Regions of the brain: look at the diagram in your notes

The telencephalon will enlarge and start to cover the diencephalon.

Embryo: the head is more well developed than the rest of the body.
Structures of the Cranial Meninges:
Dura mater: essentially attached to the skull
Arachnoid: there is a subarachanoid space
Pia mater: Basically attached to the cerebral cortex
Arachnoid villi involves the reabsorption of !". !ubarachnoid is #lled with
!". !" is generated in the ventricles of the brain and circulated into the
ventricles of the brain into the subarchnoid space and reabsorbed from the
subarachnoid space into the arachnoid villi. The $! is covered by these
three layers. %n the arachnoid space& the blood vessels that carry blood to the
surface of the brain and meninges.
!" is also found in the central canal of the spinal cord and bathes the cord.
The 'uid #lled space (subarachnoid) cushions the brain. *a+or traumatic
blows to the head will not help. Any break in blood vessel will be harmful to
the brain. Accumulation of blood in the brain will put pressure on the brain.
Cerebral Spinal Fluid
erebral spinal 'uid is produced in the choroid plexi of the ventricles of
the brain. "luid is a transudate of the blood. Anything in the blood has
a chance of ending up in the !". Transudate is the movement of 'uid
and small molecules of the blood& out of the blood& into the
extracellular.
Blood Brain Barrier is not as e,ective in the choroid plexus.
Cerebral spinal fuid is circulated to subarachnoid space through
opening in the fourth ventricle
*edial aperture- single opening on the roof of the .
th
ventricle
/ateral aperture- 0 openings in the lateral walls of the .
th
ventricle.
!" is the #ltrate of the blood
102 ml in volume contains salts& proteins& glucose& urea& waste product
"unctions: protect the brain& provide nutrients within brain cavity& removes
waste
Brain regions
"rontal& parietal& occipital& temporal
"olds are called sulci& upward folds is gyrus. Deep inward folds is a
#ssure.
%nsular lobe- lobe that is deep in the folds of the cortex. %nsula appears
to provide an emotional context that is suitable for a given sensory
experience.
orpus callosum- communicates between the two hemispheres (contains no
nerves)
!pinal cord: 3ray and white matter is reversed in the brain
Medulla oblongata
ontinuation of the upper portion of the spinal cord
ontains all ascending and decending tracts that communicate
between the spinal cord and the brain ( white matter)
Pyramid shaped
0 triangular structures in the ventral side of the medulla
carry motor tracts to the cerebrum and spinal cord
tracts crossover each other so that the left tract goes to the right and
the right goes to the left side
Dorsal side of the medulla:
0 pairs of prominent nuclei: nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus
carry sensory #bers from ascending tract of the spinal cord
transmits sensory information to the opposite side of the medulla
from here signals goes to the thalamus& then to sensory areas of the
cerebral cortex.
Reticular formation
Areas of gray and white matter
"unction in arousal and consciousness
4uns from spinal cord& medulla& pons& midbrain& and diencephalon
Refe center:
Cardiac refe center: ad+ust heart rate and force of contraction
Medullary rhythmicity area- ad+ust rhythm of breathing
!asomotor refe center- regulates diameter of blood vessel through
contraction of smooth muscle cell
Solitary nuclei" integrates and relay visceral sensory information to
autonomic processing center
Cranial #erves of the medulla
ochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (5)- hearing and
e6ulibrium
3lossopharyngeal $erve (7)- !wallowing& !alvation& taste
8agus $erve (19)- thoracic and abdominal viscera
Accessory $erve (11)- sensation to the head and shoulder
:ypoglossal $erve (10)- tongue
$on !aroli
!ite above the medulla and below and anterior to the cerebellum
Pons consist of white matter scatted through out with nuclei
Bands of #ber run in two directions:
o Transverse #bers- middle cerebellar peduncles. onnect pons to
cerebellum
o /ongitudinal #bers- belong to motor and sensory tracts that
connect the spinal cord to upper parts of the brain stem.
o Ascending tract- carry sensory information from the nucleus
cuneatus and nucleus gracillis to the thalamus
o Descending tract: carry motor commands from higher center to
motor nuclei of cranial or spinal nerve
%pneustic and pnuemotaic centers: ad+ust activities of the respiratory
rhythmicity center in the medulla oblongata
Relay center: relay sensory and motor to the cerebellum
Cranial #erves
Trigeminal nerve (2) : carry impulses for chewing and sensation of the
head and face
Abducens (;)- regulates eyeball movement
"acial nerve (<) = impulses related to taste& salivation& and facial
expression
8estibular branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (5)- connects to the
vestibular apparatus and is connected with balance
Cerebellum
Functions:
Ad+usting the postural muscles of the body
o erebellum coordinates rapid& autonomic ad+ustments that main
balance and e6uilibrium. !uch alterations are modi#ed by
activities of motor centers in the brain stem.
