Applications of nuclear

technology

















CONTENTS


1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 5
1.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 5
1.2. History And Scientific Background ................................................................... 5

2. APPLICATIONS IN DIFFERENT FIELDS ........................................................ 7
2.1. Scientific Analysis Techniques....7
2.1.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) ................................................... ....7
2.1.2. Tracers .................................................................................................... 10
2.2. Electric Power Generation ................................................................................. 11
2.2.1. Fission Reactor ....................................................................................... 11
2.2.2. Fusion Reactor ..............12
2.3. Medicical .............................................................................................................. 13
2.3.1. Diagnosis ................................................................................................ 13
2.3.2. Therapy ................................................................................................... 14
2.3.3. Sterilisation ............................................................................................ 15
2.4. Food and Agriculture........................................................................................... 15
2.4.1. Fertilisers ............................................................................................... 15
2.4.2. Increasing Genetic Variability ............................................................... 16
2.4.3. Insect Control ......................................................................................... 16
2.4.4. Food Preservation ................................................................................... 17
2.4.5. Water Resources ..................................................................................... 19
2.5. Industry ............................................................................................................... 19
2.5.1. Gamma Radiography.............................................................................. 20
2.5.2. Measurement and Industrial Analysis .................................................. 21
2.5.3. Sample Power Sources ........................................................................... 21
2.5.4. Environmental Monitoring .................................................................... 22
2.5.5. Other Industrial Uses ............................................................................ 22
2.6. Household Uses of Radiation .............................................................................. 23
2.6.1. Smoke Detector ...................................................................................... 23
2.6.2. Other Uses of Radionuclides in Houses ................................................. 24
2.7. Archaology and Geology ...................................................................................... 24
2.7.1. Radioactive Dating ................................................................................. 25
2.7.2. Geology and Element Identification ...................................................... 27
2.8. Space Mission ...................................................................................................... 28


3. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 29

4. REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 30




3
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Nuclear Technology is the technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei. In our
daily life we need food, water and good health. This Technology can be used in diversified fields
for peaceful purposes such as electricity generation, medicinal purposes, reducing pollution, etc.
Radioisotopes play an important part in technologies that provide us with these basic needs. The
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is a base for international cooperation in hundreds
of development projects.
Nuclear Technology is all around us. We'll find aspects of nuclear Technology
everywhere we go. Everywhere from power generation to medicine to daily life, most people
will encounter some form of nuclear Technology in action, making their lives easier.

1.2 HISTORY AND SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND
The vast majority of common, natural phenomena on Earth only involve gravity and
electromagnetism, and not nuclear reactions. This is because atomic nuclei are generally kept
apart because they contain positive electrical charges and therefore repel each other.
In 1896, Henri Becquerel was investigating phosphorescence in uranium salts when he
discovered a new phenomenon which came to be called radioactivity. He, Pierre Curie and Marie
Curie began investigating the phenomenon. In the process, they isolated the element radium,
which is highly radioactive. They discovered that radioactive materials produce intense,
penetrating rays of three distinct sorts, which they labeled alpha, beta, and gamma after the
Greek letters. Some of these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, and all of
them could be harmful in large amounts. All of the early researchers received various radiation
burns, much like sunburn, and thought little of it.


4
The new phenomenon of radioactivity was seized upon by the manufacturers of a number
of patent medicines and treatments involving radioactivity were put forward. Gradually it was
realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was ionizing radiation, and that even
quantities too small to burn could pose a severe long-term hazard. Many of the scientists working
on radioactivity died of cancer as a result of their exposure.
As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer.
Some larger atomic nuclei are unstable, and so decay (release matter or energy) after a random
interval. The three forms of radiation that Becquerel and the Curies discovered are also more
fully understood. Alpha decay is when a nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is two protons
and two neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus. Beta decay is the release of a beta particle, a
high-energy electron. Gamma decay releases gamma rays, which unlike alpha and beta radiation
are not matter but electromagnetic radiation of very high frequency, and therefore energy. This
type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block. All three types of radiation
occur naturally in certain elements.
It has also become clear that the ultimate source of most terrestrial energy is nuclear,
either through radiation from the Sun caused by stellar thermonuclear reactions or by radioactive
decay of uranium within the Earth, the principal source of geothermal energy.










