FACILITIES IN STUDIO CENTRE

Introduction
The broadcast of a programme from source to listener involves use of studios, microphones,
announcer console, switching console, telephone lines / STL and Transmitter. Normally the
programmes originate from a studio centre located inside the city/town for the convenience
of artists. The programme could be either live or recorded. n some cases, the
programme can be from !" spot, such as commentary of cric#et match etc. $rogrammes
that are to be relayed from other %adio Stations are received in a receiving centre and then
sent to the studio centre or directly received at the studio centre through %N
terminal/telephone line. &ll these programmes are then selected and routed from studio to
transmitting centre through broadcast 'uality telephone lines or studio transmitter
microwave/()* lin#s
Broadcast Studio
& broadcast studio is an acoustically treated room. t is necessary that the place where a
programme for broadcast purposes is being produced should be free of e+traneous noise.
This is possible only if the area of room is insulated from outside sound. *urther, the
microphone which is the first e'uipment that pic#s up the sound, is not able to distinguish
between wanted and unwanted signals and will pic# up the sound not only from the artists
and the instruments but also reflections from the walls marring the 'uality and clarity of the
programme. So the studios are to be specially treated to give an optimum reverberation
time and minimum noise level. The entry to the studios is generally through sound isolating
lobby called sound loc#. !utside of every studio entrance, there is a warning lamp, which
glows ,%ed- when the studio is ,!N.&%-. The studios have separate announcers booths
attached to them where first level fading, mi+ing and cueing facilities are provided.
n addition to control room and studios, dubbing/recording rooms are also provided in a
studio comple+. *ollowing e'uipments are generally provided in a recording/dubbing room /
i0 1onsole tape recorders
ii0 1onsole tape dec#s
iii0 %ecording/dubbing panel having switches, 2ac#s and #eys etc.
The above e'uipments can be used for the following purpose
*or recording of programmes originating from any studio.
*or recording of programmes available in the switching consoles in control
room.
*or dubbing of programmes available on cassette tape.
*or editing of programmes
*or mi+ing and recording of programmes
Studio Operational Requirements
3any technical re'uirements of studios li#e minimum noise level, optimum reverberation
time etc. are normally met at the time of installation of studio. )owever for operational
purposes, certain basic minimum technical facilities are re'uired for smooth transmission of
programmes and for proper control. These are as follows/
$rogramme in a studio may originate from a microphone or a tape dec#, or a turntable or
a compact disc or a %.4&T. So a facility for selection of output of any of these
e'uipments at any moment is necessary. &nnouncer console does this function.
*acility to fade in/fade out the programme smoothly and control the programme level
within prescribed limits.
*acility for aural monitoring to chec# the 'uality of sound production and sound meters to
indicate the intensity 5(6 meters0.
*or routing of programmes from various studios/!" spots to a central control room, we
re'uire a facility to further mi+/select the programmes. The 1ontrol 1onsole in the
control room performs this function. t is also called switching console.
"efore feeding the programmes to the transmitter, the response of the programme
should be made flat by compensating )* and L* losses using e'ualised line amplifiers.
5This is applicable in case of telephone lines only0
(isual signalling facility between studio announcer booth and control room should also
be provided.
f the programmes from various studios are to be fed to more than one transmitter, a
master switching facility is also re'uired.
Announcer Console
3ost of the studios have an attached booth, which is called transmission booth or &nnouncer
booth or play bac# studio. This is also acoustically treated and contains a mi+ing console
called &nnouncer 1onsole. The &nnouncer 1onsole is used for mi+ing and controlling the
programmes that are being produced in the studio using artist microphones, tape playbac#
dec#s and turn tables/14 players. This is also used for transmission of programmes either
live or recorded.
The technical facilities provided in a typical announcer booth, besides an &nnouncer
1onsole are one or two microphones for ma#ing announcements, two turn tables for playing
the gramophone records and two playbac# dec#s or tape recorders for recorded
programmes on tapes. %ecently 14 and %otary )ead 4igital &udio Tape %ecorder 5%.4&T0
are also included in the Transmission Studio.
Control Room
*or two or more studios set up, there would be a provision for further mi+ing which is
provided by a control console manned by engineers. Such control console is #nown as
switching console. "road functions of switching console in control room are as follows/
Switching of different sources for transmission li#e News, !."s. other satellite
based relays, live broadcast from recording studio.
