.2 mm and
a helghL of 30 mm as shown ln flgure 8.3.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
168

Rotating
tool
Water sand
1.Gravel
pack
2.Filter
tube
Rotating
tool
Water sand
1.Gravel
pack
2.Filter
tube

4,56)% \8X9 :<A%+"*,< @)"B,#5 => *A% ,#>&=B A=),H=# F*)%"*+%#* <=#@,*,=#3G ,# ]6*<A @),#/,#5
B"*%) E)=@6<*,=# B%&&3 3A=B,#5 " 7YL *= OML B%&&C=)% ,# *A% B"*%) 3"#@- *A% 5)"?%& E"</
C%*B%%# *A% B%&&C=)% B"&& "#@ >,#%&D 3&=**%@ >,&*%) *6C% B,*A " YL *= MWLe] B,*A=6* "
+=6#*,#5 *6C%8 0A% =6*>&=B >)=+ *A% Z,C)=N"? *==& @,)%<*&D ,+E,#5%3 =# *A% >,&*%) *6C%.
1he seven uuLch polluLlon conLrol wells were spaced ouL ground waLer producLlon wells
surroundlng an lndusLrlal slLe. ln Lhe envlronmenLal permlL Lhe CperaLor has Lhe obllgaLlon
Lo exLracL more waLer vla Lhese wells Lhan Lhe ralnfall and oLher waLer splllage on Lhe slLe,
lnablllLy Lo exLracL Lhe requlred quanLlLy of waLer consLlLuLes an envlronmenLal permlL non-
conformance wlLh serlous consequences. All wells had Lhe same geomeLry and were
relaLlvely small compared Lo drlnklng waLer producLlon wells. 1hese polluLlon conLrol wells
had a sLalnless sLeel sloLLed fllLer Lube wlLh 6" lu, placed ln a 16" hole wlLh gravel flll ln Lhe
annular space ouLslde Lhe fllLer Lube and Lhe depLh of Lhe producLlon lnLerval was beLween
44 and 13 m.
uurlng Lhe Lrlals ln Lhe waLer producLlon and polluLlon conLrol wells lL was posslble Lo
produce more waLer Lhan Lhe drlve fluld pump raLe, resulLlng ln a neL producLlon from Lhe
well and removal of Lhe dlslodged maLerlal.
X%K% D3'71;,; ": 56) 5*)'5#)35
8efore each LreaLmenL of a waLer or polluLlon conLrol well a producLlon raLe was measured
under conLrolled condlLlons, allowlng Lhe pressure drop aL a conLrolled producLlon raLe Lo be
measured ln order Lo esLabllsh Lhe l. 1hese measuremenLs were repeaLed afLer Lhe
LreaLmenL Lo esLabllsh Lhe lmprovemenL, Lhls was unforLunaLely noL done for Lhe wells ln
Cman.
uurlng Lhe LreaLmenLs, Lhe pump pressure, drlve fluld pump raLe and ouLflow raLe were
measured and dlrL and sand were collecLed from Lhe produced flulds. ln all wells, excepL Lhe
Cman wells, vldeo runs were made across Lhe LreaLmenL lnLerval before and afLer LreaLmenL
Lo see wheLher Lhe [eLLlng acLlon and Lool movemenLs had caused damage Lo Lhe well
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
169

compleLlon. ln vlew of Lhe presence of Lhe base plpe ln fronL of Lhe wlre wrapped screen,
vldeo lnspecLlon was noL useful ln Lhe Cman wells and Lherefore noL done.
lor Lhe oll wells ln Cman Lhe producLlon was closely monlLored durlng Lhe year followlng Lhe
LreaLmenL Lo observe Lhe effecL of Lhe LreaLmenL over Llme and monlLor developmenLs ln
Lhe waLer producLlon of Lhe wells. 1he only records LhaL were made avallable by Lhe
operaLlng company were Lhe gross producLlon, oll and waLer raLes wlLhouL pressure daLa. lL
was Lherefore noL posslble Lo analyse Lhe skln effecLs of Lhe LreaLmenLs.
X%R% H);=75; '32 2,;4=;;,"3
X%R%A !*,'7; ,3 ",7 M)77;
1he Cman Lrlals ln oll wells are summarlzed ln Lhe Lable 8.1:
IndustriaI
triaI
Deviation IntervaI
bottom
IntervaI
Ienth
Qi Qt/Qi at
time of
treatment
Pump rate
during
treatment
TotaI voI
pumped
during
treatment
HCL 15%
pumped
Returns
during
treatment
Improvem
ent oiI
rate
Est. one
year oiI gain
nr m m m3/d Itr/min m3 m3 Itr/min % m3
1 vert 1343 117 140,0 0,29 350 225 no 22% 3650
2 vert 1607 459 100,0 0,24 350 210 no 22% 1460
3 hor 1691 569 125,0 0,22 350 339 no 42% 9490
4 hor 1832 711 135,0 0,59 350 230 no 4% 1095
5 hor 1229 275 220,0 0,09 375 210 no 114% 2920
6 hor 1361 308 390,0 0,64 375 220 no NC 0
7 hor 1771 755 155,0 0,39 375 363 no NC 0
8 hor 1347 200 360,0 0,14 350 190 10 no NC
9 hor 1323 190 110,0 0,73 360 81 7 partial 83% 9125
10 hor 1466 509 58,0 0,69 360 204 16 yes 3% 365

0"C&% \879 2#@63*),"& *),"&3 ,# =,& B%&&3 ,# e+"# <=+E&%*%@ B,*A 5)"?%& E"</%@ B,)% B)"EE%@
>,&*%) *6C%3 B,*A TL 2] ,# " \8XL A=&%8 !&& *),"&3 B%)% <")),%@ =6* B,*A " O8ML *==& @%E&=D%@ =# "
@),&& E,E% 63,#5 " B%&& +",#*%#"#<% A=,3*,#5 ,#3*"&&"*,=#8 J?%)*J @%#=*%3 *A"* *A% *)%"*+%#*
,#*%)?"&3 B%)% ?%)*,<"&- IA=)J @%#=*%3 A=),H=#*"& ,#*%)?"&38 $N @%#=*%3 *A"* *A% )%36&*3 B%)%
#=* <=#<&63,?%8 l
,
_ ,#,*,"& >&=B )"*% "#@ l
*
_ >&=B )"*% "* *A% *,+% => *)%"*+%#*8
WlLhouL pressure lnformaLlon, lL ls noL posslble Lo provlde mechanlcal skln S
m
daLa from
equaLlons 8.3 and 8.4, however some ranglng calculaLlons based on general assumpLlons for
permeablllLy and poroslLy and Lhe daLa from Lable 8.2 provlde Lyplcal values for Lhe Cman
wells of Lhe order of 10 Lo 23.
1he wellbore pressure durlng all LreaLmenLs was ln excess of 100 bar, hence Lhe prlnclple
Lool acLlons were vlbraLlon hammerlng and fluldlc pulsaLlon aL Lyplcally 300 Pz and slow
pulsaLlon due Lo Lool roLaLlon of approxlmaLely 3 Pz. 1he perforaLed base plpe prevenLed Lo
a ma[or exLenL Lhe dlrecL exposure of Lhe screen and Lhe gravel pack Lo Lhe fluld [eL exlLlng
from Lhe Lool. 1he geomeLry of Lhe hole, gravel pack, fllLer Lube and Lhe Lool was largely Lhe
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
170

same ln all cases and would noL explaln ma[or dlfferences ln performance. Cood
lmprovemenLs of up Lo 114 ln oll raLe were obLalned. 1here was however, llLLle conslsLency
ln Lhe resulLs.
LsLlmaLes were made of Lhe lncremenLal oll producLlon ln Lhe flrsL year afLer Lhe LreaLmenL
menLloned 'esLlmaLed one-year oll galn' Lhe rlghL column of Lable 8.2. 1he reporLed flgures
do noL represenL ln all cases Lhe full beneflL because Lhe oll llfLlng raLe was noL always
lncreased ln splLe of a posslbly cleaner well lmmedlaLely afLer Lhe [ob. Some of Lhe wells
showed an lncrease ln waLer producLlon. SlgnlflcanL lmprovemenLs were seen on wells
whlle ln[ecLlng Lhe drlve fluld and Lhe llberaLed maLerlal lnLo Lhe formaLlon, Lhls can be
explalned by Lhe facL LhaL flow reversal asslsLed by slow wave sLlmulaLlon may have been
very effecLlve ln breaklng down parLlcle brldges. 1he ln[ecLlon raLe of drlve fluld was hlgh
compared Lo Lhe flow veloclLy Lhrough Lhe pores durlng normal producLlon, allowlng Lhe
parLlcles Lo be dlsplaced far enough from Lhe wellbore Lo seLLle ln poslLlons LhaL remalned
sLable durlng Lhe lower producLlon flow pore veloclLles. oeslo [3] observed Lhe effecLs of
flow dlrecLlon ln LesLs wlLh cores. Well cleanlng by ln[ecLlon ls only valld for lnLernal foullng,
ln case of exLernal foullng Lhe blocklng maLerlal would be pushed lnLo Lhe formaLlon.
no measuremenL was made of nolse or vlbraLlons. lL can Lherefore noL be excluded LhaL Lhe
Lool dld noL vlbraLe enough ln Lhe less successful Lrlals 4, 6, 7, 8 and 10. SlgnlflcanL Lool wear
was observed afLer Lhe LreaLmenLs, parLlcularly due Lo deformaLlon of Lhe boLLom supporL
for Lhe ball. 1hls resulLed ln 'beddlng ln' of Lhe ball and reduced or no freedom Lo vlbraLe.
uue Lo lack of pressure daLa lL ls dlfflculL Lo quanLlfy Lhe resulLs on a well by well basls. lL ls,
however, posslble Lo calculaLe some generlc condlLlons durlng Lhe LreaLmenLs such as Lhe
peneLraLlon depLh of Lhe slow compresslonal waves as a funcLlon of frequency for varlous
Lyplcal permeablllLles, and Lhe mechanlcal skln S
m
as funcLlon of Lhe damage radlus r
d
for
varlous permeablllLy damage raLlos.

HaIf AmpIitude Depth L
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
Distance from weII centre r [m]
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

f

[
H
z
]
k0 [mD] at 30% por = 10000
k0 [mD] at 25% por = 1000
k0 [mD] at 15% por = 100
k0 [mD] at 10% por = 10
Wellbore wall

4,56)% \8Y9 V%&&C=)% )"@,63 )
B
m U%#%*)"*,=# @%E*A a BA%)% *A% 3&=B <=+E)%33,=#"& B"?%
)%"<A%3 ,*3 A"&> "+E&,*6@% ?"&6%- "3 >6#<*,=# => >)%;6%#<D >=) ?"),=63 E%)+%"C,&,*,%38
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
171

1he peneLraLlon depLh L as used ln flgure 8.6 ls deflned as Lhe dlsLance from Lhe wellbore
wall where Lhe slow compresslonal wave lnduced by vlbraLlon and bounclng of Lhe ball
reaches lLs half ampllLude value ln relaLlon Lo Lhe cenLrellne of Lhe well bore (aL r
w
= 0.108
m). lL ls calculaLed from equaLlons 8.3 and 8.6 uslng Lhe daLa from Lable 8.2.

roperLy Symbol value unlL
8ulk modulus pore
fluld
k
f
2.23 Ca
ore fluld vlscoslLy q 10
-3
a.s
oroslLy | 30 , for hlghly permeable formaLlon
oroslLy | 23 , for medlum permeable formaLlon
oroslLy | 13 , for low permeable formaLlon
oroslLy | 10 , for LlghL formaLlon
0"C&% \8M9 Z"&6%3 63%@ >=) <"&<6&"*,=#3 >=) >,56)% \8Y8
1he spread ln permeablllLy ln flgure 8.6 of several mu (mllll uarcy) Lo several u maLches
values encounLered ln oll formaLlons ln Cman. 1he Lyplcal peneLraLlon depLh of vlbraLlon
based LreaLmenL ln Cman oll wells can be [udged from flgure 8.6., lgnorlng Lhe effecLs of Lhe
gravel pack LhaL normally has a permeablllLy of aL leasL one order of magnlLude hlgher Lhan
Lhe formaLlon.
An lmporLanL polnL Lo noLe ls LhaL also for low frequency Lools Lhe peneLraLlon depLh
sLrongly decreases wlLh decreaslng permeablllLy. As Lhe wellbore fouls up over Llme, Lhe
near wellbore permeablllLy wlll reduce and Lhe compresslonal slow waves wlll propagaLe
Lhrough less permeable formaLlon wlLh a reduced depLh of peneLraLlon.
llgure 8.7 shows Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween mechanlcal skln S
m
, and Lhe damage radlus r
d
for
varlous values of pore damage raLlo k
d
/k
0
calculaLed wlLh equaLlon 8.2, uslng r
w
= 0.108 m.
1he depLh of lnLernal foullng ls sLrongly dependenL on Lhe permeablllLy damage raLlo k
d
/k
o
.
near-wellbore pore blockage wlLh k
d
/k
o
= 0.01 as can be Lhe case for formaLlon damage by
mud sollds, locked ln behlnd Lhe gravel pack sLays very close Lo Lhe wellbore wall, and can
sLlll be reached by lower frequency vlbraLlon Lools buL noL by hlgh frequency Lools. 1he
lower Lhe permeablllLy Lhe more Lhe maLrlx wlll behave llke a non-porous solld and more of
Lhe vlbraLlon energy wlll be Laken up ln Lhe fasL compresslonal waves and shear waves.
1hese waves may glve rlse Lo posslble lncreased physlcal shaklng of Lhe pores, however ln
vlew of Lhe low aLLenuaLlon of Lhese Lypes of waves Lhe effecL may be mlnuscule.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
172