5
2. APPLICATIONS IN DIFFERENT FIELDS

2.1 SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
2.1.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was a phenomenon first discovered in 1946, and was
refined in the 1950s by the Swiss-born United States physicist Felix Bloch. Since then, it has
been applied in sciences ranging from physics to biochemistry, as well as applications such as
medicine and forensic science. It is a technique used for analysis of various substances.
Nuclear magnetic resonance is the vibration or resonance of a nucleus, when it is placed
in a magnetic field - hence the name nuclear magnetic resonance. Particularly in medicine, it is
also known as magnetic resonance imaging. The word 'nuclear' in a medical procedure
frightens some people, hence the alternative name! However, nuclear magnetic resonance has
nothing to do with radiation or radioactivity.
Nuclei begin to resonate when placed in strong magnetic fields and targeted with specific
radio waves. (Energy of the radio waves is absorbed by the nuclei, making it resonate.) This
resonance occurs because at certain radio frequencies nuclei will absorb the wave energy,
becoming excited from a low energy state to a higher energy state. These different energy states
are called magnetic moments. Without the magnetic field, nuclei do not have the magnetic
moments: they cannot exist in different energy states, and will therefore not be able to absorb
any energy from the radio waves. This is why a magnetic field is used.
The energy the hydrogen nucleus can be split into two different levels in the presence of a
magnetic field. The change between the levels (moments) requires a certain amount of energy.
The energy of radio waves (E) is equal to a constant h (Planck's constant, 6.626 10
-34
)
multiplied by the frequency of the wave f,
E = hf


6
Thus, for the frequencies at which a nucleus will resonate, the corresponding energy can
be calculated to give relative values for the magnetic moments.
The specific frequencies at which nuclei resonate can be used to identify them - as a type
of "fingerprint". Measurements have been taken by scientists for the frequencies and magnetic
moments of many atoms - forming a database that can be used to identify unknown samples.

Fig.2.1: MRI Scanner
NMR SPECTOSCOPY
Spectroscopy is the analysis of different compounds. Scientists use NMR spectroscopy to
study the bonds and structures of molecules.
Hydrogen atoms not bonded to other atoms are called free hydrogen atoms. These
absorb energy at the radio wave frequency 42.58 MHz (in the presence of a magnetic field).
However, this frequency varies slightly if the hydrogen atom is bonded to other atoms. This
variance can be used to determine the structure of an unknown compound.
The atoms surrounding the hydrogen atom in a molecule are collectively called the
neighbourhood of atoms. Different neighbourhoods affect the absorbed frequency of the


7
hydrogen atom in different ways, giving rise to a fingerprint for each neighbourhood. Variations
in the frequency absorbed due to different neighbourhoods are called chemical shifts. Because
of this variation, shifts can be used to identify a given neighbourhood.
The specific hydrogen atom analysed with this technique is
1
H, because it is the most
abundant (over 99% of all hydrogen atoms in existence are of the
1
H isotope) and it can take on
different magnetic moments. However,
13
C can also be analysed although this is not common
since the abundance of it is very small, and equipment sensitivity to it is about 10,000 weaker
than for
1
H.
NMR spectroscopy produces a graph which is then analysed to identify the compound
tested. The technique is used to identify unknown compounds, analysing samples obtained from
oil exploration, and forensic science. It is a widely used technique in organic chemistry, and has
also been used to help establish the chemical structure of benzene - a structure that had eluded
scientists for many years.


Fig.2.2: NMR Spectroscopy


8


Fig.2.3: NMR Spectroscopy
2.1.2 Tracers
Radioisotopes emit radiation, and this radiation can be detected using devices including
Geiger meters and scintillation counters. The radiation that is produced can be used to identify
where the radioisotope is located, without actually "seeing" it.
This technique, known as tracing is similar to following a radioisotope's "footprints" of
radiation as it passes through an environment. When the radioisotopes are tracked this way, they
are known as tracers.
Often, the technique is utilised to find out how a compound is used up in the bodies of
plants or animals. This is done by administering or feeding the subject to be tested with a
radioisotope. For example, if scientists were studying how an animal digested a certain food,
they would feed it a sample of that food which contained a radioisotope. The process is easy to
use since the experimental results are unaffected by the experiment itself. Bodies of plants or
animals cannot distinguish between a radioisotope or a stable isotope. Therefore the food does
not need to be "special" - it just needs to contain a radioisotope.