Level e'ualisation and level control.
7uality monitoring.
Signalling to the source location.
1ommunication lin# between control room and different studios.
AMLIFIERS USED IN AIR STUDIOS
Introduction
&mplifier is one of the basic building bloc#s of modern electronics. The present day
electronics would not e+ist without this. &mplification is necessary because the desired
signal is usually too wea# to be directly useful. $resent day amplifiers used in studios are
mostly employing 1s and transistors.
Terms Used !it" Re#erence To Ampli#iers
f you loo# at the technical specifications of any amplifier used in a studio, you will come
across number of terms such as
nput mpedance
nput Level
!utput mpedance
!utput Level
8ain
Noise and 9'uivalent nput Noise
*re'uency response
4istortion.
Some of these terms have been e+plained briefly in the following paragraphs$
Input Impedance
t is defined as the impedance which we get while loo#ing into the input terminals of an
amplifier. The input impedance of a pre.amplifier determines the amount of a.c. voltage the
pre.amplifier will get from a microphone. The input impedance also decides the noise
performance of the amplifier. *or best noise performance, the input impedance of a pre
amplifier should e+ceed ten times the source impedance. t is because of this reason that
the input impedance of a pre amplifier is always :;;; ohm or more. n some amplifiers a
bridging input is provided. This implies that the input impedance is <;,;;; ohm or greater
and this impedance is achieved by using a special input transformer. "ridging input permits
several amplifiers to be connected across a line without upsetting the impedance match of
other e'uipment.
Output Impedance
The actual impedance seen when loo#ing into the output terminals of an amplifier is called
its output impedance. This term should not be confused with load impedance. Load
impedance is defined as a specified impedance into which a device is designed to wor#.
3any times the load impedance is higher than the output impedance. *or e+ample the
output impedance of e'ualised line amplifier type lab =>? is less than =; ohm while the
specified load impedance is >;; ohm.
Distortion in ampli#iers
The amplification of a sinusoidal signal to the input of an ideal class . & amplifier will result in
a sinusoidal output wave. 8enerally the output waveform is not an e+act replica of the input
signal waveform because of various types of distortions that may arise either from the
inherent non.linearity in the characteristics of the active device or from the influence of the
associated circuit. The types of distortions that may e+ist either separately or simultaneously
are called non.linear distortion, fre'uency distortion and delay or phase shift distortion.
Non linear distortion/ This type of distortion results from the production of new fre'uencies
in the output which are not present in the input signal. These new fre'uencies or harmonics,
result from the e+istence of non.linear dynamic curve for the active devices. The distortion is
sometimes referred to as amplitude distortion or harmonic distortion. This type of distortion
is more prominent when the signal levels are 'uite large so the dynamic operation spreads
over a wide range of the characteristics.
Frequenc% Distortion / This type of distortion e+ists when the signal components of
different fre'uencies are amplified differently. n a transistor amplifier, this type of distortion
may be caused either by the internal device capacitances or it may arise because of the
associated circuit such as, the coupling components. f the fre'uency response
characteristic is not a straight line over the range of fre'uencies under consideration, the
circuit is said to e+ploit fre'uency distortion over this range.
"ase s"i#t or dela% distortion / $hase shift distortion results from une'ual phase shifts of
signals of different fre'uencies. This type of distortion is not important in audio fre'uency
amplifiers since the human ear is incapable of distinguishing relative phases of different
fre'uency components. "ut it is very ob2ectionable in the system that depends on the wave
shape of the signal for their operation e.g. in television.
Noise and Equi&alent Input Noise
The term noise used broadly to describe any spurious electrical disturbances that causes an
output when the signal is @ero. Noise may be produced by causes which may be e+ternal to
the system or internal to the system regardless of where it originates in the amplifier, the
noise is conveniently e+pressed as an e'uivalent noise voltages at the input that would
cause the actual noise output. This noise is amplified along with the signal and tends to
mas# up the signal at the output. f in an amplifier, the noise at output is =;d" below the
output signal level, then the e'uivalent noise at the input of the amplifier, which has a gain of
A; d", will be .<:; dbm.
Medium !a&e transmitter
%* circuits consists of a crystal oscillator, transistor power amplifier, %*. 4river and $ower &mplifier of
<;; #B )3" <C; 3B transmitter are shown in *ig. :.