Programming and #ne tuning movements controlled at the conscious
and subconscious levels
o erebellum re#nes learned movements patterns& regulates
activity along motor pathways at the cerebral cortex& basal
nuclei& and motor centers in the brain stem.
Cerebellum
o Proprioception: monitoring tactile balance and position of the body
o erebellum receive proprioceptive information formation from the
spinal cord
o %t monitors all proprioceptive& visual& tactile balance and auditory
sensation received by the brain.
o !uch signals ultimately are processed by purkin+e cells in the gray
matter.
Cerebellars connection to other brain regions:
Superior cerebral peduncles:link the cerebellum with diencephalon and
cerebrum
Middle Cerebral peduncles: connect the cerebellum with pons
&nferior cerebellar peduncles: communicate between cerebellar nuclei
and neclei in the medulla oblongata and spinal cord.
Midbrain mesencephalon
Midbrain organi'ation
o (ectum : roof of the midbrains = contains corpora 6uadrigemina (.
round eminences in the tectum (0 pairs))
o Superior colliculi : 0 of the corpora6uadrigemina eminence
that serves as re'ex centers for the movement of the eyeball
o &nferior colliculi: serve as re'ex centers for the movement of
the head& trunk& and auditory stimuli
Substania #igra: a large pigmented nucleus (dark) near cerebral peduncles
communicates with the corpus straitum in the diencephalon will contribute to
control #ne motor movement
Red nucleus: a ma+or nucleus in the reticular formation of the midbrain&
#ber from the cerebellum& and cerebral cortex terminate in the nucleus. The
red nucleus is going to be a switching station for #bers coming from cerebral
cortex and cerebellum.
Medial lemniscus: a band of white #ber containing axons that convey
impulses for #ne touch& proprioception and vibration to the medulla and
thalamus
Cranial nerve associated )ith the midbrain:
o *cculomotor nerve +,- : nuclei here mediate movements of the
eyeballs. hanges in pupil si>e and lens shape
o (rochlear nerve +.- : nuclei here conduct impulses that move the
eyeballs
Diencephalon: (halamus
(halamus: Morphology
o /ocated in the diencephalon
o onsists of a cluster nuclei shaped as 0 lateral portions connected by a
small stalk called the interthalamic adhesion.
(halamus: morphology and function
Composed of:
o Medial geniculate nuclei- synapse for sensory neurons that relay
auditory information
o /ateral geniculate nuclei-synapse of sensory neurons that relay
visual information
o !entral posterior nucleus- most other sensory impulses synapses in
the nucleus and then sends signals to the dorsal nuclei
o !entral anterior nucleus" involved with motor function and
communicating amoung basal nuclei& the cerebellum& and motor cortex
of cerebrum
o !entral lateral nuclei: same function as ventral anterior nucleus
o %nterior and medial nucleus: connected to limbic system and
prefrontal cortex. %nvolved in mood modi#cation
o /ateral dorsal nucleus" connected to other thalamic nuclei and
cerebral cortex. %nvolved with regulating emotion (fear and rage)
o /ateral posterior nucleus and pulvinar" connect to other thalamic
nucleus and involved in sensory integration.
0ypothalamus +integration portion of the brain onto endocrine
system and produce hormones-
o *ost inferior portion of the diencephalon
o ontains several small nuclei and tracts
o *amillary bodies bulges aon the ventral surface of diencephalon
o %nvolved in olfactory re'exes and emotional responses to odor
o *ay also be involved in memory
o ontains several small nuclei and tracts
o %nfundibulum stalk that extends from the 'oor of the hypothalamus
and connect to the pituitary gland.
o Anterior pituitary gland is endocrine in nature. Posterior is part of the
thalamus.
Sensory neurons that terminate in the hypothalamus provide input
from:
o %nternal organs
o Taste receptors of the tongue
o 4esponse to smell
o !peci#c subcutaneuous areas such as nipple and external genitalia
o /imbic system
o The eyes
o Prefrontal cortex of the cerebrum carrying information relative to
moods through the thalamus
Central controller of the endocrine system by regulating secretions
of the pituitary gland
o !ecretions from pituitary gland regulate metabolism&
reproduction& response to stressful stimuli
%lso regulates urine production through hormone secreted by
structure itself +%D0" )ater upta1e from 1idney and oytocin-
/imbic system is not a simple structure& composed of several di,erent
structures that work together. %t consists of 0 gyri in the cerebral hemisphere&
hippocampus& amydaloid nucleus& mamillary bodies of the hypothalamus&
anterior of the thalamus. %nvolves the diencephalon and telencephalon.