9
As the radioisotope passes through the body, the trail of radiation that is emitted can be
recorded using networks of detectors to show how the radioisotope is consumed.
Alternatively, in a process called autoradiography used often in studying plants, the plant is
exposed to a radioactive isotope (for example, placed in an atmosphere filled with carbon
dioxide containing the carbon-14 radioisotope). After absorbing the radioactive carbon dioxide,
the plant has some of the radioisotope within it. It is then placed on a photographic film. The
regions of the plant where the radioisotope has mostly concentrated darkens the film; the regions
where the radioisotope does not exist does not affect the film. Overall a map of the location of
the radioisotopes is generated. This technique is useful in the study of how plants absorb
nutrients, and also has been used by scientists to study DNA replication.

2.2 ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
2.2.1 Fission Reactor
In a fission reaction, an atom such as
235
U is bombarded with a neutron. The
235
U atom
then absorbs the neutron to form
236
U. However, this is unstable, and it breaks up into two
roughly equal sized atoms, releasing some neutrons and a lot of energy.

Fig.2.4: Fission reaction of U-235
Regardless of what the products may be, the neutrons released can continue on to break
up more
235
U atoms. Thus, if a chain reaction can be created and sustained, there will be a lot of


10
energy released. In 1942, scientists at the University of Chicago in USA achieved such a self-
sustaining chain reaction. They did this in the operation of the world's first ever nuclear reactor.
235
U atoms will only absorb slow moving neutrons. The neutrons produced from the
breaking up of a
235
U atom move at very high speed. Thus it is difficult to achieve a sustained
chain reaction unless the produced neutrons can be slowed down. The slowing down is done by a
moderator.

Nuclear Reactors produce electricity by boiling water into steam.

This steam then turns turbines to produce electricity.

The difference is that nuclear Reactors do not burn anything.

Instead, they use uranium fuel, consisting of solid ceramic pellets, to produce
electricity through a process called fission.


Fig.2.5: General working of Nuclear Power Plant
2.2.2 Fusion Reactor
It is called 'fusion' because it is based on fusing light nuclei such as hydrogen isotopes to
release energy, similar to that which powers the sun and other stars.

Nuclei of two isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium(D) and tritium(T) react to produce a
helium(He) nucleus and a neutron(n). In each reaction, 17.6 MeVof energy is liberated:


11
D + T 4He (3.5 MeV) + n (14.1 MeV)


Fig.2.6: Fusion Process

2.3 MEDICAL
Radiation and radioisotopes are used in medicine particularly for diagnosis and
therapy of various medical conditions. In developed countries the frequency of diagnostic
nuclear medicine is 1.9% of the population per year, and the frequency of therapy with
radioisotopes is about one tenth of this.
Over 10,000 hospitals worldwide use radioisotopes in medicine. The use of
radiopharmaceuticals in diagnosis is growing at over 10% per year.
2.3.1 Diagnosis
Radioisotopes are an essential part of diagnostic treatment. In combination with imaging
devices which register the gamma rays emitted from within, they can study the dynamic
processes taking place in various parts of the body. An advantage of nuclear over x-ray
techniques is that both bone and soft tissue can be imaged very successfully.
In using radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis, a radioactive dose is given to the patient
and the activity in the organ can then be studied either as a two dimensional picture or, with a
special technique called tomography, as a three dimensional picture.


12
The most widely used diagnostic radioisotope is technetium-99m*, with a half-life of six
hours, and which gives the patient a very low radiation dose. Such isotopes are ideal for tracing
many bodily processes with the minimum of discomfort for the patient. They are widely used to
indicate tumors and to study the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, blood circulation and volume, and
bone structure.
Technetium generators, a lead pot enclosing a glass tube containing the radioisotope, are
supplied to hospitals from the nuclear reactor where the isotopes are made. They contain
99
Mo,
with a half-life of 66 hours, which progressively decays to
99
Tc. The
99
Tc is washed out of the
lead pot by saline solution when it is required. After two weeks or less the generator is returned
for recharging. Tc-99 is employed in some 30 million diagnostic procedures per year
Another major use of radioisotopes for diagnosis is in radio-immuno-assays for
biochemical analysis in a laboratory. They can be used to measure very low concentrations of
hormones, enzymes, hepatitis virus, some drugs and a range of other substances in a sample of
the patient's blood. The patient never comes in contact with the radioisotopes used in the
diagnostic tests.
2.3.2 Therapy
The uses of radioisotopes in therapy are comparatively few, but important. Cancerous
growths are sensitive to damage by radiation, which may be external - using a gamma beam from
a
60
Co source, or internal - using a small gamma or beta radiation source.
131
I is commonly used to treat thyroid cancer, probably the most successful kind of cancer
treatment, and also for non-malignant thyroid disorders.
192
Ir wire implants are used especially in
the head and breast to give precise doses of beta rays to limited areas, then removed. A new
treatment uses
153
Sm complexed with organic phosphate to relieve the pain of secondary cancers
lodged in bone.