MechanicaI Skin Sm vs damage radius rd
0
10
20
30
40
50
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
rd [m]
M
e
c
h
n
i
c
a
I

S
k
i
n

S
m
kd/k0 = 0,1
kd/k0 = 0,01
kd/k0 = 0,05
kd/k0 = 0,001
Wellbore wall

4,56)% \8Q9 .%<A"#,<"& 3/,# :
+
"3 >6#<*,=# => *A% @"+"5% )"@,63 )
@
>=) ?"),=63 E%)+%"C,&,*D
@"+"5% )"*,=3 /
@
`/
W
j )
B
_ W87W\ +8
llgure 8.7. LhaL ls slmply based on formula 8.2 shows Lhe lmporLance of Lhe formaLlon Lype
(k
0
and | ) and pore LhroaL damage (k
d
). ln a heLerogeneous formaLlon Lhe smaller pore
LhroaLs may be conduclve Lo foullng, whlle Lhe larger ones may sLay open, wlLh Lhe resulL
LhaL Lhe average k
d
sLays hlgh, ln whlch case Lhe damage radlus wlll be large aL Lhe same S
m
.
1he advanLage of Lhls ls LhaL Lhe depLh of peneLraLlon of Lhe low frequency vlbraLlon Lools ls
also beLLer. Powever lf a well ls allowed Lo foul up sLrongly, Lhe damaged zone may exLend
beyond Lhe reach of Lhe cleanlng Lools. 1he case k
d
/k
0
of 0.001 ls lndlcaLlve of a slLuaLlon
wlLh effecLlve mud cake provldlng a hlghly effecLlve seal aL Lhe wellbore wall. 1aklng k
d
as a
slngle value ls a ma[or slmpllflcaLlon of reallLy, Lhe Lypes of damage wlll dlffer from pore Lo
pore resulLlng ln a porous medlum wlLh wldely varylng permeablllLy on a mlcroscoplc scale.
llgure 8.8. compares Lhe damage radlus as a funcLlon of mechanlcal skln S
m
wlLh Lhe
peneLraLlon depLh L from Lhe well bore wall as a funcLlon of frequency. lf an orlglnally hlghly
permeable formaLlon wlLh k
0
= 10000 mu ls fouled Lo an effecLlve permeablllLy of k
d
= 1000
mu, hence k
d
/k
0
=0.1 and a maxlmal mechanlcal skln S
m
~ 10, lL can be seen LhaL a Lool wlLh
a Lyplcal frequency of 300 Pz reaches wlLh 30 of Lhe ampllLude presenLed aL Lhe wellbore
wall approxlmaLely 0.13 m of Lhe damaged formaLlon from Lhe wellbore wall and hlgher
frequency Lool conslderably less. 1he same comparlson for foullng Lhe same hlghly
permeable formaLlon Lo an effecLlve permeablllLy k
d
of 100, hence k
d
/k
0
= 0.01 shows LhaL a
300 Pz Lool reaches Lhe damaged formaLlon wlLh lLs half ampllLude value wlLh a mechanlcal
skln of up Lo 30, whlle a 2300 Pz Lool would only be able Lo reach wlLh lLs half ampllLude
value a damaged zone wlLh a skln of up Lo 23. 1he ploL also shows Lhe value of Lhe exLremely
low frequency fluld pulsaLlon due Lo Lool roLaLlon. 1hls way of ploLLlng Lhus allows [udglng of
Lhe effecLlveness of vlbraLlon based cleanlng Lools for parLlcular permeablllLy and foullng
condlLlons and ls used ln Lhe analysls of Lhe resulLs ln waLer and polluLlon conLrol wells.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
173

Damage radius rd as function of mechanicaI sking Sm compared with rw+ L
as function of frequency
0
10
20
30
40
50
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
rd [m], rw+L [m]
M
e
c
h
n
i
c
a
I

S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Frequency [Hz]
Wellbore wall
kd/k0 = 0,1
kd/k0 = 0,01
L for kd [mD] = 1000
L for kd [mD] = 100

4,56)% \8\9 N=+E"),3=# C%*B%%# @"+"5% )"@,63 )
@
"3 >6#<*,=# => +%<A"#,<"& 3/,# :
+
F),5A*
3<"&%G "#@ *A% E%#%*)"*,=# @%E*A a m )
B
"3 >6#<*,=# => >)%;6%#<D F&%>* 3<"&%G
A Lhlrd facLor Lo conslder ls Lhe energy lnLenslLy l
r
(W/m
2
) LhaL ls avallable for Lhe
moblllsaLlon of foullng parLlcles aL a dlsLance r from Lhe cenLrellne of Lhe wellbore. A relaLlve
lnLenslLy can be deflned by Laklng Lhe lnLenslLy aL Lhe fllLer wall l
f
ln Cman wells as 100. lor
spherlcal radlaLlon Lhe facLor l
r
/l
f
for Lhe well geomeLry ln Lhe Cman wells ls deplcLed ln
flgure 8.9:
ReIative Energy Intensity for sphericaI radiation for the Oman weII
geometry
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2
r [m]
I
r
/
I
f

[
%
]Relative ntensity
Wellbore wall
Filter wall

4,56)% \8[9 ^%&"*,?% %#%)5D ,#*%#3,*D 2
)
`2
>
PnR "3 >6#<*,=# => @,3*"#<% >)=+ *A% B%&&C=)% <%#*)% )
P+R- "336+,#5 3EA%),<"& )"@,"*,=# => *A% <=+E)%33,=#"& B"?%3- ,5#=),#5 "**%#6"*,=# "#@
*"/,#5 *A% ,#*%#3,*D "* *A% >,&*%) B"&& ,# *A% e+"# B%&&3 "3 7WWn8
1he energy lnLenslLy reduces wlLh 1/r
2
for spherlcal radlaLlon wlLh Lhe resulL LhaL maxlmally
approxlmaLely 30 lnLenslLy remalns aL Lhe wellbore wall of Lhe energy lnLenslLy dellvered
aL Lhe fllLer wall lf no aLLenuaLlon would Lake place ln Lhe gravel pack sand. 1he loss of
lnLenslLy wlll be less for Lools wlLh dlrecLlvlLy, as ls expecLed Lo be Lhe case for Lhe 8oLo
vlbroCav and more lf some aLLenuaLlon ln Lhe gravel pack ls Laken lnLo accounL.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
174

lrom a polnL of vlew of Lool selecLlon for cleanlng porous formaLlon lL ls lmporLanL Lo
opLlmlse Lhe Lool such LhaL lL emlLs Lhe maxlmum vlbraLlon energy posslble and LhaL Lhe Lool
ls roLaLed Lo beneflL from dlrecLlvlLy of Lhe energy beams. ln pracLlce Lhls means LhaL Lhe
largesL Lool should be selecLed flLLlng Lhe geomeLry of Lhe well and LhaL Lhe Lool should be
provlded wlLh a flow raLe aL whlch maxlmum vlbraLlon energy ls obLalned. 1he roLaLlng [eLs
of Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav provlde lnslde Lhe wellbore pressure pulses of 3 Pz wlLh a Lool wlLh 3
nozzles roLaLlng aL 60 rpm LhaL conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe cleanlng process. 1hese low frequency
pressure pulses wlll have been exLenslvely shlelded by Lhe base plpe buL neverLheless have
found Lhelr way Lo Lhe gravel pack and beyond vla Lhe holes ln Lhe base plpe.
X%R%C !*,'7; ,3 M'5)* M)77;
1he Lrlals ln Lhe neLherlands for Lhe regeneraLlon of drlnklng waLer producLlon wells are
summarlzed ln Lhe followlng Lable:

IndustriaI
triaI
IntervaI
bottom
IntervaI
Ienth
Pipe
size
HoIe
size
GraveIpack
Thickness
InitiaI
specific
fIow rate
Specific
fIow rate
before
treatment
Specific
fIow rate
after
treatment
TooI TooI
CIearance
Pump rate
drive fIuid
Production/
drive fIuid
rate
Improve
ment
nr m m inch inch inch m3/hr/m m3/hr/m m3/hr/m inch Itr/min % %
11 21 6 10,0 23,6 6,3 NA 4,4 4,9 3.2" RC 3,4 367 118% 11%
12 85 35 6,0 23,6 8,3 NA 3,6 5,5 3.2" RC 1,4 433 158% 55%
13 34 13 12,4 27,6 7,1 84,7 33,6 40,8 3.2" and
4.5" RC
4,6 517 468% 22%
14 129 52 6,3 19,7 6,2 19,5 12,0 12,7 3.2" and
4.5" RC
1,5 550 203% 6%
15 122 41 9,8 19,7 4,4 13,9 8,6 9,4 3.2" and
4.5" RC
3,3 550 (3,2");
700 (4.5")
314% 10%
16 119 18 8,0 15,7 3,4 15,0 4,5 4,7 3.2" RC 2,4 483 231% 4%
17 117 17 8,0 15,7 3,4 22,5 8,4 9,4 3.2" RC 2,4 583 200% 12%
18 19 10 19,7 31,5 5,4 47,1 21,5 21,9 4,5" RC 8,2 550 242% 2%
19 251 75 9,8 23,6 6,4 53,0 22,8 23,6 3.2" RC 3,3 467 250% 3%
20 184 62 9,8 23,6 6,4 28,1 13,8 13,8 3.2" and
4.5" RC
3,3 467 243% 0%

0"C&% \8O9 2#@63*),"& *),"&3 ,# ?%)*,<"& @),#/,#5 B"*%) E)=@6<*,=# B%&&3 ,# *A% $%*A%)&"#@3
<=+E&%*%@ B,*A 3&=**%@ >,&*%) *6C%3 ?")D,#5 ,# 3,H% >)=+ YL *= MWL8 !&& *),"&3 B%)% <")),%@ =6*
B,*A " O8ML =) T8XL *==& @%E&=D%@ =# " >&%K,C&% A=3% =# " )%%&8 ^N @%#=*%3 *A"* " ^=*=
Z,C)=N"? *==& B"3 63%@ "#@ $N @%#=*%3 *A"* *A% )%36&*3 B%)% #=* <=#<&63,?%8 ]"*" E)=?,@%@
>=) 3+"&&%3* *==& 63%@- 6#&%33 3*"*%@ =*A%)B,3%8
1he Lrlals ln drlnklng waLer wells are characLerlzed by ma[or dlfferences ln geomeLry and
much lower wellbore pressures Lhan ln Lhe Cman Lrlals, beLween 1 and 23 bar. ln mosL of
Lhe Lrlals slgnlflcanL cavlLaLlon wlll have Laken place. 1he lmprovemenLs are agaln erraLlc
and generally less good Lhan observed ln Lhe Cman Lrlals, ln splLe of Lhe facL LhaL Lhe wells
produced aL a raLe ln excess of Lhe drlve fluld pump raLe. 1here ls also no clear correlaLlon
beLween Lhe geomeLry of Lhe well or Lhe lnLerval depLh and Lhe LreaLmenL resulL.
uurlng Lrlal 13 Lhe vldeo lnspecLlon showed a number of broken segmenLs of Lhe
polyeLhylene fllLer Lube aL Lhe locaLlon of Lhe sloLs. lnvesLlgaLlon showed LhaL Lhe well was
provlded wlLh Lhe flrsL generaLlon plasLlc fllLers LhaL were suscepLlble for hardenlng and
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
173