Fi'$( Bloc) Dia'ram o# RF C"ain *+MB,-./0
Re#$ Dr'$No$1,STI*T0.2(3*DC(/.0
Cr%stal Oscillator
To oscillate at a consistent fre'uency, the crystal is #ept in a oven. The temperature of the
oven is maintained between >? to A:
o
1 and the corresponding indication is available in the
meter panel. 1rystal oven is heated by D <: (. !ne crystal oscillator with a stand by has
been provided. t gives an output of = ( s'uare wave which is re'uired to drive the
Transistor $ower &mplifier. The crystal oscillator wor#s between E 3)@ and > 3)@ for
different carrier fre'uencies. 4ifferent capacitors are used to select different fre'uency
ranges. n addition, variable capacitor is used for varying the fre'uency of the crystal within
a few cycles. The oscillator fre'uency is divided by :, C, or ? which is selected by 2umpering
the appropriate terminals. The oscillator 6nit gives E outputs, one each for %* output, %*
3onitoring and %* output indication.
Transistor o4er Ampli#ier
!scillator output is fed to the transistor $ower amplifier 5T%$&0. t gives an output of <: Batt
across A= ohms. t wor#s on D :; ( 41, derived from a separate rectifier and regulator. *or
different operating fre'uencies, different output filters are selected. 5Low $ass *ilter0.
RF Dri&er
& C.<;;; & tetrode is used as a driver which operates under class &" condition, without
drawing any grid current. &bout A to <; Batts, of power is fed to the grid of the driver
through a A= / ?;; ohms %* Transformer, which provides proper impedance matching to the
T%$& output and also provides the necessary grid voltage swing to the driver tube.
"ecause the cathode is at .>;; (, the effective grid to cathode bias voltage 5fi+ed0 is .=;(
and the effective plate voltage is :=;; (. The driver develops a pea# grid voltage of ?;; to
F;; ( at the grid of $& and $& grid current of about ;.E & to ;.C &mps. The re'uired wave
form for operating the $& as class .4 operation is also developed at the output of the driver
by mi+ing about :;G third harmonic with the fundamental which is the operating fre'uency
of the transmitter.
RF o4er Ampli#ier
17H . =;, condensed vapour cooled tetrode valve is used as a $& stage. )igh level anode
modulation is used, using a class " 3odulator stage. The screen of the $& tube is also
modulated by a separate tap on modulation transformer. $late load impedance of the $&
stage is about A=; ohms and the output impedance is <:; ohms, and it is matched by L.1
components. 6sing various combination of the L.1 circuits plate impedance of third
harmonic is created, the )armonics also are filtered imaginatively at the output side. << #(
41, the )T voltage is connected to the plate of the $& valves through the secondary of the
modulation transformer and %* cho#es / hence the &* signal is super imposed on the 41 for
the $& plate.
AF Sta'e
The &* stage supply the audio power re'uired to amplitude modulate the final %* stage.
The output of the &* stage is superimposed upon the 41 voltage to the %* $& tube via
modulation transformer. &n &u+iliary winding in the modulation transformer, provides the &*
voltage necessary to modulate the screen of the final stage. The modulator stage consists
of two 17H.:= ceramic tetrode valves wor#ing in push pull class " configuration. The drive
stages up to the grid of the modulator are fully transistori@ed.
+i'" ass Filter
The audio input from the speech rac# is fed to active )igh $ass *ilter. t cuts off all
fre'uencies below >; )@. ts main function is to suppress the switching transistors from the
audio input. This also has the audio attenuator and audio muting relay which will not allow
&* to further stage till %* is about A; #B of power.
AF re,ampli#ier
The output of the )igh $ass *ilter is fed to the &* $re.amplifier, one for each balanced audio
line. Signal from the negative feed bac# networ# from the secondary of the modulation
transformer and the signals from the compensator also are fed to this unit.
AF re,Corrector
$re. amplifier output are fed to the &* $re.correctors. &s the final modulator valve in the &*
is operating as 1lass ", its gain will not be uniform for various levels of &* signal. That is
the gain of the modulator will be low for low level, input, and high for high level &* input
because of the operating characteristics of the (acuum tubes. )ence to compensate for the
non linear gain of the modulator. The $re.corrector amplifies the low level signal highly and
high level signal with low gain. )um compensator is used to have a better signal to noise
ratio.