13
2.3.3 Sterilisation
Many medical products today are sterilised by gamma rays from a
60
Co source, a
technique which generally is much cheaper and more effective than steam heat sterilisation. The
disposable syringe is an example of a product sterilised by gamma rays. Because it is a 'cold'
process radiation can be used to sterilise a range of heat-sensitive items such as powders,
ointments and solutions and biological preparations such as bone, nerve, skin, etc, used in tissue
grafts.
The benefit to humanity of sterilisation by radiation is tremendous. It is safer and cheaper
because it can be done after the item is packaged. The sterile shelf life of the item is then
practically indefinite provided the package is not broken open. Apart from syringes, medical
products sterilised by radiation include cotton wool, burn dressings, surgical gloves, heart valves,
bandages, plastic and rubber sheets and surgical instruments.

2.4 FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
At least 800 million of the world's seven billion inhabitants are chronically malnourished,
and tens of thousands die daily from hunger and hunger-related causes. Radioisotopes and
radiation used in food and agriculture are helping to reduce these tragic figures.
As well as directly improving food production, agriculture needs to be sustainable over
the longer term. The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) works with the IAEA on
programs to improve food sustainability assisted by nuclear and related biotechnologies.
2.4.1 Fertilisers
Fertilisers are expensive and if not properly used can damage the environment. It is
important that as much of the fertiliser as possible finds its way into plants and that a minimum is
lost to the environment.


14
Fertilisers 'labelled' with a particular isotope, such as
15
N and
32
P provide a means of
finding out how much is taken up by the plant and how much is lost, allowing better
management of fertiliser application. Using
15
N also enables assessment of how much nitrogen is
fixed from the air by soil and by root bacteria in legumes.
2.4.2 Increasing Genetic Variability
Ionising radiation to induce mutations in plant breeding has been used for several
decades, and some 1800 crop varieties have been developed in this way. Gamma or neutron
irradiation is often used in conjunction with other techniques, to produce new genetic lines of
root and tuber crops, cereals and oil seed crops.
New kinds of sorghum, garlic, wheat, bananas, beans and peppers are more resistant to
pests and more adaptable to harsh climatic conditions. In Mali, irradiation of sorghum and rice
seeds has produced more productive and marketable varieties.
2.4.3 Insect Control
Crop losses caused by insects may amount to more than 10% of the total harvest
worldwide; - in developing countries the estimate is 25-35%. Chemical insecticides have for
many years been the main weapon in trying to reduce these losses, but they have not always been
effective. Some insects have become resistant to the chemicals used, and some insecticides leave
poisonous residues on the crops. One solution has been the use of sterile insects.
The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) involves rearing large numbers of insects then
irradiating their eggs with gamma radiation before hatching, to sterilise them. The sterile males
are then released in large numbers in the infested areas. The population of the insect pest in the
project area is drastically reduced.
Major SIT operations have been conducted in Mexico, Argentina and northern Chile
against the Medfly (Mediterranean fruit fly) and in 1981 this was declared a complete success in
Mexico.


15
The IAEA and FAO are assessing the potential of using SIT against Sugarcane Borers on
sugarcane, as well as consolidating Codling Moth management to support the apple and pear
export industries.
Three UN organizations - the IAEA, the FAO, the World Health Organisation (WHO),
with the governments concerned, are promoting new SIT programs in many countries.
2.4.4 Food Preservation
Some 25-30% of the food harvested in many countries is lost as a result of spoilage by
microbes and pests. In a hungry world we cannot afford this. The reduction of spoilage due to
infestation and contamination is of the utmost importance. This is especially so in countries
which have hot and humid climates and where an extension of the storage life of certain foods,
even by a few days, is often enough to save them from spoiling before they can be consumed.
Some countries lose a high proportion of harvested grain due to moulds and insects.
In all parts of the world there is growing use of irradiation technology to preserve food.
In over 40 countries health and safety authorities have approved irradiation of more than 60
kinds of food, ranging from spices, grains and grain products to fruit, vegetables and meat. It can
replace potentially harmful chemical fumigants to eliminate insects from dried fruit and grain,
legumes, and spices.
Radiation is also used to sterilise food packaging. In the Netherlands, for example, milk
cartons are freed from bacteria by irradiation.
As well as reducing spoilage after harvesting, increased use of food irradiation is driven
by concerns about food-borne diseases as well as growing international trade in foodstuffs which
must meet stringent standards of quality. On their trips into space, astronauts eat foods preserved
by irradiation.
Food irradiation means that raw foods are exposed to high levels of gamma radiation
which kills bacteria and other harmful organisms without affecting the nutritional value of food