embrlLLlemenL. Powever breakage of Lhe fllLer Lube ls also an lndlcaLlon LhaL Lhe cavlLaLlon
acLlon may have been damaglng.
lL was expecLed LhaL Lhe opporLunlLy Lo generaLe cavlLaLlon ln Lhese wells would be
beneflclal for Lhe LreaLmenL, Lhls was noL borne ouL by Lhe resulLs. An explanaLlon may be
found ln Lhe flow dlrecLlon and Lhe pore fluld veloclLles LhaL were achleved durlng Lhe
LreaLmenLs. 1he reason for Lhe LreaLmenL was LhaL Lhe wells suffered from producLlon
deLerloraLlon afLer prolonged producLlon. lL ls Lherefore llkely LhaL Lhe wells were damaged
by lnLernal foullng generaLed ln Lhe far fleld and deposlLed ln pore LhroaLs and pores whlle
flowlng Lowards Lhe wellbore. uurlng Lhe LreaLmenLs Lhe dlrecLlon of flow was Lowards Lhe
well, Lhereby lnduclng a dynamlc pressure dlfference consolldaLlng Lhe brldges. 1he cycllc
veloclLy fleld generaLed by Lhe wave acLlon caused by Lhe vlbraLlon Lool was only parLlally
able Lo break down Lhe brldges. 1hls lnLerpreLaLlon would be conslsLenL wlLh observaLlons
from oeslo durlng core LesLs [3]. A beLLer LreaLmenL may have been Lo comblne flow
reversal plus vlbraLlon Lo break down Lhe brldges and Lhen produce Lhe wells aL a moderaLe
raLe Lo 'nurse ouL' Lhe llberaLed foullng maLerlal. Such an approach was noL consldered aL
Lhe Llme buL merlLs serlous conslderaLlon for fuLure [obs.
1he waLer wells are characLerlsed by a very large open hole slze, coarser, hlghly permeable
sands compared Lo Lhe Cman oll wells and by a subsLanLlally coarser conLrolled sand layer
(gravel pack) placed beLween Lhe open hole and Lhe fllLer Lube. 1he compresslonal waves
have Lo Lravel beyond Lhe gravel pack Lo affecL Lhe generally flner gralned orlglnal formaLlon,
hence sLrong waves are requlred LhaL propagaLe deep lnLo Lhe formaLlon. A second reason
for Lhe poorer resulLs Lhan expecLed may have been Lhe reduced sLrengLh of Lhe
compresslonal waves due Lo Lhe energy consumed by cavlLaLlon and Lhe cavlLaLlon effecLs
belng less effecLlve for formaLlon cleanlng ln Lhe generally large well bores. A Lhlrd reason
may be Lhe lower effecL of Lhe low frequency pressure pulses creaLed by Lhe roLaLlng [eLs of
Lhe Lool ln vlew of Lhe large wellbore dlameLer of Lhe waLer wells compared Lo Lhe LesLed oll
wells.
lorLunaLely Lhere was much beLLer hlsLorlcal flow raLe and pressure lnformaLlon of Lhe
waLer wells. A common way Lo monlLor Lhe condlLlon of a waLer well ls Lo observe Lhe
speclflc flow raLe, belng Lhe flow from Lhe well dlvlded by Lhe level drop beLween Lhe
pumplng and Lhe sLablllsed non pumplng condlLlon, l.e. Lhe l = C/A
lnflow
, usually expressed
ln m
3
/hr per m waLer level drop whlle pumplng. uslng Lhese daLa Lhe orlglnal permeablllLy k
0

could be esLlmaLed and dlagrams could be consLrucLed provldlng Lhe skln S
m
aL Lhe Llme of
LreaLmenL, Lhe damage radlus for varlous pore blockage raLlos and Lhe expecLed LreaLmenL
depLh as funcLlon of Lhe Lool vlbraLlon frequency. Such dlagram for Lhe one of Lhe beLLer
waLer well Lrlals ls shown ln flgure 8.10.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
176

22% improvement
0
5
10
15
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00
rd [m] or L+rw [m]
S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

H
z
0,15 kd/k0
0,10 kd/k0
0,05 kd/k0
Sm at treatment
Filter wall
Wellbore wall
Sm af ter treatment
0,15 L
0,10 L
0,05 L
Penetration depth
of wave energy
relating to frequency
Skin depth @ Sm
before treatment
Sm before treatment
Sm after treatment
22% improvement
0
5
10
15
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00
rd [m] or L+rw [m]
S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

H
z
0,15 kd/k0
0,10 kd/k0
0,05 kd/k0
Sm at treatment
Filter wall
Wellbore wall
Sm af ter treatment
0,15 L
0,10 L
0,05 L
Penetration depth
of wave energy
relating to frequency
Skin depth @ Sm
before treatment
Sm before treatment
Sm after treatment

4,56)% \87W9 ],"5)"+ 3A=B,#5 3/,# :
+
"3 >6#<*,=# => @"+"5% )"@,63 )
@
"#@ E%#%*)"*,=# @%E*A
a m )
B
"3 >6#<*,=# => >)%;6%#<D > >=) ?"),=63 E=)% C&=</"5% )"*,=3 >=) " +=@%)"*%&D 36<<%33>6&
B"*%) B%&& <&%"#,#5 =E%)"*,=# B,*A " ^=*= Z,C)=N"? *==&8 $=*% *A"* W87X a +%"#3 a "* /
@
`/
W
=>
W87X8
1he waLer well descrlbed ln flgure 8.10 where a clear lmprovemenL was obLalned had Lhe
hlghesL lnlLlal speclflc flow raLe of 87.4 m
3
/hr/m of Lhe wells for whlch such lnformaLlon was
avallable. lL concerned a relaLlvely shallow well lndlcaLlng a very hlgh lnlLlal permeablllLy
calculaLed aL 183 uarcy (Lrlal 13 ln Lable 8.3). 1he peneLraLlon depLh L of Lhe slow waves for
Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav Lool vlbraLlng aL several hundred Pz wlll have been ln Lhe range of 1 m for
clean formaLlon wlLh Lhe very low frequency fluld pulslng due Lo Lool roLaLlon reachlng much
furLher. lf Lhe foullng caused a permeablllLy blockage k
d
/k
0
of 0.03 Lhe damage wlll have
been well wlLhln Lhe reach of Lhe Lool. 8easons why Lhe cleanlng was less perfecL may be
LhaL (l) Lhe damage was deeper lnLo Lhe formaLlon comblned wlLh a lower blockage raLlo, (ll)
Lhe energy aL Lhe source of Lhe Lool was Loo low Lo desLablllse Lhe foullng parLlcles, (lll) Lhe
relaLlvely hlgh formaLlon flow Lowards Lhe wellbore of 8.8 m
3
/hr/m durlng Lhe LreaLmenL
caused flow lnduced sLablllsaLlon of dlrL brldges, (lv) Lhe foullng maLerlal may have been of
chemlcal or blologlcal orlgln and may have been aLLached Lo Lhe pore walls, (v) Lhe wave
exposure Llme of Lhe LreaLmenL could have been lnadequaLe, (vl) moblllsed parLlcles could
have caused reverse foullng of pores durlng LransporL by flow Lo Lhe wellbore.
1he energy plcLure deserves closer aLLenLlon because a cerLaln mlnlmum amounL of 'Lrlgger'
energy ls requlred Lo moblllse parLlcles and desLablllse parLlcle brldges. ln vlew of Lhe large
wellbore and Lhlck gravel pack a cenLrallsed Lool ls 33 cm away from Lhe wellbore wall and
Lhe energy wlll have Lo pass approxlmaLely 20 cm of gravel pack sand before lL reaches Lhe
formaLlon. 1he energy denslLy wlll decrease approxlmaLely wlLh Lhe square rooL of Lhe
dlsLance from Lhe vlbraLlon source. llgure 8.11 shows Lhe relaLlve energy lnLenslLy for
comparlson wlLh Lhe slLuaLlon ln Lhe Cman oll wells deplcLed ln flgure 8.9.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
177

ReIative Energy Intensity compared to Oman for sphericaI radiation for
a water weII with 22% improvement
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
r [m]
I
r
/
I
f

[
%
]Relative ntensity
Wellbore wall
Filter wall

4,56)% \8779 ^%&"*,?% %#%)5D ,#*%#3,*D 2
)
`2
>
PnR "3 >6#<*,=# => @,3*"#<% >)=+ *A% B%&&C=)% <%#*)%
) P+R- "336+,#5 3EA%),<"& )"@,"*,=# => *A% <=+E)%33,=#"& B"?%3 >=) *A% B"*%) B%&& 5%=+%*)D-
,5#=),#5 "**%#6"*,=# "#@ @,)%<*,?,*D- *"/,#5 *A% ,#*%#3,*D "* *A% >,&*%) B"&& ,# *A% e+"# B%&&3
"3 7WWn "* W8WXQ + >)=+ B%&& C=)% <%#*)%8
AparL from Lhe energy lnLenslLy requlred Lo Lrlgger parLlcle moblllsaLlon, lL ls lmporLanL Lo
conslder Lhe number of 'hlLs' of cycllc veloclLy changes above Lhe Lrlgger level. 1hls number
wlll be proporLlonal Lo Lhe frequency and Lhe exposure Llme. Pence wlLh a low frequency
Lool a long exposure Llme wlll be requlred Lo obLaln Lhe same resulL as wlLh a hlgh frequency
Lool. lor a comparable parLlcle moblllsaLlon effecL a comparable number of cycllc veloclLy
hlLs above Lhe Lrlgger level wlll be requlred per unlL volume of rock Lo be cleaned. AL Lhe
Llme of Lhe lndusLrlal Lrlals no sysLemaLlc experlmenLaLlon Look place Lo sLudy Lhls aspecL.
LssenLlally Lhe same Lools and Lhe same operaLlonal Lool parameLers were used ln Cman and
ln Lhe waLer wells. llgure 8.11 lllusLraLes LhaL Lhe average energy lnLenslLy aL Lhe wellbore
wall was one Lo Lwo orders of magnlLude lower Lhan ln Lhe Cman case. 1he well was shallow
and Lhe Lool may have produced slgnlflcanL cavlLaLlon, whlch ls beneflclal for Lhe removal of
foullng ln Lhe gravel pack, buL reduces Lhe amounL of vlbraLlon energy avallable for acLlon
deeper lnLo Lhe formaLlon even furLher. lL has been assumed for flgure 8.10 and 8.11 LhaL
Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav Lool was cenLrallsed, Lhls was however noL Lhe case resulLlng ln locaLlons
wlLh a hlgher energy lnLenslLy aL Lhe fllLer wall comblned wlLh even lower energy lnLenslLy aL
Lhe opposlLe slde, Lhls may however have resulLed ln some deep cleanlng. A furLher
explanaLlon for Lhe poslLlve resulL ln Lrlal 13 may be found ln effecLs creaLed closer Lo Lhe
fllLer wall. AlLhough Lhe gravel pack sand ls coarser Lhan Lhe formaLlon sand, lL may have
become fouled by smaller gralns from Lhe formaLlon and hence have losL lLs superlor
permeablllLy. llgure 8.12 ls a dlagram assumlng LhaL Lhe formaLlon sLarLs aL Lhe fllLer wall:
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
178

22% improvement
0
5
10
15
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00
rd [m] or L+rw [m]
S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 Frequency Hz
0,15 kd/k0
0,10 kd/k0
0,05 kd/k0
Sm at treatment
Filter wall
Sm af ter treatment
0,15 L
0,10 L
0,05 L

4,56)% \87M ],"5)"+ >=) *A% 3"+% B%&& "3 3A=B# ,# >,56)% \87W- C6* "336+,#5 *A"* *A%
>=)+"*,=# 3*")*3 "* *A% >,&*%) B"&&8 $=*% *A"* W87X a +%"#3 a "* @"+"5% )"*,= /
@
`/
W
=> W87X8
AL Lhe fllLer wall approxlmaLely 10 of Lhe energy lnLenslLy of Lhe Cman wells for a
cenLrallsed 8oLo vlbroCav Lool and severely fouled pores close Lo Lhe fllLer wall could be
reached by Lhe Lool. 1he effecL of [eLLlng, low frequency fluld pulsaLlon and cavlLaLlon wlll
also have been beneflclal. noLe LhaL Lhe mechanlcal skln facLor afLer cleanlng ls sLlll hlgh
lndlcaLlng LhaL Lhe cleanlng [ob was only parLlal. Cn Lhe basls of Lhe above dlscusslon Lhe
mosL llkely explanaLlon for Lhe poslLlve resulLs on Lhls waLer well wlll be LhaL Lhe foullng ln
Lhls well was relaLlvely close Lo Lhe fllLer wall, resulLlng ln parLlal cleanlng of Lhe gravel pack
and maybe some of Lhe formaLlon sand ouLslde Lhe gravel pack.
A Lyplcal well where no resulLs were obLalned (Lrlal 20, Lable 8.3) ls analysed ln Lhe dlagrams
ln flgure 8.13:
a
No improvement
0
2
4
6
8
10
0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00
rd [m] or L+rw [m]
S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
f

H
z
0,15 kd/k0
0,10 kd/k0
0,05 kd/k0
Smat treatment
Filter wall
Wellbore wall
0,15 L
0,10 L
0,05 L
b
No improvement
0
2
4
6
8
10
0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00
rd [m] or L+rw [m]
S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
f

H
z
0,15 kd/k0
0,10 kd/k0
0,05 kd/k0
Smat treatment
Filter wall
0,15 L
0,10 L
0,05 L

4,56)% \87O9 ],"5)"+3 3A=B,#5 3/,# :
+
"3 >6#<*,=# => @"+"5% )"@,63 )
@
"#@ E%#%*)"*,=#
@%E*A a m )
B
"3 >6#<*,=# => >)%;6%#<D > >=) ?"),=63 E=)% C&=</"5% )"*,=3 >=) "# 6#36<<%33>6&
B"*%) B%&& <&%"#,#5 =E%)"*,=# B,*A " ^=*= Z,C)=N"? *==&8 4=) @,"5)"+ I"J ,* A"3 C%%#
"336+%@ *A"* *A%)% ,3 #= %>>%<* => *A% 5)"?%& E"</ "#@ >=) @,"5)"+ JCJ *A"* *A% >=6&%@
>=)+"*,=# 3*")*3 "* *A% >,&*%) B"&&8 $=*% *A"* *A% o "K,3 <=?%)3 =#&D 7 +- ,#3*%"@ => M + ,#
>,56)% \87W8 $=*% *A"* W87X a +%"#3 a "* /
@
`/
W
=> W87X8
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
179