%nvolved in pressure and pain. %nvolved in mood such as rage and anger&
sorrow& docility& and sexual feelings.
Basal ganglion is made up of nuclei. 3enerally has an oval shaped
structure. %ntermediate switching point that interconnects the thalamus&
cerebral cortex& and hypothalamus. %nvolves in large subconscious
movements of the skeletal muscle and control muscle tone. ?x: swing of the
arms when walking.
Corpus striatum (lentiform nucleus and caudate nucleus) involved in
sending signals between substantia nigra and higher brain (cerebral cortex).
%n addtition to controlling large movements& it controls small movements.
Damage to the neurons in the substantia nigra results in parkinson@s disease.
Cerebral corte:
.- ; layers of cells functional. 0- . mm of brain tissue. 8arious regions of the
cerebrum are divided upon #ssures. . lobes: frontal& parietal& temporal&
occipital. "rontal lobes are separated from parietal lobe by the central sulcus.
Prefrontal lobe is important in mood and behavior. Precentral gyrus is located
in the frontal lobe. Postcentral gyrus is located in the parietal lobe.
Motor areas +somatic motor corte- located in the precentral gyrus.
$eurons& there& pro+ect where it is going to go. omposed of large neurons
called pyramidal cells. The pyramidal neuron are under voluntary control.
$eurons pro+ect down and crossover through pyramids and out to the
peripheral.
$remotor area control large motor skills& especially the movement that are
repetitive in nature. %n'uence motor area directly by supplying 12A of the
motor neurons for muscle movement.
Broca2s area control motor speech. 4esponsible for movement of tongue&
mouth and lips. Bn the left side of the brain. Associated with other motor
activites.
Frontal 3eld area4 located anterior to prefrontal cortex and above broca@s
area& controls voluntary movement of the eye.
Somatic sensory corte: Post central gyrus receives information from
receptors located in the skin and from proprioceptors of the skeletal muscle.
Also identify body regions being stimulated.
Somatic sensory association area: integrates di,erent somatic sensory
inputs ex: temperature pressure. The region will provide information in a
comprehensive fasion. (si>e texture& relationship of various parts of thinking
being evaluated) ex: reaching into pocket to feel for certain ob+ect.
*ccipital lobes are vision regions. "unction is to take stimuli and recogni>e
certain ob+ects.
$rimary vision corte is surrounded by primary vision associated area.
4eceives information that originates in the retina of the eye while association
area interprets that image.
Cerebrum
Functional areas of the cerebrum cont:
$rimary auditory corte:
o /ocated at the superior margin of the temporal lobe& next to the
lateral sulcus.
o 4eceptors in the ear excited by sound waves transmit signals to
this area
o These signals are related to pitch& rhythm and loudness (gain)
%uditory association area of the corte
o Permits perception of sound stimuli as speech& music& thunder& noise
etc.
*lfactory corte +smell-
o "irst brachial nerves& sensory input with no motor associated with it. %t
is related to smell synapses with neuron in the olfactory bulb. The
detection of smell is at the higher level& in the cortex.
o /ocated at the medial aspect of the temporal lobe& region called the
uncus that is part of olfactory cortex in the temporal lobe
o 4eceives impulses from olfactory receptors located in the superior
nasal cavities
o !ignal here is interpreted as odors.

Blfactory (uncus)
Rest of the cranial nerves:
o Blfactory $erve (1)
o Bptic $erve (0) = $erve terminate in the superior colliculus . !ignal
runss to the lateral geniculate nucleus and then to the visual cortex in
the occipital lobe.
5ustatory Corte +taste-
o /ocated in parietal lobe
o %nvolved with taste perception
$refrontal corte +involved )ith intellect comple4 learning abilities4
personalities-
o "ound in the most anterior portion of the frontal lobe
o This region is important to production of abstract idea& +udgment&
reasoning& persistence& planning and concern for others and conscious.
5eneral &nterpretation %rea
o Also known as 3nostic area
o Cell de#ned region in the temporal& parietal& occipital lobe.
o Dsually found in the right cerebral hemisphere
o 4eceives input from all sensory association area
o Appears to be a storage site for complex memory patterns associated
with sensation
o This area integrates all incoming signals into a single thought or
understanding of a situation
o "ollowing integration and assessment& signals are sent to the prefrontal
cortex to add emotional overtone and decide an appropriate response.
/anguage area:
o "ound in both hemispheres
o Cernicke@s area is a speciali>ed region of the language area usually
found in the temporal left lobe
o !urrounds and encompasses the auditory association area
o !peciali>es in the integration of language
o This area is involved in sound out unfamiliar words (note: language
comprehension occurs in the prefrontal cortex)
%6ective language area
o /ocated in hemisphere opposite broca@s and wernicke@s area
o These area allow for life or tone of voice and gestures to express
emotion when speaking
o These areas also permit the individual to comprehend the emotional
content of what is heard.