AF Dri&er
: &* drivers are used to drive the two modulator valves. The driver provides the necessary
41 "ias voltage and also &* signal sufficient to modulate <;;G. The output of &* driver
stage is formed by four transistor in series as it wor#s with a high voltage of about .C;; (.
the transistors are protected with diodes and Iener diodes against high voltages that may
result due to internal tube flashovers. There is a potentiometer by which any clipping can be
avoided such that the ma+imum modulation factor will not e+ceeded.
AF Final Sta'e
&* final stage is e'uipped with ceramic tetrodes 17H.:=. *ilament current of this tube is
about :<; &mps. at <;(. The filament transformers are of special lea#age reactance type
and their short circuit current is limited to about : to E times the normal load current. )ence
the filament surge current at the time of switching on will not e+ceed the ma+imum limit.
& varistor at the screen or spar# gaps across the grid are to prevent over voltages. &s the
modulator valve is condensed vapour cooled tetrodes, deionised water is used for cooling.
The valve re'uired about <<.= litres/min. of water. Two water flow switches B*< and B*: in
the water lines of each of the valves protect against low or no water flow. Thermostats BT<
and BT: in each water line provide protection against e+cessive water temp. by tripping the
transmitter up to stand.by if the temperature of the water e+ceeds A;
o
1.
3odulation condenser and modulation cho#e have been dispensed with due to the special
design of the modulation transformer. Special high power varistor is provided across the
secondary winding of the modulation transformer to prevent transformer over voltages.
o4er Suppl% in -// )! +MB -./ M! Transmitter
<. )T .<< #( $& J 3odulator / thyristor controlled for smooth variation of )T
:. ?;; ( $ower Supply / Screen voltage to $& valve.
E. <;A; ( / Screen voltage to modulate valve.
C. <F;; ( / $late voltage to %* 4river
=. . >=; ( / 5i0 8rid "ias to $& 3odulator J %*
4river
5ii0 & tap on .>=; ( provides .>;; ( supply
to the cathode of %* 4river
5iii0 .<;; ( for the screen of %* 4river.
>. 3ain supply to transmitter C<= (. E $hase =; )ert@.
9arthing switch operated by a handle from the front of the rac# has been provided in the filter
tan#. The main )T terminal and also the live ends of the filter condensers 1:;< to 1 :<;
have been brought to the earthing switch. n addition all the 3T voltage 5. >=;, ?;;, <;A;,
<F;;0 are also brought to the earthing switch. The << #( point is discharged initially through
a resistor % . =CE before it is grounded. The earthing switch is interloc#ed to the main
transmitter by micro switches S E;:, S E;E and S E;C. n addition, a #ey interloc# system is
provided to prevent accidental contact with high voltages.
Control and Interloc) S%stems In Transmitter
-$ S4itc"in' Sequence o# Transmitter
a0 (entilation.
b0 *ilament
c0 8rid "ias/3edium Tension
d0 )igh Tension.
a. 5entilation / &ll the transmitters handle large amount of power. "asically the
transmitters convert power from &1 mainKs to %adio *re'uency and &udio *re'uency
energy. The conversion process always result in some loss. The loss in energy is
dissipated in the form of heat. The dissipated energy has to be carried away by a
suitable medium to #eep the raise in temperature of the transmitting e'uipment
within limits. )ence, in order to ensure that the heat generated by the e'uipment is
carried away as soon as it is generated the ventilation e'uipment need to be
switched on first. Normally the cooling provided in a transmitter could be classified
on the following lines /
1ooling for the tube filaments.
1ooling for the tube &nodes.
8eneral cooling of the cubics.
1ooling for coils, condensers, %esistors etc.
The cooling e'uipments comprise of blowers, pumps and heat e+changers. &nother
important consideration is that during the switching off se'uence the cooling
e'uipments should run a little longer to carry away the heat generated in the
e'uipments. This is ensured by providing a time delay for the switch off of the
cooling e'uipment. Normal time delay is of the order of E to > 3inutes.
The water flow and the air flow provided by the cooling e'uipments to the various
e'uipments are monitored by means of air flow and water flow switches. n case of
failure of water or air flow, these switches provide necessary commands for tripping
the transmitter.
b. Filaments / &ll the transmitters invariably employ tubes in their drive and final
stages of %* amplifiers and sub modulator and modular stages of &* amplifiers.