1he calculaLed vlrgln permeablllLy k
0
of Lhe Lyplcal unsuccessful well was 14.3 uarcy, hence
an order of magnlLude smaller Lhan Lhe moderaLely successful well, whlch reduces Lhe
peneLraLlon depLh of Lhe vlbraLlons. lor a slLuaLlon ln flgure 8.13.b some effecL of Lhe 8oLo
CavlLaLlon Lool should have been expecLed, however, lf Lhe damage ls predomlnanLly far
away from Lhe wellbore, Lhe Lool ls noL able Lo reach far enough ln splLe of Lhe facL LhaL Lhe
geomeLry of Lhls well was sllghLly more favourable wlLh r
f
= 0.12 and r
w
= 0.30. Agaln lack of
energy lnLenslLy and flow lnduced sLablllsaLlon of dlrL brldges whlle flowlng Lowards Lhe well
are llkely reasons for Lhe dlsappolnLlng resulLs. 1he roLaLlng [eLs of Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav
provldlng lnslde Lhe wellbore pressure pulses of 3 Pz wlLh a Lool wlLh 3 nozzles roLaLlng aL 60
rpm dld noL produce a slgnlflcanL cleanlng acLlon.
uue Lo Lhe many facLors lnvolved, lL ls dlfflculL Lo plnpolnL Lhe exacL reasons for Lhe llmlLed
success for Lhe LreaLmenL of waLer wells. neverLheless lL ls consldered llkely LhaL Lhe llmlLed
power of Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav Lool as a vlbraLlon source for Lhe Lyplcal waLer well geomeLry
and conLlnued lnflow durlng Lhe LreaLmenL were Lhe Lwo mosL promlnenL adverse facLors ln
Lhe waLer well program. vlbraLlon Lools for waLer wells have Lo be opLlmlsed for hlgh energy
low frequency vlbraLlon. 1he use of focused vlbraLlon sources LhaL are acLlve aL Lhe fllLer wall
merlLs conslderaLlon. 1he LreaLmenL Lechnlque should lnclude cycllc flow reversal Lo deal
wlLh reverse dlrL brldge sLablllsaLlon.
X%R%E !*,'7; :"* @"77=5,"3 4"35*"7 M)77;
1rlals for polluLlon conLrol wells are summarlzed ln Lhe followlng Lable:
IndustriaI
triaI
WeII
Name
Timing DepIoyment IntervaI
bottom
IntervaI
Ienth
TooI Pump rate
drive fIuid
Additives Production/
drive fIuid
rate
Improve
ment
nr m m Itr/min m3 % %
21 PP101 2003 Flexible hose 44 20 3.2" RC 500 130% 130%
22 PP102 2003 Flexible hose 44 15 2.5" and
3.2" RC
400 5% HCl 138% 10%
23 PP103 2003 Flexible hose 38 15 3.2" RC 500 130% 38%
24 PP104 2003 Crane/pipe 43 15 3.2" RC 350 143% 104%
25 PP101 2007 Crane/pipe 44 20 500 127% 1)
26 PP102 2007 Crane/pipe 44 15 3.2" RC 350 1 m3 CBS 143% 101%
27 PP103 2007 Crane/pipe 38 15 2)
28 PP104 2009 Crane/pipe 41 15 3.2" RC 350 110% 49%
29 PP105 2009 Crane/pipe 37 15 3.2" RC 400 102% 20%

0"C&% \8T9 2#@63*),"& *),"&3 ,# ?%)*,<"& E=&&6*,=# <=#*)=& B%&&3 ,# *A% $%*A%)&"#@3 <=+E&%*%@
B,*A YL 3&=**%@ >,&*%) *6C%3 ,# 7YL A=&%38 !&& *),"&3 B%)% <")),%@ =6* B,*A " O8ML =) T8XL *==&
@%E&=D%@ =# " >&%K,C&% A=3% =# " )%%&8 ^N @%#=*%3 *A"* " ^=*= Z,C)=N"? *==& B"3 63%@8 N(: ,3 "
36&EA"*% @,33=&?%)8 7G 0A,3 *),"& B"3 3*=EE%@ @6% *= 3"#@ E)=@6<*,=#8 MG 0A,3 *),"& B"3
<"#<%&&%@ @6% *= 3"#@ "<<6+6&"*,=# ,# *A% B%&&8
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
180

1he resulLs ln Lhe polluLlon conLrol wells were good compared Lo Lhe oLher Lrlals and ln
some wells (well 102 Lrlal 22 and 26 and well 104 Lrlal 24 and 28) good resulLs were
obLalned durlng repeaLed LreaLmenL. Sand producLlon on wells 101 and 103 lndlcaLes
LhaL Lhe washlng acLlon, comblned wlLh cavlLaLlon may have compacLed Lhe gravel pack
resulLlng ln lowerlng of Lhe Lop of Lhe conLrolled gravel bed, Lhus exposlng Lhe upper parL of
Lhe screen Lo flne formaLlon sand. 1he consLrucLlon of Lhe wells ls such LhaL lL ls noL posslble
Lo flll up Lhe space beLween Lhe fllLer Lube and Lhe formaLlon sand reLroacLlvely wlLh
conLrolled gravel.
ln Lhe polluLlon conLrol wells Lhe lnLernal dlameLer (r
f
= 0.07 m) of Lhe sLalnless sLeel fllLer
Lube was small compared Lo Lhe Cu of Lhe 8oLo CavlLaLlon Lool and Lhe gravel pack behlnd
Lhe fllLer was dlrecLly exposed Lo Lhe roLaLlng [eL resulLlng ln a reasonable Lool cenLrallsaLlon
wlLhln Lhe well geomeLry and slgnlflcanL acLlon of Lhe low frequency pressure pulses creaLed
by Lhe roLaLlng [eLs. roducLlon of flne sand durlng Lhe cleanlng [obs lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe
washlng acLlon of Lhe [eLs was slgnlflcanL.
uurlng none of Lhe Lrlals measuremenLs were made LhaL acLually proved LhaL Lhe Lool had
been vlbraLlng durlng Lhe LreaLmenLs. AL Lhe Llme lL was LhoughL LhaL lf a cerLaln mlnlmum
flow raLe was applled Lhe Lool would be ln acLlve vlbraLlon mode. LaLer lnvesLlgaLlons ln Lhe
30 bar LesL clrculL ln uelfL learned LhaL Lhere ls an upper llmlL Lo Lhe flow raLe for vlbraLlon
and durlng some of Lhe lndusLrlal Lrlals Lhls flow raLe may have been exceeded.
AnoLher lmporLanL facLor LhaL may have negaLlvely lnfluenced Lhe performance of Lhe Lools
ls Lool wear. All Lrlals were conducLed wlLh a boLLom supporL for Lhe ball and deformaLlon of
Lhe conLacL surface and beddlng-ln of Lhe ball were frequenLly observed. 8eddlng-ln llmlLs
Lhe freedom of Lhe ball for laLeral movemenL causlng sLablllsaLlon of Lhe ball.
1he geomeLry of Lhe polluLlon conLrol wells was beLLer Lhan for Lhe waLer wells, buL worse
Lhan for Lhe Cman wells, as shown ln by flgure 8.14.
ReIative Energy Intensity for sphericaI radiation for poIIution controI
weIIs compared to Oman
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
r [m]
I
r
/
I
f

[
%
]Relative ntensity
Wellbore wall
Filter wall

4,56)% \87T9 ^%&"*,?% %#%)5D ,#*%#3,*D 2
)
`2
>
PnR "3 >6#<*,=# => @,3*"#<% >)=+ *A% B%&&C=)% <%#*)%
) P+R- "336+,#5 3EA%),<"& )"@,"*,=# => *A% <=+E)%33,=#"& B"?%3 >=) *A% 5%=+%*)D => *A%
E=&&6*,=# B%&&3- ,5#=),#5 "**%#6"*,=#- *"/,#5 *A% ,#*%#3,*D "* *A% >,&*%) B"&& ,# *A% e+"# B%&&3
"3 7WWn "* " @,3*"#<% => W8WXQ + >)=+ B%&&C=)% <%#*)%8
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
181

8ased on assumed well lnlLlals of 6 m
3
/hr/m an analysls was done of a successful (Lrlal 21)
and a less successful (Lrlal 22) well cleanlng Lrlal ln Lhe program. 1he resulLs are shown ln
flgure 8.13.
a
130%improvement
0
5
10
15
20
0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00
rd [m] or L+rw [m]
S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 frequency Hz
0,15 kd/k0
0,10 kd/k0
0,05 kd/k0
Smat treatment
Filter wall
Wellbore wall
Smaf ter treatment
0,15 L
0,10 L
0,05 L
b
130%improvement
0
5
10
15
20
0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00
rd [m] or L+rw [m]
S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
frequency Hz
0,15 kd/k0
0,10 kd/k0
0,05 kd/k0
Smat treatment
Filter wall
Smaf ter treatment
0,15 L
0,10 L
0,05 L

c
10%improvement
0
1
2
3
4
5
0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00
rd [m] or L+rw [m]
S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
frequency Hz
0,15 kd/k0
0,10 kd/k0
0,05 kd/k0
Smat treatment
Filter wall
Wellbore wall
Smaf ter treatment
0,15 L
0,10 L
0,05 L
d
10%improvement
0
1
2
3
4
5
0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00
rd [m] or L+rw [m]
S
k
i
n

S
m
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
frequency Hz
0,15 kd/k0
0,10 kd/k0
0,05 kd/k0
Sm at treatment
Filter wall
Sm after treatment
0,15 L
0,10 L
0,05 L

4,56)% \87X9 ],"5)"+3 3A=B,#5 3/,# :
+
"3 >6#<*,=# => @"+"5% )"@,63 )
@
"#@ E%#%*)"*,=#
@%E*A a m )
B
"3 >6#<*,=# => >)%;6%#<D > >=) ?"),=63 E=)% C&=</"5% )"*,=3 >=) " 36<<%33>6& I"J
"#@ "# 6#36<<%33>6& I<J B"*%) B%&& <&%"#,#5 =E%)"*,=# B,*A " ^=*= Z,C)=N"? *==&8 4=) @,"5)"+
I"J "#@ I<J ,* A"3 C%%# "336+%@ *A"* *A%)% ,3 #= %>>%<* => *A% 5)"?%& E"</ "#@ >=) @,"5)"+
JCJ"#@ I@J *A"* *A% >=6&%@ >=)+"*,=# 3*")*3 "* *A% >,&*%) B"&&8
1he comparlson beLween Lhe resulLs of Lhe Lwo Lrlals seems conLradlcLory. WlLh Lhe
assumed well lnlLlals Lhe peneLraLlon depLhs of Lhe vlbraLlons were beLLer for Lhe 'bad' well.
Powever Lhe skln ls much lower ln Lhe 'bad' well and Lhe foullng mechanlsm may be deeper
lnLo Lhe formaLlon, whlle for Lhe 'good' well Lhe foullng may have been be predomlnanLly ln
Lhe gravel pack close Lo Lhe wellbore, ln whlch case slLuaLlon 'b' should be compared wlLh
slLuaLlon 'c' wlLh Lhe condlLlon LhaL very llLLle energy lnLenslLy was avallable for slLuaLlon 'c'
lmplylng LhaL Lhe deeper formaLlon could hardly be affecLed by Lhe LreaLmenL. 1he roLaLlng
[eLs of Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav provldlng lnslde Lhe wellbore pressure pulses of 3 Pz wlLh a Lool
wlLh 3 nozzles roLaLlng aL 60 rpm may have conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe cleanlng process.
1he good resulLs on Lhe repeaL LreaLmenL of 102 afLer 4 years (Lrlal 26) may have been
due Lo use of C8S, whlch suggesLs LhaL Lhe well suffered from sulphaLe scale deposlLlon. 1he
relaLlve good lmprovemenLs obLalned durlng Lhe repeaLed LreaLmenL of 104 afLer 6 years
(Lrlals 24 and 28) suggesL LhaL Lhls well suffered from near wellbore damage, comblned wlLh
gradual deLerloraLlon furLher away from Lhe wellbore.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
182