/aterali'ation of corticalfunction:
o :emisphere share function in general
o :owever each hemisphere has uni6ue abilities no shared by ir opposite
partner.
o This is termed laterali>ation
&n laterali'ation4 one hemisphere )ill dominate for a particular tas17
?x: language in the left hemisphere& mathematic ability in the left
hemisphere& spatial skill in the right hemisphere& intuition (right
hemisphere) &appreciation for art and music (right hemisphere)
Most individuals )ith left cerebral hemispheres are right handed
%n 19A of individuals & the roles of the hemisphere is reversed with right side
domination making individual left hands (most of them males)
Bilateral brain control
o *ore than usual dexterity and strength in the nondominant hand (tend
to be ambidextrous)
o Bilateral brain control may also lead to dyslexia and learning
disabilities
0emispheric Control
o Bne side of the brain may exert control over the other side
o ?x: the dominant& more intellectual hemisphere& may prevent
rash emotional displays by non dominant side.
Spinal cord *rgani'ation
A continuation of the medulla on the dorsal side of the body
/ocated in the vertebral canal and surrounded by bond of the
vertebrae
Buter layer of white matter:
o ontains axons of neurons carrying action potential to and from
the brain
%nner layer of gray matter:
o ontains the cell bodies of motor beurons carrying impulses
outward from the cord to structures such as muscles
o ontains neurons that carry impulses across the cord
Cervical enlargement:
Pairs of nerves are given o, from the cord at the level of each vertebra
0
nd
cervical to 1
st
thoracic vertebra
$eurons carrying impulses to and from the upper appendages and
trunk
/umbar enlargement:
10 Thoracic to 2 lumbar vertebrae
!upplies the lower appendages
(ypes of refees associated )ith spinal cord: (Does not re6uire brain to
respond)
!pinal re'exes
o 4e'exes in which spinal cord acts alone
!omatic re'exes
o 4e'exes that result in contraction of skeletal muscle
8isceral re'exes (autonomic re'exes)
o 4e'exes that result in contraction of smooth cardiac muscle
Steps of Refees:
1. 4eceptor
0. !ensory neuron
E. $!- $euron- processing center
.. *otor neuron
2. ?,ector cell
The shorter the circuit& the faster the re'ex
$eripheral #ervous System
$arts of a neuron:
Axons of neurons are bundled into groups
?pineurium (outer covering)
Cithin the space contained by the epineurium& you are going to see
blood vessels and connective tissue which support the bundle of
neurons.
"ascicles are going to contain bundles of axons and neurons
Perinerium: "asicle which is a group of axons of neurons wrapped
around a connective tissue sheet.
Cithin the fasicle& the axons are surround by myelin sheath
(endomemetrium.
:omologous: structures: structures are derived by the same embryonic
derivation ex: arm and a birds wing
Analogous: have the same function
*rgani'ation
A pair of spinal nerves extends from the spinal cord for each segment
o 5 pairs of cervical
o 10 pairs of thoracic
o 2 pairs of lumbar
o 2 pairs of sacral
o 1 pair of coccyxgeal
?ach nerve is derived from 0 roots:
o Dorsal root: contain a ganglion which are composed of sensory
nerve cell
o 8entral root: motor& contains only the acons of motor neurons
Dorsal and ventral root will fuse give rise to E branches:
o Dorsal ramus: %nnervates deep back muscle and skin of dorsal
surface (sensory and motor)
o 8entral ramus: super#cial back muscles and all structure of
extremities and lateral and ventral trunk (side& belly&
extremities)
o *eningeal ramus: supplies vertebral column& vertebral
ligaments& blood vessel of spinal cord and meninges
!pinal plexus- a group of nerves that forms a network after coming out of the
spinal cord
$lei of the spinal cord:
o ervical plexus
o Brachial plexus
o /umbar plexus
o !acral plexus
Details of plei:
Cervical pleus:
o 8entral rami of the #rst . cervical nerves
o !upplies skin and muscle of the head& neck& and upper part of the
shoulders
o *a+or pair of nerves from this plexus are the phrenic nerves that
supply the diaphragm
Brachial pleus:
o 8entral root of 2- T1
o $erve supply to upper extremities and of neck and shoulder muscle
o %nnervates the arm
/umbar pleus:
o 8entral rami of spinal nerve /1- /.
o %nnervates the anteriolateral abdominal wall
o ?xternal genitals and part of the lower extremities
o 3ives rise to the femoral nerves
Sacral $leus
o 8entral rami of /.& /2& !1 to !.
o !upplies the buttock& perineum (form of the abdominal muscle) and
lower extremities
o 3ive rise to sciatic nerve