&fter ventilation e'uipments are switched on and re'uisite air and water flow
established, the filament of the tubes can be switched on. Bhile switching on
filament of the tube, the control and interloc#ing circuits have to ta#e care of the
following points.
The cold resistance of the filament is very low and hence application of full filament
voltage in one stri#e would result in enormous filament current and may damage the
tube filament. )ence, it becomes necessary to apply the filament voltage in steps.
(arious methods adopted are /
i. 6se of step starter resistance / )ere the filament voltage of the tubes are
given through a series resistance 5called step starter resistance0. The series
resistance which limits the initial filament current is shorted and after a time
interval by the use of a timer switch.
ii. 6se of special filament transformer which allows slow build up of the filament
voltage.
iii. &pplication of filament voltage in E or C steps.
The emission from the tubes depend upon the temperature of the filament. 8enerally
it ta#es some time for the filament to reach a steady temperature after it is switched
on. )ence, it is not desirable to draw any power from the tube till it attains a stable
temperature. This means that the further switching on process has to be suspended
till the filament temperature and hence the emission becomes stable. This aspect is
ta#en care of by providing a time delay of E to = minutes between the filament
switching on and the ne+t se'uence namely bias switching on.
c$ Bias And Medium Tension / *or obvious reasons the control grid of the tube has to
be given the necessary negative bias voltage before its anode voltage can be
applied. )ence, after the application of full filament voltage and after the lapse of
necessary delay for the filament temperature to become stable bias voltage can be
switched on. &long with bias generally anode and screen voltages of intermediate
stages and driver stages are also switched on. &pplication of bias and medium
tension ma#es available very high voltages for the various transmitter e'uipment.
)ence, in order to ensure the safety of the personnel access to these e'uipment
should be forbidden before the application of bias and medium tension. This is
ensured by providing the interloc#ing so that the bias and medium tension can be put
on only after all the transmitter and other )( e'uipment doors are closed to prevent
access.
Connection o# Load *Antenna6Dumm% load0
&fter the application of ventilation, filament and bias the anode voltage can be
switched on. "ut before the anode voltage can be increased the interloc#ing circuit is
to ensure that the load of the transmitter namely antenna or dummy load is
connected to the transmitter. The tuning process of the various %* stages are
complete and none of the tuning motors are moving.
Application o# Screen 5olta'e / n the case of tetrode tubes, the screen voltage to
the tube should not be applied before the application of anode voltage to #eep the
screen current and screen dissipation within limits. This is ta#en care of by an
interloc#ing provision that the screen voltage is applied only after the anode voltage
reach a certain pre.determined value well above the normal screen voltage.
Release o# Audio #requenc% / The application of &* signal to the &* stage in the
absence of carrier power would result in the operation of modulation transformer with
no load connected. This is not desirable. Therefore, the &* signal should be applied
to the &udio fre'uency stages only when the %* power amplifier is delivering the
nominal power. Normally &* fre'uency signal to the &* stage is released only when
the carrier power is appro+imately ?;G of the normal power.
Medium !a&e Antenna
Introduction
Bhen the electromagnetic waves in the medium wave 53B0 range are directed towards the
onosphere, they are absorbed by the 4.region during the day time and are reflected from
the 9 layer during the night time, which may travel longer distances to cause interferences.
The wave length of 3B signals are very large, of the order of few hundred metres, and
therefore the antenna cannot be mounted a few wavelengths above the earth to radiate as
space waves. 3B antenna, therefore, have to e+ist close to the surface of the earth and the
%adio waves from them have to travel close to the earth as ground waves. f the electric
vector of such 3B radiation is hori@ontal, they will be attenuated very fast with distance due
to the pro+imity of the earth. 3B antenna have to be placed vertically, so that they radiate
vertically polarised signals. t is for this reason, all the 3B antenna are installed vertically
close to the ground. )owever vertical wire antenna, inverted KLK type antenna, top loaded
antenna and umbrella antenna are at a few &ll ndia %adio stations. 4irectional antenna
systems also e+ist in many &ll ndia %adio stations.
Sel# Radiatin' M! Mast Antennas
They are broadly of two types /
3ast isolated from ground and fed at its base.
8rounded mast fed at a suitable point along its height
The first consideration of such mast is its height in terms of the wave length. Bhat is the
optimum height L !bviously the main considerations are economy consistent with ma+imum
coverage and minimum high angle radiation 5s#y wave0.