X%T% ."347=;,"3;
- 1he lndusLrlal Lrlals have provlded furLher lnslghL lnLo ma[or parameLers conLrolllng
Lhe characLerlsLlcs of vlbraLlon based well cleanlng Lools, belng (l) Lhe mechanlcal
skln and effecLlve permeablllLy around Lhe wellbore, (ll) Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe
effecLlve permeablllLy and Lhe peneLraLlon depLh as funcLlon of Lhe vlbraLlon
frequency and (lll) Lhe energy lnLenslLy as funcLlon of geomeLry and Lool dlrecLlvlLy
and (lv) Lhe number of cycllc veloclLy 'hlLs' above Lhe Lrlgger level for parLlcle
moblllsaLlon per unlL rock volume Lo be cleaned and (v) Lhe effecL of conLlnuous pore
flow on Lhe sLablllsaLlon or desLablllsaLlon of foullng parLlcles.
- 1he besL momenL of cleanlng a well afLer Lhe drllllng process ls lmmedlaLely afLer
drllllng, because Lhe damage ls llkely Lo be close Lo Lhe wellbore and hence relaLlvely
easy Lo remove. lf foullng ls allowed Lo Lake place over prolonged perlods of Llme, Lhe
pore damage may be ouLslde of Lhe reach of vlbraLlon based well cleanlng Lools.
- 1he peneLraLlon depLh of any vlbraLlon based well cleanlng Lool ls dependenL on Lhe
effecLlve permeablllLy around Lhe wellbore. lf a well progresslvely fouls up due Lo
plugglng by parLlcles enLralned wlLh Lhe flow from Lhe 'far fleld', a slLuaLlon may arlse
ln whlch Lhe vlbraLlon based cleanlng Lools can no longer reach Lhe damaged zone.
1here may be a small beneflL of 'pore shaklng' lf Lhe vlbraLlon energy ls noL used for
slow wave energy dlsslpaLlon, Lhls effecL was however noL evaluaLed ln Lhls sLudy.
- 1he Cman Lrlals lndlcaLe LhaL flow reversal ls beneflclal for Lhe vlbraLlon based
cleanlng process. Less energy lnLenslLy wlll be requlred Lo desLablllse brldges and
moblllse foullng parLlcles. Cycllc flow reversal ls an lmporLanL Lechnlque Lo conslder
for vlbraLlon based cleanlng operaLlons.
- 1he Cman Lrlals lndlcaLe LhaL chaslng moblllsed foullng parLlcles lnLo Lhe 'far fleld' aL
a hlgher ln[ecLlon raLe Lhan Lhe producLlon raLe can creaLe a condlLlon of susLalned
producLlon lmprovemenL. 1he foullng parLlcles seLLle ln pores where lnsufflclenL
producLlon pore flow veloclLy ls creaLed Lo re-moblllse Lhe parLlcles Lowards Lhe
wellbore.
- 1he wellbore geomeLry musL play an lmporLanL role ln Lhe deslgn of a vlbraLlon based
cleanlng operaLlon. 1he Lrlals ln waLer wells lndlcaLe LhaL lnsufflclenL energy lnLenslLy
was avallable for slgnlflcanL cleanlng work. locused vlbraLlon Lools dellverlng Lhe
vlbraLlon energy aL Lhe fllLer wall merlL serlous conslderaLlon.
- 1he roLaLlng [eLs ln Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav Lool provlde very low frequency pressure
pulses LhaL are llkely Lo conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe cleanlng process lf Lhe Lool ls sufflclenLly
close Lo Lhe wellbore wall. 1he Cman and polluLlon conLrol wells Lrlals lndlcaLe LhaL
Lhls may be Lhe case.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
183

- vlbraLlon based wellbore cleanlng may be seen as (l) produclng cycllc veloclLy 'hlLs' ln
Lhe formaLlon pores Lo Lrlgger Lhe moblllsaLlon of foullng parLlcles and (ll) a
consldered process Lo remove Lhe moblllsed parLlcles from Lhe well or place Lhem
deep lnLo Lhe formaLlon ln poslLlons where Lhe parLlcles are harmless Lo Lhe
producLlon. Plgh frequency Lools (kPz range) suffer from a very shallow peneLraLlon
depLh buL beneflL from a hlgh 'hlL raLe' and are Lherefore consldered sulLable for
near wellbore cleanlng wlLh relaLlvely shorL exposure Llmes. Low frequency Lool
(several Pz Lo 1 kPz) reach deeper aL comparable energy emlsslon aL source buL need
longer exposure Llme Lo obLaln a useful denslLy of hlLs.
- 1ool wear may have lnLerfered wlLh Lhe Lrlals Lo such an exLenL LhaL no or severely
compromlsed vlbraLlon Look place durlng some of Lhe unsuccessful LreaLmenLs.
AcousLlc measuremenLs musL be made for fuLure LreaLmenLs Lo prove LhaL Lhe Lool ls
produclng vlbraLlons.

X%X% H):)*)34);
1. ucknell, !.k. , Cllfford, .!. , SL 23100 (1991)
2. uake, L.. , lundamenLals of reservolr englneerlng, Llsevler 1978
3. 8esLrepo, A , uuarLe, !. , SL 107674 (2007)
4. ZwarL de A.P. , lnvesLlgaLlon of Clogglng processes ln unconsolldaLed Aqulfers near WaLer
Supply Wells, 1hesls 1u uelfL 2007
3. oeslo, . , ulLrasonlc flow sLlmulaLlon and parLlcles removal ln a porous maLerlal, 1hesls
1u uelfL 2004

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
184

.6'@5)* YB >32=;5*,'7 5*,'7; :"* *)#"/,38 ;4'7) 2)@";,5; ,3 M)77;
Y%A% <4'7) 2)@";,5,"3
Scale deposlLlon ln Lhe pores of Lhe reservolr and on plpes ln well bores ls qulLe commonly
observed. 1he presence of Ca
2+
, Sr
2+
, 8a
2+
ln formaLlon waLer wlLh CC
3
2-
and SC
4
2-
lons aL
saLuraLlon level from elLher formaLlon or ln[ecLlon waLer ls ofLen Lhe cause of deposlLlon of
CaCC
3
, CaSC
4
, SrSC
4
and 8aSC
4
scale ln a well as Lhe aqueous sLreams geL mlxed and Lhe
LemperaLure and pressure change or waLer evaporaLes (gas wells) when Lhe flulds flow Lo
surface. Calclum carbonaLe scale can be dlssolved wlLh aclds llke dlluLed PCl, however
sulphaLe scale cannoL be readlly dlssolved and Lhe use of sLrong aclds may be unwanLed
because Lhls may be desLrucLlve for Lhe well maLerlals. Scale may decrease Lhe well bore
dlameLer so much LhaL Lhe flow from Lhe well ls slgnlflcanLly reduced. Scale may also plug
perforaLlon Lunnels and formaLlon pores or obsLrucL accessorles llke slldlng slde doors or
slde pockeLs so Lhelr funcLlonallLy ls affecLed. lf a scale layer breaks off, lL may cause
obsLrucLlons elsewhere.
Y%C% <4'7) *)#"/'7
Scale represenLs a very cosLly problem ln Lhe gas, oll and waLer producLlon lndusLry, noL only
lnslde Lhe well bore buL also ln Lhe porous medlum around Lhe lnflow area of Lhe well. Scale
can be removed chemlcally, mechanlcally or physlcally. WlLh chemlcal meLhods Lhe scale ls
converLed lnLo soluble subsLance and produced ouL of Lhe well. 8y proper placemenL Lhe
well bore lLself and Lhe surroundlng porous medlum can be reached, however placemenL of
Lhe chemlcal LreaLmenL flulds ln low permeable zones, ofLen Lhe zones mosL affecLed by
scale, may be dlfflculL. Moreover Lhe use of chemlcal subsLances may be unwanLed.
Mechanlcal meLhods by crushlng Lhe scale ln dlrecL conLacL wlLh a roLaLlng drllllng or mllllng
blL and flushlng Lhe llberaLed debrls from Lhe well are relaLlvely rough, may leave a Lhln layer
of scale behlnd and hold a rlsk exlsLs of damaglng Lhe plpe wall. A physlcal meLhod such as
crushlng scale uslng hydrodynamlcally generaLed vlbraLlons and cavlLaLlon bubble collapse
or sLrong vorLlces has Lhe poLenLlal Lo remove scale from Lhe well bore and Lhe surroundlng
formaLlon, lncludlng Lhe less permeable zones.
hyslcal scale removal Lechnlques lnclude hydrodynamlc [eLLlng and hydrodynamlc vlbraLlon
and cavlLaLlon. ln Lhe lasL decennlum Lhe use of fluldlc osclllaLlon has galned lnLeresL, uslng
frequencles of 120 Lo 200 Pz Lo obLaln acousLlc waves ln Lhe flulds and successful fleld
appllcaLlons have been reporLed [1]. 1he use of 20 Lo 60 Pz vlbraLlon for lmpacL drllllng and
mllllng of scale provldes successes ln Lhe fleld [2]. ulLrasonlc devlces have also been
consldered for Lhe Lask of scale removal [3].
1hls sLudy venLures lnLo Lhe area of low frequency vlbraLlon and Lhe Lools LhaL have been
lnvesLlgaLed produce aparL from sLrong vlbraLlon also sLrong cavlLaLlon lf Lhe well bore
pressure ls Lyplcally lower Lhan 100 bar. As cavlLaLlon ls suppressed by hlgher wellbore
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
183

pressure, Lhe vlbraLlons become sLronger. AL hlgher well bore pressures sLrong vorLlces Lake
Lhe place of cavlLaLlon and asslsL ln dlslodglng scale. 1he effecL of Lhe lnvesLlgaLed Lools on
scale Lhus varles dependlng on Lhe depLh of appllcaLlon. AL shallow depLhs Lhe effecLs of
shock waves and hydro [eLs due Lo cavlLaLlon bubble collapse play a ma[or role ln breaklng
and dlslodglng scale lnslde and close Lo Lhe wellbore, supporLed by Lhe effecLs of radlally
peneLraLlng low frequency vlbraLlon. AL deeper depLhs Lhe low frequency vlbraLlons and
radlal effecLs become sLronger because less energy ls consumed for Lhe generaLlon of
cavlLaLlon bubbles, however Lhe Lool conLlnues Lo generaLe very sLrong vorLlces and hydro
[eLs LhaL asslsL ln dlslodglng Lhe scale lnslde and close Lo Lhe well bore.
Y%E% O::)45; ": 612*"213'#,4 /,-*'5,"3 '32 4'/,5'5,"3
urlve fluld ls pumped vla a condulL Lhrough a vlbroCav Lool poslLloned opposlLe Lhe
LreaLmenL horlzon causlng vlbraLlon of Lhe Lool aL a frequency Lyplcally beLween 100 and
1000 Pz and consumlng 3 Lo 30 kW hydraullc power, dependlng on Lhe Lool slze, Lool deslgn
and drlve fluld flow raLes used, as schemaLlcally deplcLed ln Lhe flgure below:
Drive fluid
pump
Treatment
zone
Return flow
Treatment
depth
Vibro cavitation
tool
Casing
Drive fluid
pump
Treatment
zone
Return flow
Treatment
depth
Vibro cavitation
tool
Casing
.
4,56)% [879 :/%*<A 3A=B,#5 " >&6,@ >,&&%@ B%&& B,*A " 3*%%& <"3,#5 "#@ " Z,C)=N"? *==& &=B%)%@
=# " E,E% *A)=65A BA,<A @),?% >&6,@ ,3 E6+E%@ *= *A% *)%"*+%#* H=#% "* " <%)*",# *)%"*+%#*
@%E*A8
1he vlbraLlng body bounclng agalnsL Lhe Lool houslng as descrlbed ln ChapLer 8 causes
vlbraLlons of Lhe plpe wlLh scale and Lravel lnLo Lhe surroundlng of Lhe well. 1he Lool lLself
hammers agalnsL Lhe caslng wall. 1he cavlLaLlon generaLed aL shallower depLhs or sLrong
vorLlces ln Lhe lnLense fluld [eLs emerglng from Lhe Lool aL deeper depLhs, comblned wlLh Lhe
vlbraLlons and physlcal hammerlng of Lhe Lool agalnsL Lhe wall break Lhe scale and flush lL
away. 1he reLurn fluld flow Lhen reLurns Lhe scale debrls Lo surface.
Y%J% >32=;5*,'7 5*,'7; :"* ;4'7) *)#"/'7
1o LesL Lhe poLenLlal of Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav Lool for scale removal ln gas, oll and waLer wells,
LesL wells were found for a fleld lnvesLlgaLlon of Lhe Lechnlque on an lndusLrlal scale. MosL
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
186

oll and gas wells produce unwonLedly formaLlon waLer LogeLher wlLh Lhe hydrocarbons ln
Lhe process of depleLlng a reservolr LhaL normally fllls lLself wlLh formaLlon waLer afLer Lhe
hydrocarbons have been exLracLed. A LoLal of 3 LreaLmenLs were conducLed one of whlch ln
an oll well ln uenmark and four ln oll wells ln Cman. All Lhese wells produced a conslderable
amounL of waLer wlLh scallng poLenLlal and Lhe producLlon was negaLlvely affecLed by flow
resLrlcLlons creaLed by scale bulld-up.
Y%K% OL=,@#)35 '32 "@)*'5,38 4"32,5,"3;
lor all Lrlals a 3.2" 8oLo vlbroCav roLaLlng Lool was used wlLh a 38 mm ball as free body ln a
houslng wlLh an lnLernal dlameLer of 40 mm and laLeral, sllghLly LangenLlal ouLflow Lhrough
several verLlcal sllLs ln Lhe Lool houslng. 1he sllLs commenced [usL below Lhe ball.
A A'
A A'
Rotating Housing
Free Body
Support
Drive fluid
Rotation
A A'
A A'
Rotating Housing
Free Body
Support
Drive fluid
Rotation