M! Antenna isolated #rom 'round
FM TRANSMITTER
Introduction
There is too much over.crowding in the &3 broadcast bands and shrin#age in the night.time
service area due to fading, interference, etc. *3 broadcasting offers several advantages
over &3 such as uniform day and night coverage, good 'uality listening and suppression of
noise, interference, etc.
Salient Features o# FM Transmitters
<. 1ompletely solid state.
:. *orced air cooled with the help of rac#.integrated blowers.
E. $arallel operation of two transmitters in passive e+citer standby mode.
C. 3ono or stereo broadcasting
=. &dditional information such as S1& signals and radio traffic signals 5%4S0 can
also be transmitted.
>. Local/%emote operation
A. 9ach transmitter has been provided with a separate power supply.
?. Transmitter fre'uency is crystal controlled and can be set in steps of <; #)@
using a synthesi@er.
Modern FM Transmitter
Simplified bloc# diagram of a 3odern *3 Transmitter is given in *ig.<. The left and right
channel of audio signal are fed to stereo coder for stereo encoding. This stereo encoded
signal or mono signal 5either left or right channel audio0 is fed to ()* oscillator and
modulator. The *3 modulated output is amplified by a wide band power amplifier and then
fed to &ntenna for transmission.
(oltage controlled oscillator 5(1!0 is used as ()* oscillator and modulator. To stabili@e its
fre'uency a portion of *3 modulated signal is fed to a programmable divider, which divides
the fre'uency by a factor ,N- to get <; #)@ fre'uency at the input of a phase and fre'uency
comparator 5phase detector0. The factor ,N- is automatically selected when we set the
station carrier fre'uency. The other input of phase detector is a reference signal of <; #)@
generated by a crystal oscillator of <; 3)@ and divided by a divider 5</<;;;0. The output of
phase detector is an error voltage, which is fed to (1! for correction of its fre'uency
through rectifier and low pass filter.
Bloc) Dia'ram o# Modern FM Transmitter
( 7 8 )! FM Transmitter
Simplified bloc# diagram of a : + E #B *3 transmitter is shown in *ig.:. : + E #B
Transmitter setup, which is more common, consists of two E #B transmitters, designated as
transmitters & and ", whose output powers are combined with the help of a combining unit.
3a+imum of two transmitters can be housed in a single rac# along with two 9+citer units.
Transmitter & is provided with a switch.on.control unit 58S ;EE&<0 which, with the help of the
&dapter plug.in.unit 5H& ;EE&<0, also ensures the parallel operation of transmitter ".
1ombining unit is housed in a separate rac#.
Low.level modulation of ()* oscillator is carried out at the carrier fre'uency in the 9+citer
type S6 <<=. The carrier fre'uency can be selected in <; #)@ steps with the help of "14
switches in the synthesi@er. The e+citer drives four <.= #B ()* amplifier, which is a basic
module in the transmitter. Two such amplifiers are connected in parallel to get E #B power.
The transmitter is forced air.cooled with the help of a blower. & standby blower has also
been provided which is automatically selected when the pre.selected blower fails. "oth the
blowers can be run if the ambient temperature e+ceeds C;
o
1.
$ower stages are protected against mismatch 5(SB% M <.=0 or e+cessive heat sin#
temperature by automatic reduction of power with the help of control circuit. 9lectronic
voltage regulator has not been provided for the 41 supplies of power amplifiers but a more
efficient system of stabili@ation in the &1 side has been provided. This is #nown as &1.
switch over. Transmitter operates in the passive e+citer standby mode with help of switch.
on.control unit. Bhen the pre.selected e+citer fails, standby e+citer is automatically
selected. %everse switch over, however, is not possible.
E7citer
The 9+citer is, basically, a self.contained full.fledged low power *3 Transmitter. t has the
capability of transmitting mono or stereo signals as well as additional information such as
traffic radio, S1& 5Subsidiary 1hannel &uthorisation0 and %4S 5%adio 4ata System0 signals.
t can give three output powers of E; mB, < B or <; B by means of internal lin#s and
switches. The output power is stabili@ed and is not affected by mismatch 5(SB% M <.=0,
temperature and &1 supply fluctuations. $ower of the transmitter is automatically reduced in
the event of mismatch. The <; B output stage is a separate module that can be inserted
between < B stage and the low pass harmonics filter. This stage is fed from a switching
power supply which also handles part of the %* output power control and the &1 supply
stabili@ations. n &% set up this <; B unit is included as an integral part of the 9+citer.