4,56)% [8M9 :/%*<A 3A=B,#5 *A% I^=*= Z,C)=N"?J *==& 63%@ >=) *A% ,#@63*),"& *),"&3 >=) 3<"&%
)%+=?"&8
1he roLaLlon was caused by reacLlon forces due Lo Lhe LangenLlal componenL ln Lhe ouLflow
of Lhe drlve fluld. A hydrodynamlc brake was used Lo conLrol Lhe speed of roLaLlon beLween
Lyplcally 100 and 200 rpm ln order Lo malnLaln adequaLe radlal lmpacL. 1he plpe LhaL was
used Lo lower Lhe Lool lnLo Lhe well was ln all cases a conLlnuous sLeel Lube from a reel, Lhls
equlpmenL ls known ln Lhe ollfleld as colled Lublng.
When posslble Lhe well produced a reLurn flow raLe slgnlflcanLly hlgher Lhan Lhe drlve fluld
pump raLe Lo ensure as much flow of drlve fluld, oll and formaLlon waLer as posslble Lo flush
scale debrls ouL of Lhe well. 1he wells ln Cman were provlded wlLh a gas llfL faclllLy, gas was
supplled vla Lhe ouLslde of Lhe producLlon Lube and ln[ecLed lnLo Lhe producLlon flow Lo
lower Lhe hydrosLaLlc pressure ln Lhe producLlon Lube and lncrease Lhe flow. 1he wells LhaL
were LreaLed were all horlzonLal ln Lhe reservolr secLlon. 1he condlLlons for Lhe Cman Lrlals
are shown schemaLlcally ln Lhe flgure below.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
187

Drive fluid
injection Return flow
'Lift' gas
injection
Flow from
formation
Reservoir
Drive fluid
injection Return flow
'Lift' gas
injection
Flow from
formation
Reservoir

4,56)% [8O9 :/%*<A 3A=B,#5 *A% <=#@,*,=#3 >=) *A% e+"# *),"&3 "#@ *A% 63% => &,>* 5"3 *=
%#A"#<% *A% >&=B >=) >&63A,#5 =6* 3<"&% @%C),38
1he LreaLmenL was generally sLarLed aL Lhe Lop of Lhe scaled zone aL approxlmaLely 2 km
depLh along Lhe hole and 1.3 km verLlcal depLh and Lhe Lool was moved lnLo Lhe well wlLh a
speed of Lyplcally 1 Lo 2 m/mln. roduced formaLlon waLer was used as drlve fluld for Lhe
Cman [obs. uurlng several LreaLmenLs successlve passes were made across Lhe same lnLerval
Lo enhance Lhe cleanlng effecL. 1he drlve fluld was pumped aL raLes of 320 Lo 420 l/mln
(comparable Lo Lhe flow raLes ln Lhe urachLen LesL clrculL, see ChapLer 7), pro[ecLlng Lhe
ouLflow from Lhe Lool agalnsL Lhe wellbore wall conslsLlng of 7" caslng cemenLed ln 8 x" hole
and exploslvely perforaLed wlLh Lyplcally x" dlameLer shoL holes aL 20 shoL per m and 6" Lo
12" deep perforaLlon Lunnels. A sLand-off devlce was used Lo keep Lhe Lool approxlmaLely x"
away from Lhe caslng wall Lo allow free roLaLlon of Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav head. 1he sLand-off
devlce hammered agalnsL Lhe caslng wall whlle Lhe [eLLlng acLlon of Lhe drlve fluld exlLlng
from Lhe roLaLlng head asslsLed ln washlng away llberaLed scale. 1he Lyplcal LreaLmenL
condlLlons close Lo Lhe Lool are shown ln flgure 9.4.

5.Rotating
tool
7. Reservoir rock
1. Cement
2. Casing
3. Perforation
4.Scale
6. Stand-
off device
4.Scale
4.Scale
5.Rotating
tool
7. Reservoir rock
1. Cement
2. Casing
3. Perforation
4.Scale
6. Stand-
off device
4.Scale
4.Scale

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
188

4,56)% [8T9 :<A%+"*,< @)"B,#5 => *A% *)%"*+%#* <=#@,*,=#3 >=) 3<"&% )%+=?"& *),"&3 ,# e+"#
=,& B%&&3 3A=B,#5 QL <"3,#5 <%+%#*%@ ,# "# \8XL A=),H=#*"& B%&&C=)% ,# 3"#@3*=#% >=)+"*,=#-
*DE,<"& MW E%)>=)"*,=# A=&%3 "#@ E%)>=)"*,=# *6##%&3 E%) +%*%)- =# *A% &%>* A"#@ <&%"#%@ "#@
=# ),5A* A"#@ E)%3%#<% => 3<"&% B,*A *A% O8ML ^=*= Z,C)=N"? 0==& FXG "#@ 3*"#@=>> @%?,<% FYG
@)"B# ,#8
1he well ln uenmark was LreaLed Lo remove scale LhaL lnLerfered wlLh Lhe operaLlon of a
sleeve Lype valve, a so-called 'Slldlng Slde uoor' or SSu. 1he valves were used ln a well Lo
have closable access Lo a producLlon zone. 1he funcLlonallLy ls shown ln flgure 9.3.

4,56)% [8X9 46#<*,=#"&,*D => 3&%%?% *DE% ?"&?%3 F::]J3G "3 63%@ ,# =,& B%&&3 ,# ]%+")/8 (D
3A,>*,#5 *A% ,##%) 3&%%?% B,*A " *==& *A"* 5),E3 ,# *A% )%<%33 ,# *A% ,##%) 3&%%?%- A=&%3 ,# *A%
=6*%) 3A%&& => *A% ?"&?% <"# C% =E%#%@ =) <&=3%@8 0A% ?"&?% #%%@3 >)%% +=?%+%#* => *A% ,##%)
3&%%?% >=) E)=E%) =E%)"*,=#8
1he producLlon Lube for Lhe Lrlal ln uenmark had an ouLer dlameLer of 4 x" and lnner
dlameLer of 4" and was horlzonLal ln Lhe producLlon lnLerval. 1he scale ln Lhe enLlre
producLlon Lube was flrsL mechanlcally cleaned wlLh a 3.33" drllllng blL, leavlng scale ln Lhe
recesses of Lhe Lool and a Lhln layer of scale on Lhe Lube as shown ln flgure 9.6.
Scale Rotating
tool
Stand off
device
Sliding
side door
Scale Rotating
tool
Stand off
device
Sliding
side door

4,56)% [8Y9 :<A%+"*,< => *A% *)%"*+%#* <=#@,*,=#3 ,# *A% ]%#+")/ ,#@63*),"& *),"& ,# A=),H=#*"&
T kL e] E)=@6<*,=# *6C% B,*A "# ::]J3 "* " ?%)*,<"& @%E*A => "EE)=K,+"*%&D MMWW +- B,*A *A%
O8ML ^=*= Z,C)=N"? *==& "#@ " 3*"#@=>> @%?,<% @)"B# ,#8 0A)%% => 36<A ::]J3 B,*A
"EE)=K,+"*%&D 7WW + *6C,#5 ,# C%*B%%# B%)% *)%"*%@ ,# *A,3 *),"&8
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
189

1reaLed seawaLer was used for Lhe uenmark Lrlal and Lhe Lool was lowered aL approxlmaLely
2 m/mln over Lhe Lube lnLerval and reclprocaLed several Llmes over Lhe SSu poslLlons.
A sLand-off devlce was used above Lhe Lool Lo ensure LhaL could freely roLaLe wlLhouL
leanlng on Lhe slde of Lhe well bore.

Y%R% D3'71;,; ": 56) 5*)'5#)35;
8efore each LreaLmenL ln Cman an oll producLlon raLe was measured under conLrolled
condlLlons wlLh Lhe well belng gas llfLed, allowlng Lhe roducLlvlLy lndex (m
3
/hr/bar) aL a
conLrolled producLlon raLe and llfL gas raLe Lo be deLermlned. 1hese measuremenLs were
repeaLed afLer Lhe LreaLmenL Lo esLabllsh Lhe lmprovemenL.
uurlng Lhe LreaLmenLs, Lhe pump pressure, drlve fluld pump raLe and flow raLe of scale
conLamlnaLed drlve fluld, oll and formaLlon waLer were measured and scale samples were
collecLed from Lhe produced flulds ln all cases. 1he samples were analysed ln Lhe laboraLory
of Lhe oll and gas operaLor.
ln Lhe uenmark Lrlal, lL was slmply checked wlLh a shlfLlng Lool wheLher Lhe sleeve ln Lhe
valve could be shlfLed Lo Lhe 'open' and 'closed' poslLlons afLer Lhe scale removal LreaLmenL.
lor Lhe oll wells ln Cman Lhe producLlon was closely monlLored durlng Lhe year followlng Lhe
LreaLmenL Lo observe Lhe effecL of Lhe LreaLmenL over Llme by monlLor developmenLs ln Lhe
oll and waLer producLlon of Lhe wells aL conLrolled gas llfL condlLlons. 1he avallable
producLlon records allowed Lhe lncremenLal oll producLlon afLer Lhe LreaLmenL Lo be
deLermlned.
Y%T% H);=75; '32 2,;4=;;,"3
1he scale removal Lrlals are summarlzed ln Lhe Lable 9.1.
Indust
riaI
triaI
Country Bottom
intervaI
verticaI
Bottom
intervaI
aIong hoIe
IntervaI
Ienth
CompIetion Pipe ID
across
intervaI
Drive FIuid
Pump rate
Drive
FIuid
Type
TotaI
voI
pumped
Return
FIow Rate
Comments on
fIow during
treatment
Est. one
year oiI gain
nr m m m inch Itr/min m3 Itr/min m3
1 Denmark 2024 3286 216 3 Sliding side
doors
4,0 320 Seawater 77 500 Well on natural
production
Not
determined
2 Oman 1210 2190 269 Perforations/
gaslift
6,0 375 Water +
FR
120 450 Well on gas lift,
returns to
station
6935
gaslift
6,0 420 Water 236 ca 350 Partial returns
at surface
during
operations
0
gaslift
6,0 350 Water 346 400 Well on gas lift,
returns to
station
2190
gaslift
6,0 375 Water 260 450 Well on gas lift,
returns to
station
5840

0"C&% [879 2#@63*),"& *),"&3 >=) 3<"&% )%+=?"& ,# =,& B%&&3 B,*A <=E)=@6<*,=# => >=)+"*,=# B"*%)
B,*A 3<"&,#5 *%#@%#<D8 !&& *),"&3 B%)% <")),%@ =6* B,*A " O8ML ^=*= Z,C)=N"? *==& @%E&=D%@ =#
<=,&%@ *6C,#58 !&& *),"&3 B%)% <")),%@ =6* ,# A=),H=#*"& ,#*%)?"&3 "&=#5 *A% ,#*%)?"& &%#5*A
3A=B# ,# *A% *"C&%8 I4^J @%#=*%3 *A"* >),<*,=# )%@6<,#5 "@@,*,?%3 B%)% 63%@8 I]%AD@)JF"*,=#G
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
190