This unit processes the incoming audio signals both for mono and stereo transmissions. n
case of stereo transmission, the incoming L and % channel signals are processed in the
stereo coder circuit to yield a stereo base band signal with <F #)@ pilot tone for modulating
the carrier signal. t also has a multiple+er wherein the coded %4S and S1& signals are
multiple+ed with the normal stereo signal on the modulating base band. The encoders for
%4S and S1& applications are e+ternal to the transmitter and have to be provided
separately as and when needed.
Frequenc% 9eneration3 Control and Modulation
The transmitter fre'uency is generated and carrier is modulated in the Synthesiser module
within the 9+citer. The carrier fre'uency is stabili@ed with reference to the <; 3)@ fre'uency
from a crystal oscillator using $LL and programmable dividers. The operating fre'uency of
the transmitter can be selected internally by means of "14 switches or e+ternally by remote
control. The output of these switches generates the desired number by which the
programmable divider should divide the (1! fre'uency 5which lies between ?A.= to <;?
3)@0 to get a <; #)@ signal to be compared with the reference fre'uency. The stablised
carrier fre'uency is modulated with the modulating base band consisting of the audio 5mono
and stereo0, %4S and S1& signals. The (aractor diodes are used in the synthesi@er to
generate as well as modulate the carrier fre'uency.
S4itc",ON Control Unit
The switch.on.control unit can be termed as the brain and controls the wor#ing of the
transmitter ,&-. t performs the following main functions/
<. t controls the switching !N and !** se'uence of %* power amplifiers, rac# blower
and %* carrier enable in the e+citer.
:. ndicates the switching and the operating status of the system through L94s.
E. $rovides automatic switch over operation of the e+citer in the passive e+citer standby
mode in which either of the two e+citers can be selected to operate as the main unit.
C. t provides a reference voltage source for the output regulators in the %* amplifiers.
=. t is used for ad2usting the output power of the transmitter.
>. t evaluates the fault signals provided by individual units and generates an overall
sum fault signal which is indicated by an L94 on the front panel. The fault is also
stored in the defective unit and displayed on its front panel.
kW VHF Amplifier
This amplifier is the basic power module in the transmitter. t has a broad band design so
that no tuning is re'uired for operation over the entire *3 "roadcast band. %* power
transistors of its output stages are of plug in type which are easy to replace and no
ad2ustments are re'uired after replacement. 9ach power amplifier gives an output of <.=
#B. 4epending on the re'uired configuration of the transmitter, output of several such
amplifiers is combined to get the desired output power of the transmitter. *or instance, for a
E #B set.up two power amplifiers are used whereas for a : + E #B set.up, C such amplifiers
are needed.

This amplifier re'uires an input power of :.= to E B and consists of a driver stage 5output E;
B0 followed by a pre.amplifier stage 5<:; B0. The amplification from <:; B to <=;; B in
the final stage is achieved with the help of eight :;; B stages. 9ach :;; B stage consists
of two output transistors 5T$ FE?E, S4<C>; or *3 <=;0 operating in parallel. These %*
transistors operate in wide band 1lass 1 mode and are fitted to the $1" by means of large
gold plated spring contacts to obviate the need for soldering. The output of all these stages
is combined via coupling networ#s to give the final output of <.= #B. & monitor in each
amplifier controls the power of the driver stage depending on the reference voltage produced
by the switch.on.control unit. Since this reference voltage is the same for all the ()*
amplifiers being used, all of them will have the same output power.
9ach amplifier has a meter for indicating the forward and reflected voltages and transistor
currents. &lso a fault is signaled if the heat sin# temperature or the (SB% e+ceed the
prescribed limits. n both cases, the amplifier power is automatically reduced to protect the
transistors.
o4er Suppl% S%stem
The *3 transmitter re'uires E.phase power connection though all the circuits, e+cept the
power amplifiers, need only single phase supply for their operation. &n &(% of =; #(&
capacity has been provided for this purpose.
*or each transmitter, there is a separate power distribution panel 5mounted on the lower
portion on the front of the rac#0. "oth the distribution panels &J" are identical e+cept for the
difference that the L94s, fuses and relays pertaining to switching circuit of blowers and
absorber are mounted on the ,&- panel.
FM Antenna and Feeder Ca:le S%stem
The &ntenna system for *3 Transmitters consists of E main sub.systems, namely /
a0 Supporting tower
b0 3ain antenna
c0 *eeder 1able
To4er
& tower of good height is re'uired for mounting the *3 antenna since the coverage of the
transmitter is proportional to the height of the tower. *or a <;; m height, the coverage is
about >; #m. Bherever new towers were to be provided, generally they are of <;; m height
since beyond this height, there is steep rise in their prices because of e+cessive wind load
on the top of the tower. &t some places e+isting towers of 4oordarshan have also been
utili@ed for mounting the *3 antenna. $rovision has also been made on the &% towers for
top mounting of T( antenna below *3 antenna 5&perture for "and 0.
Antenna
The main re'uirements of the antenna to be used for *3 transmitters are /
- Bide.band usage from ?? to <;? 3)@ range.
- !mni.directional hori@ontal pattern of field strength.
- 1ircular polari@ation for better reception.
- )igh gain for both vertical and hori@ontal signals.
- Two degrees beam tilt below hori@ontal
- Sturdy design for maintenance.free service.
*urther, depending on the type of tower available for mounting the re'uirement is for two
types of antenna. The first type is to be mounted on a small cross.section &% Tower. *or
which a pole type *3 antenna has been selected. *or mounting on the e+isting T( towers,
a panel type antenna has been used. The cross section of the T( tower at the &% aperture
is :.C + :.C m. the pole type antenna is 'uite economical as compared to panel type
antenna, but it can not be used on large area towers. *or our re'uirement, the antennae
supplied by 3/s. S%& have been found suitable.
ole T%pe Antenna
The pole type antenna is mounted on one of the four faces of the tower. This system will
give a field pattern within a range of E d". The antenna is mounted in such a direction in
which it is re'uired to enhance the signal.
The other important features are /
(ery low power radiation towards Transmitter building.
Spacing between dipoles is :.> m and all the dipoles are mounted one above
the other on the same face.
Lengths of feed cables of dipoles will be different and has been calculated to give
a beam tilt of :
o
below hori@ontal.
The feed point of the antenna is loo#ing towards ground so as to avoid
deterioration of the insulating flange. This flange consists of high density $(1.
The life of this is e+pected to be about A to <; years.
The distance of the feeding strip is :C; mm from edge and this should not be
disturbed. &ll the si+ dipoles are mounted on a <;; mm dia $ole. This pole is
supported by the main tower.
The antenna is fed through a power divider which divides total power into >
outlets for feeding the > dipoles. The power divider is mounted on a different face
of the tower.
The main feeder cables, power divider branch feeder cables, and dipoles are of
hollow construction to enable pressuri@ation of the system.
The antenna can handle two channels with diple+ing.
Suitable terminations are supplied for terminating the output of power divider in
case of failure of any dipole.
anel T%pe Antenna
9ach panel consists of /
%eflector panel
Two numbers of bent hori@ontal dipoles and
Two numbers of vertical dipoles
The capacity of each dipole is :.= #B. Therefore, each panel is able to transmit <; #B
power. The reflector panels are constructed of 8 bars whereas the dipoles are made
out of steel tubes. Since each panel consists of C dipoles, there are a total of >C dipoles
for all the <> panels. Therefore the power divider has >C outlets to feed each of the
dipoles. The power divider will be mounted inside the tower. This antenna gives an
omni.directional pattern when the panels are mounted on all the four faces.
Feeder Ca:le
*or connecting the output power of the transmitter to the dipoles through the power
divider, a E dia feeder cable has been used.
This cable is of hollow type construction and has to be handled very carefully. *rom the
building to the base of the tower, the cable is laid on hori@ontal cable tray. &long with the
tower this is fi+ed on the cable rac# provided for this purpose. The cable is clamped at
every <.= m and the minimum radius of bending of this cable is about < m. The cable
has been provided with two numbers of 9& flange connectors of E </? si@e on both
ends. "oth the connectors are of gas.stop type. The cable connector on the antenna
end i.e. on top of the tower is made gas.through before hoisting. This is achieved by
drilling a hole through the Teflon insulator inside the connector. & dummy hole 5drilled
only half way0 is already provided by the manufacturer for this purpose.