B"*%) ,3 E)=@6<%@ >=)+"*,=# B"*%)8 I^%*6)#3J )%>%)3 *= *A% =6* >&=B => *A% B%&& @6),#5 *A%
*)%"*+%#*j IE")*,"&J +%"#3 *A"* *A% =6* >&=B )"*% B"3 &=B%) *A"# *A% @),?% >&6,@ E6+E )"*%8
AfLer Lhe LreaLmenL for Lrlal 1, one of Lhe Lhree valves proved Lo be operaLlonal whlle Lhe
oLher Lwo could noL be shlfLed. 1he Lrlal was Lherefore only parLlally successful. Checklng
wheLher Lhe valves would shlfL was done afLer reLrlevlng Lhe cleanlng Lool from Lhe well.
When lL was deLermlned LhaL only one valve would shlfL correcLly, Lhe well owner gave no
permlsslon Lo conLlnue cleanlng ln aLLempL Lo clean Lhe oLher Lwo valves. WlLh a well bore
pressure of approxlmaLely 220 bar, Lhe predomlnanL mechanlsms wlll have been low
frequency vlbraLlon, sLrong vorLlces, flushlng by Lhe drlve fluld exlLlng from Lhe roLaLlng head
and hammerlng of Lhe sLand-off devlce. 1he comblned effecL was sufflclenL for one, buL
lnsufflclenL for Lwo of Lhe Lhree valves Lo reLurn Lhem Lo normal servlce. 1here can be many
reasons for Lhe unsuccessful resulLs, such as Lhe accuracy of Lool poslLlonlng whlch ls
noLorlously dlfflculL wlLh colled Lublng, exposure Llme, posslble presence of scale beLween
Lhe sleeve and Lhe valve body LhaL was ouL of reach for Lhe Lool acLlon or lnsufflclenL Lool
acLlon.
1he four Cman Lrlals were successful, aparL from Lrlal 3. 1he esLlmaLed one year oll galn
exceeded Lhe cosLs of Lhe LreaLmenL operaLlon by a facLor 3 Lo 10. uurlng Lrlal 3 Lhe drlve
fluld pump raLe was hlgher Lhan Lhe producLlon raLe, whlch very llkely resulLed ln re-
deposlLlng scale debrls ln Lhe perforaLlon Lunnels or Lhe formaLlon. uurlng Lrlal 4 Lhe Lool
was losL ln Lhe hole and Lhe cleanlng operaLlon was only parLlally compleLed, large pleces of
scale debrls may have accumulaLed above Lhe Lool due Lo an lnadequaLe flow raLe and
[ammlng of Lhe Lool. 1he experlence of Lool [ammlng ln Lrlal 4 underllnes Lhe lmporLance of
breaklng up Lhe scale ln sufflclenLly small parLlcles LhaL can be flushed ouL of Lhe well wlLh
Lhe llfLlng forces of Lhe reLurn flow, use of hlghly vlscous fluld baLches Lo promoLe Lhe
LransporL of scale debrls ouL of Lhe well merlLs conslderaLlon. AL a verLlcal depLh of Lyplcally
1300 m wlLh a wellbore pressure of around 130 bar, Lhe predomlnanL mechanlsms wlll have
been low frequency vlbraLlon, sLrong vorLlces, flushlng acLlon by Lhe drlve fluld exlLlng from
Lhe roLaLlng head and hammerlng of Lhe sLand-off devlce, comblned wlLh flow lnLo Lhe well
vla Lhe perforaLlon Lunnels. 1he low frequency vlbraLlons may have been parLlcularly
effecLlve ln Lhe perforaLlon Lunnels away from Lhe wellbore.
lL ls remarkable ln all LesLs LhaL resulLs were obLalned ln near horlzonLal hole, whlle LesL
clrculL experlmenLs wlLh non-roLaLlng Lools lndlcaLed LhaL Lool lncllnaLlon lnLerfered wlLh
free laLeral movemenL of Lhe ball. 1ool roLaLlon as Lakes place ln Lhe 8oLo vlbroCav, lf
safeguarded wlLh an effecLlve sLand-off devlce, appears a good measure Lo ensure random
bounclng of Lhe ball.
1he condlLlon of scale can vary from Lough Lo brlLLle and lL Lherefore dlfflculL Lo predlcL Lhe
effecL of a Lool. Chollnezhad [2] descrlbes Lhe use of drllllng and mllllng blLs and even
exploslves for Lhe removal of very hard scale and reporLs LhaL Lhe use of acousLlc waves
alone ls unllkely Lo be successful. 1he effecLlveness of a vlbraLlon based scale removal Lool ls
based on a comblnaLlon of mechanlsms llke mechanlcal hammerlng, acousLlc wave
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
191

lmplngemenL, lmplodlng cavlLaLlon bubbles or very sLrong vorLlces ln a fluld sLream [eLLed
onLo Lhe scaled up wellbore, and washlng acLlon, ln facL all Lhe effecLs generaLed by Lhe 8oLo
CavlLaLlon Lool. lor successful scale removal physlcal Lool vlbraLlon and hammerlng ls
consldered of hlgh relaLlve lmporLance, hence Lhe Lool should be opLlmlsed for Lhese effecLs.
ln general Lhls wlll mean LhaL Lhe largesL Lool flLLlng Lhe well geomeLry provlded wlLh Lhe
largesL posslble ball wlLh maxlmum mass would be selecLed wlLh a falrly wlde gap, operaLed
aL a flow raLe Lo opLlmlse Lhe vlbraLlon and bounclng sLrengLh. 1he sLand-off devlce should
be deslgned Lo opLlmlse laLeral hammerlng agalnsL Lhe plpe wall almlng for clrcumferenLlal
coverage. uellberaLe roLaLlon of Lhe vlbraLlon head uslng a mud moLor or sLrlng roLaLlon and
Lhe appllcaLlon of mechanlcal cuLLlng sLrucLure ln Lhe vlbraLlon and [eLLlng head would
comblne mechanlcal desLrucLlon and llberaLlon of scale wlLh vlbraLlon and [eLLlng based
scale removal.
ln vlew of Lhe sLrong decrease of energy lnLenslLy wlLh Lhe dlsLance from Lhe Lool, lL ls
essenLlal LhaL Lhe Lool acLlon ls emlLLed as close as posslble Lo Lhe LargeL.
Y%X% ."347=;,"3;
- Mechanlcal hammerlng, low frequency vlbraLlons, sLrong vorLlces and flushlng acLlon
have llkely been Lhe conLrlbuLlng scale cleanlng mechanlsms aL Lhe depLh of Lhe
Lrlals. 1he sLrong vorLlces generaLed by Lhe vlbraLlng ball and [eLLed ln Lhe drlve fluld
sLream agalnsL Lhe plpe wall by Lhe roLaLlng Lool houslng provlde a sLrong washlng
acLlon. Mechanlcal hammerlng of Lhe Lool agalnsL Lhe plpe wall and Lransfer of Lhe
vlbraLlons Lo Lhe producLlon Lube or caslng asslsL ln dlslnLegraLlon of Lhe scale.
lurLher away from Lhe wellbore, such as ln perforaLlon Lunnels and Lhe surroundlng
porous maLrlx, a poslLlve effecL of Lhe low frequency vlbraLlons can be expecLed. 1he
relaLlvely large scale debrls musL be produced ouL of Lhe well, as re-deposlLlon wlll
very llkely resulL ln near wellbore plugglng.
- uurlng scale LreaLmenL lL ls posslble LhaL llberaLed scale parLlcles are Loo large Lo be
flushed ouL of Lhe hole effecLlvely. Large scale parLlcles are a LhreaL for Lhe Lool
becomlng sLuck, because Lhey may accumulaLe above Lhe Lool and brldge when
pulllng up Lhe Lool. 1he use of vlscous fluld baLches Lo promoLe Lhe LransporL scale
debrls merlLs conslderaLlon.
- 1he 3.2" 8oLo vlbroCav was noL yeL opLlmlsed for Lhe vlbraLlon acLlon. 1he ouLslde
dlmenslons of Lhe Lool allow Lhe lnsLallaLlon of a larger and heavler ball. Also Lhe ball
and chamber gap can be opLlmlsed Lo reallse maxlmum effecLs from mechanlcal
hammerlng by Lhe Lool.
- 1ool wear may have lnLerfered Lo such an exLenL LhaL no or severely compromlsed
vlbraLlon Look place durlng some of Lhe unsuccessful LreaLmenLs. lL ls consldered
lmporLanL LhaL down hole and surface measuremenLs are made Lo ascerLaln LhaL Lhe
Lool ls vlbraLlng properly.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
192

- lor scale removal from compleLlons accessorles llke SSu's lL ls crlLlcal LhaL Lhe Lool ls
preclsely poslLloned opposlLe Lhe accessory and LhaL Lhe exposure Lo Lhe Lool effecLs
ls sufflclenLly long.
- 1ools for scale cleanlng should be opLlmlsed for vlbraLlon acLlon. 1hls means LhaL
Lools should be chosen wlLh a heavy ball as large as posslble wlLhln Lhe glven
geomeLry and a ball Lo chamber clearance selecLed Lo achleve Lhe sLrongesL
vlbraLlons aL Lhe avallable drlve fluld flow. Means of acLlvely Lunlng Lhe clearance Lo
achleve Lhe sLrongesL vlbraLlon effecL would be beneflclal. Maxlmum advanLage musL
be Laken of Lhe mechanlcal hammerlng of Lhe sLand-off devlce and Lhe Lool musL
have prlmary or secondary funcLlonallLy Lo break up scale parLlcles Lo hydraullcally
LransporLable dlmenslons wlLhouL allowlng Lhe exlsLence of overslzed parLlcles. use
of baLches of vlscous fluld Lo promoLe Lhe LransporLaLlon of scale debrls from Lhe
well merlLs conslderaLlon. uown hole fllLraLlon of Lhe scale debrls ln slLuaLlons where
Lhe debrls cannoL be clrculaLed Lo surface may also be consldered.
- AparL from 'self' generaLed roLaLlon by LangenLlal ouLflow, Lools can be exLernally
roLaLed by means of roLaLlng Lhe plpe on whlch Lhe Lool ls lowered lnLo Lhe well from
surface or by means of a down hole moLor acLlvaLed by Lhe drlve fluld or a
comblnaLlon of Lhe Lwo. 1he advanLage of an exLernally roLaLed Lool ls LhaL Lhe
ouLflow porLs can be purely radlal resulLlng ln lmproved pro[ecLlon of Lhe ouLflow
onLo Lhe well bore wall. LxLernally drlven Lools can also be beLLer comblned wlLh a
cuLLlng sLrucLure aL Lhe boLLom and Lop of Lhe Lool Lo enhance Lhe mechanlcal scale
desLrucLlon capablllLy of Lhe Lool.
- lor scale removal from accessorles llke SSu's lL ls recommended Lo comblne a shlfLer
Lool wlLh Lhe cleanlng Lool Lo check wheLher Lhe SSu wlll operaLe afLer cleanlng and
lmmedlaLely resume cleanlng lf necessary. 1he shlfLer Lool wlll also ald ln accuraLe
depLh poslLlonlng. 1he use of an opLlmlsed roLaLed Lool wlLh cuLLlng sLrucLures aL Lhe
Lop and boLLom of Lhe Lool may also be consldered, Lhe comblnaLlon wlLh shlfLer
funcLlonallLy may Lhen be less reallsLlc.
- ln fuLure scale cleanlng appllcaLlons vlbraLlon musL be measured wlLh down hole
and/or surface mlcrophones Lo ascerLaln Lhe Lool ls worklng opLlmally. uurlng a
LreaLmenL sound can be used Lo flnd Lhe opLlmum operaLlng condlLlons of Lhe Lool
and lmmedlaLe acLlon can be Laken lf Lhe Lool sLops vlbraLlon.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
193

Y%Y% H):)*)34);
1. Chollnezhad, !. , SL 99683 (2006)
2. !oppe, L. , Mackenzle, C. , McCurk, M. , SL 99413 (2006)
3. Champlon, 8. , 8as, van der l. , nlLLers, C. , SL 82197 (2004)

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
194

.6'@5)* AUB G=57""(
AU%A% >35*"2=45,"3
1he sLudy has revealed enormous poLenLlal and also llmlLs of vlbraLlng-body-ln-plpe Lools for
Lhe hydrodynamlc generaLlon of cavlLaLlon aL elevaLed backpressures and useful vlbraLlons.
lor cavlLaLlon appllcaLlons Lhe sLrong polnLs of Lhe Lools are Lhe slmple consLrucLlon,
cavlLaLlon generaLlon aL elevaLed backpressure, low energy consumpLlon compared Lo oLher
cavlLaLlon generaLlng Lools and scalablllLy for processlng large flows. ulsadvanLages lnclude
Lhe hlgh nolse emlsslon, and Lool wear leavlng meLal Lraces ln Lhe LreaLed flulds, however
Lhese polnLs can largely be overcome wlLh sound abaLemenL meLhods and good Lool
englneerlng.
lor vlbraLlon based wellbore cleanlng appllcaLlons, Lhe Lools are unlque ln Lhe aspecL of
mechanlcally hammerlng of Lhe body agalnsL Lhe lnslde of Lhe Lool, comblned wlLh a
vlbraLlng ouLflow of Lhe Lool provldlng some dlrecLlvlLy and a wlde energy specLrum. lf Lhe
Lool produces cavlLaLlon, shockwaves of bubble collapse enhance shorL range cleanlng.
1he work Lo daLe has glven an ln depLh lnslghL lnLo Lhe physlcal phenomena lnvolved ln Lhe
Lools and Lhelr effecLs, buL has [usL llfLed Lhe Llp of Lhe vale of Lhe poLenLlal of vlbroCav
Lechnology. 1he Lechnology developmenL deserves scallng up and lnvesLmenL. ln Lhe
followlng secLlons envlsaged appllcaLlon poLenLlal ls dlscussed.
AU%C% +,-*'5,"3
1hls sLudy has demonsLraLed LhaL Lhe lnLenslLy of Lool vlbraLlon ls a funcLlon of Lool slze, Lool
geomeLry, mass of movlng parLs, flow raLe Lhrough Lhe Lool, condlLlon of Lhe drlve fluld and
Lhe downsLream pressure. uependlng on Lhe condlLlons, Lhe vlbraLlon lnLenslLy may vary
from lnslgnlflcanL Lo very sLrong.
lL has also been observed LhaL sLrong Lool vlbraLlon does noL necessarlly maLch wlLh Lhe
sLrongesL cavlLaLlon effecLs, hence lL ls anLlclpaLed LhaL Lools can be opLlmlsed speclflcally
for vlbraLlon effecLs aL mlnlmum expense of energy. lor appllcaLlons ln deep wells lL ls
generally aLLracLlve Lo alm for Lhe maxlmum effecL aL Lhe lowesL posslble flow raLe. lf
vlbraLlon ls Lhe purpose of Lhe appllcaLlon lL may noL be deslred from Lhe perspecLlve of Lool
wear LhaL cavlLaLlon occurs.
lnduced vlbraLlons ln Lhe upsLream plpe work of Lhe LesL loops have been observed.
Powever lL ls noL clear wheLher Lhese vlbraLlons are Lool vlbraLlons propagaLed Lhrough Lhe
plpe wall or Lhrough cycllc waLer hammer effecLs ln Lhe drlve fluld. 1hese Lwo Lypes of
lnduced vlbraLlon are very dlfflculL Lo dlsLlngulsh from each oLher wlLh Lhe lnsLrumenLaLlon
used Lo daLe. Pence Lhe knowledge abouL lnduced vlbraLlon ls currenLly sLlll llmlLed wlLh
respecL Lo Lhe lmporLance of waLer hammer ln Lools wlLh parLlal flow shuL off.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
193

lf conLlnued 8&u would lndlcaLe LhaL lL would noL be posslble Lo generaLe sLrong cycllc
waLer hammer effecLs wlLh parLlal shuL off Lools, lL could be envlsaged Lo pursue Lhe
developmenL of sLop-flow vlbraLlng Lools. lL ls anLlclpaLed LhaL lL wlll be a ma[or challenge Lo
bulld durable sLop-flow Lools, however lndusLrlal ceramlcs and poly crysLalllne dlamond
maLerlals may provlde saLlsfacLory soluLlons.
Some promlslng appllcaLlons based on vlbraLlon lnclude:
- Cleanlng of porous medla around deep wellbores
- 8emovlng scale ln deep wellbores, comblned wlLh mechanlcal dlslnLegraLlon
- lrlcLlon reducLlon ln wells
- lncreaslng drlll raLes wlLh vlbraLlng blL acLlon
- lreelng of sLuck drlll sLrlngs
- lmprove gravel packlng of fllLer Lubes
- lmprove sand slurry flow for sucLlon dredglng

AU%E% P,?,38
ln Lhese appllcaLlons Lhe Lool and sysLem parameLers are Luned Lo opLlmlse Lhe generaLlon
of fluld shear and reduce Lhe amounL of energy requlred Lo achleve Lhe deslred effecL.
Cenerally a hlgh volume raLe capablllLy and low nolse emlsslon wlll be favourable feaLures.
ln mlxlng appllcaLlons Lhe amounL and naLure of cavlLaLlon ls subservlenL Lo Lhe mlxlng effecL
and ln some appllcaLlons for mlxlng one may wanL Lo avold LhaL cavlLaLlon occurs e.g. ln
order Lo avold chemlcal change. 1he general purpose of Lhe mlxlng appllcaLlon wlll be Lo
achleve a hlgh degree of homogenelLy and sLablllLy aL Lhe mlnlmum expense of energy and
sLablllslng subsLances whlle LreaLlng hlgh volume raLes.
lor emulslons Lhe appllcaLlon would alm for a hlgher degree of dlsperslon of Lhe lmmlsclble
fracLlons Lhan posslble wlLh oLher meLhods: mlcro-emulslons Lrendlng Lo 'near molecular'
emulslons where Lhe dropleLs of Lhe lmmlsclble phase become so small LhaL Lhe hlghesL
degree of sLablllLy ls obLalned wlLh Lhe mlnlmum amounL of emulslfylng chemlcals.
A parLlcularly lnLeresLlng appllcaLlon for a 'near molecular' emulslon ls Lhe waLer ln fuel
appllcaLlon where a fracLlon of up Lo 10 waLer ls used Lo lmprove Lhe combusLlon
characLerlsLlcs of fuels and lmprove Lhe quallLy of exhausL gasses. Cne can vlsuallse LhaL
'waLer mlxlng klLs' are bullL as car componenLs wlLh full lnLegraLlon wlLh Lhe fuel ln[ecLlon
and exhausL quallLy managemenL sysLems. lL could be a reLroflL soluLlon for clean dlesel cars.
roLoLype 'mlxlng Lools' have been used already wlLh good resulLs for mlxlng of drllllng fluld.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
196

Some promlslng appllcaLlons for mlxlng lnclude:
- Mlxlng of waLer based drllllng flulds
- LmulslflcaLlon of oll emulslon drllllng flulds
- 'near molecular' homogenlsaLlon and emulslflcaLlon
- 'near caLalysL free' esLerlflcaLlon for blodlesel
- SLable waLer ln fuel emulslons

AU%J% .'/,5'5,"3
1he Lools for Lhese appllcaLlons would be opLlmlsed speclflcally Lo produce Lhe deslred Lhe
cavlLaLlon effecL, ranglng from maxlmum lmploslon energy - e.g. Lo force chemlcal change -
Lo maxlmum flare lengLh and sucLlon effecLs - e.g. for well cleanlng appllcaLlons. 1he pro[ecL
was sLarLed for Lhe developmenL of well cleanlng Lechnology. Several Lools have been
successfully applled ln lndusLrlal fleld Lrlals and wlLh Lhe knowledge galned more effecLlve
LreaLmenLs are consldered feaslble. arLlcularly geoLhermal wells appear good candldaLes.
Some promlslng appllcaLlons lnclude:
- Cleanlng of shallow porous medla around wellbores
- 8emovlng scale ln wellbores, comblned wlLh mechanlcal dlslnLegraLlon
- Cell dlsrupLlon for drlnklng and sewage waLer deconLamlnaLlon
- uesLrucLlon of vlruses
- Sewage sludge dlgesLlon
- SLlmulaLlon of phase LranslLlons ln flulds
- Low LemperaLure 'pasLeurlsaLlon'

AU%K% $'1 :"*M'*2
vlbroCav Lechnology should be seen as a useful addlLlon Lo Lhe exlsLlng lnvenLory of
processlng and well lnLervenLlon Lools. 1he poLenLlal ls so exLenslve LhaL sLrucLured 8&u
work and lnvesLmenL ls consldered warranLed. lL ls hoped LhaL Lhls sLudy has paved Lhe way
Lo furLher developmenL of vlbroCav Lechnology.

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
197

+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
198

D4(3"M7)28)#)35;
1hls sLudy would never have Laken place lf rofessor vladlmlr lvannlkov and Alexander
oroykov would noL have crossed my Lracks ln 1998. As 8usslan sclenLlsLs Lhey were looklng
for opporLunlLles ln Lhe WesL for some exoLlc Lechnologles, lncludlng acLlve cavlLaLlon for
cleanlng of wells. Me belng me, l was carrled away by Lhe prospecLs of Lhelr cavlLaLlon
Lechnology Lhe momenL Lhelr flrsL emall arrlved on my screen. l wlll never forgeL Lhe remark
of rofessor lvannlkov aL Lhe sLarL of our relaLlonshlp LhaL 'Lhere are more secreLs Lo a
vlbraLlng ball Lhan you can lmaglne'. Pe proved Lo be correcL and l am exLremely graLeful for
planLlng Lhe ldeas and for all advlce recelved.
l lmmedlaLely became Lhrllled by Lhe slmpllclLy of Lhe proposed Lools and Lhelr envlsaged
effecLs. We had pragmaLlc proLoLypes made and easlly found launchlng cusLomers for fleld
LesLs. lL was my nephew 1aco Wever sLarLlng wlLh us ln vrles as beglnnlng uelfL mlnlng
englneer Lo markeL Lhe Lools and supporL fleld LesLs ln Lhe early days who colned Lhe uuLch
name 'klopsLofzulger' or ln good Lngllsh 'knocklng vacuum cleaner' for our Lools. Sadly 1aco
dled ln a mlcro-llghL plane crash only monLhs afLer Lhe sLarL of hls worklng llfe.
AfLer lnlLlal Lrlals lL became clear LhaL more sclenLlflc lnvesLlgaLlon was requlred Lo
undersLand Lhe behavlour and effecLs of Lhe Lools. AlberL SLoop became lnvolved aL Lhls
polnL. 1he lnnovaLlve naLure of Lhe Lechnology gave access Lo subsldles malnly Lhrough Snn
(Samenwerklngsverband noord nederland) for whlch l am exLremely graLeful. lL was
requlred for Lhe pro[ecL Lo lnvolve unlverslLles ln developmenL work. 1hls broughL me Lo Lhe
1u uelfL deparLmenL of 3ML, secLlon Al (ln uuLch: 'ApparaLenbouw voor de roces
lndusLry' or ln Lngllsh 'ConsLrucLlon of uevlces for Lhe rocess lndusLry') where AlberL and
Lhe pro[ecL found a hosplLable home and guldance from rofessor CeerL[an WlLkamp and
Perman kramer for several years, for whlch l am exLremely graLeful.
lor Lhe deslgn of Lhe 30 bar LesL clrculL, Lhe house sLyle of Whlrlwlnd lnLernaLlonal 8v our
operaLlng company and LesL supporL, l Lhank my son 1[erk who was graduaLlng ln uelfL for
Mechanlcal Lnglneerlng aL Lhe Llme. ?olanda kolenberg, 8erL[an koers, Chrls Schepers, Lrwln
Pammlnga and 8asLlaan v.d. veen musL be menLloned and Lhanked for Lhelr excellenL lnpuL
and supporL vla Whlrlwlnd.
WlLhouL Lhe unwaverlng supporL of emerlLus rofessor Cerda van 8osmalen l would have
losL Lhe way long ago and her sLlmulaLlng lnfluence has llfLed Lhe pro[ecL Lo a level LhaL l
would hardly have consldered posslble. Per apparenLly lnnocenL quesLlons ofLen forced me
Lo dlg deeper Lhan l would have done oLherwlse. Lspeclally whlle processlng Lhe wealLh of
daLa for Lhls Lhesls lL became clear how compleLe, accuraLe and conslsLenL AlberL had done
Lhe experlmenLs and recorded hls observaLlons. Cerda, AlberL and l spenL many hours
sparrlng over Lhe underlylng concepLs forclng me regularly Lo reconslder raLher
preconcelved sLandpolnLs. l feel deeply lndebLed Lo Lhem.
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
199

An lmporLanL drlver for wanLlng Lhls promoLlon ls Lhe poslLlve sLlmulaLlon l have recelved
from my parenLs durlng my enLlre llfe. My faLher who lefL us much Loo early would have
read Lhls Lhesls over and over agaln and my 94 year old moLher wlll Lell Lhe enLlre servlce flaL
how proud she ls.
LasL buL noL leasL l am deeply graLeful Lo my dear wlfe Annemarle ln parLlcular and my dlrecL
famlly ln general for lovlng and accepLlng me dlvlng lnLo Lhls demandlng pro[ecL and sLeallng
many hours LhaL we could have spenL LogeLher soclally.

1om 8akker
CcLober 2012
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
200

.=**,4=7=# +,5')
9)*;"3'7 >3:"*#'5,"3ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ

name : 1homas (1om) Walburgls 8akker
uaLe of blrLh : 27
Lh
of CcLober 1948
naLlonallLy : uuLch

O2=4'5,"3ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ

AYRX AYTJ !)463,4'7 I3,/)*;,51 Q)7:5[ P,3,38 O38,3))*,38 P;4 \0"3"=*;][
uuLch lr LlLle

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CUUU ^ 3"M Q,*)45"* ": $6,*7M,32 >35)*3'5,"3'7 &+
_J `YR 3"M Q,*)45"* ": $)77 O38,3))*,38 9'*53)*; \$O9] &+[ 0""8)/))3[ !6)
W)56)*7'32;.
CurrenLly worklng wlLh 30 sLaff englneers and exLenslve neLwork of speclallsL
consulLanLs.
_C `YR _J aYR <6)77[ H,N;M,N(
Well Lnglneerlng Manager ln Lhe 8esearch and 1echnology SupporL Croup
AYYC _C `YR W)56)*7'32; D'*2"7,) P''5;46'@@,N \WDP][ D;;)3
Pead Well Lnglneerlng, nL neLherlands as Shell seconded sLaff.
AYXX AYYC <6)77 O?@*"[ D-)*2))3[ Ib
Pead Well 1echnology
AYXE AYXX <6)77[ ;5'5,"3)2 ,3 P,*,[ <'*'M'(
Pead urllllng CperaLlons Lnglneerlng
AYTY AYXE <6)77[ ."@)36'8)3[ Q)3#'*(
Senlor urllllng CperaLlons Lnglneer wlLh Maersk/uanbor as second Shell SLaff
AYTR AYTY <6)77
lnLroducLlon programme for eLroleum Lnglneers ln Shell 1he Pague.
urllllng CperaLlons Lnglneer wlLh Shell Company CaLar.
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laLoon commander wlLh Lhe armoured englneers
+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
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+,-*".'/ 012*"213'#,4 +,-*'5,"3 '32 .'/,5'5,"3 5)463"7"81
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