16

Fig.2.7: Irradiating process
itself or leaving any residue. It is the only means of killing bacterial pathogens in raw and frozen
food. Of course, irradiation of food does not make it radioactive!
Table 2.1: Food Irradiation Applications
Radiation dose (kilograys,
kGy)
Purpose
"low" up to 1 kGy inhibits fruit and vegetable ripening
controls some bacteria in meats
controls insects in grains


17

2.4.5 Water Resources
Adequate potable water is essential for life. Yet for any new development, whether
agricultural, industrial or human settlement, a sustainable supply of good water is vital.
Isotope hydrology techniques enable accurate tracing and measurement of the extent of
underground water resources. Such techniques provide important analytical tools in the
management and conservation of existing supplies of water and in the identification of new,
renewable sources of water. They provide answers to questions about origin, age and distribution
of groundwater, as well as the interconnections between ground and surface water and aquifer
recharge systems. The results permit planning and sustainable management of these water
resources.
For surface waters they can give information about leakages through dams and irrigation
channels, the dynamics of lakes and reservoirs, flow rates, river discharges and sedimentation
rates. From Afghanistan to Zaire there some 60 countries, developed and developing, that have
used isotope techniques to investigate their water resources in collaboration with IAEA.
Neutron probes can measure soil moisture very accurately, enabling better management
of land affected by salinity, particularly in respect to irrigation.
2.5 INDUSTRY
Radiation is used widely throughout industry for various tasks including quality control,
maintenance work and assessment of the environment.
"medium" 1-10 kGy destroys bacteria in meat including salmonella, shigella,
campylobacter and yersinia
inhibits mold growth on fruit
"high" more than 10 kGy destroys insects and bacteria in spices
sterilises food to the same extent achieved by high heat


18
2.5.1 Gamma Radiography
Maintenance is a vital part of industry. For example, aircraft welding needs to be checked
regularly for cracks and other faults, as well as gas and oil pipelines. The checking for cracks can
be done using the radiation emitted by radioisotopes.

Fig.2.8: Gamma Radiography Projector Metal Testing
Using radioisotopes to check for cracks can be accomplished with a technique called
gamma radiography. It is similar to how X-rays are used in hospitals to check for fractures and
cracks in bones.
Gamma radiography involves placing a radiation source on one side of the gas pipeline,
and a photographic plate on the other. The radiation that can pass through cracks will show up on
the photographic plate. This checking process could have been done using X-rays, whereas using
gamma radiography requires only a radiation source which can simply be a small pellet of
radioactive material. X-rays also require electricity, whereas radioisotopes do not.
The exact process is done by taping a special photographic film over the weld or
suspected crack of a pipeline. A pipe crawler carrying the sealed radiation source is then
dispatched down the pipe to the weld position. The field technician performing the check then
sends a remote control message to the crawler to tell it to expose the radiation. When this


19
happens, the radiation passes through any cracks that may exist, onto the photographic film taped
on the outside. This film is then developed and checked for cracks or welding deterioration.
Some industrial machinery contains parts that have small amounts of radioactive
materials. This allows easy observation and detection of wear and tear.

2.5.2 Measurement and Industrial Analysis
Radioisotopes are commonly used for measuring viscosity, density and thickness in
conditions where other methods would be difficult or impossible to apply. Since radiation does
not require direct contact it is used where high heat or corrosive chemicals may exist.
Radiation is reduced in intensity when it passes through many materials. Therefore the
amount of stuff between a radiation detector and emitter can be determined by calculating the
difference between the intensity of emitted radiation and the intensity of the received radiation.
This concept is applied in the manufacture of thin plastic films. The produced film is passed
through a radioisotope gauge - the thicker the film, the lower the detected radiation. Changes in
the detected level of radiation correspond to a change in thickness of the plastic, so this is a form
of quality control.
Radioisotopes can also be used to calculate the efficiency of large mixers, or the flow of
materials through blast furnaces. Leaks and other defects can also be detected in building cooling
towers and power station heat exchangers.
2.5.3 Sample Power Sources
Radioisotopes are used as power sources for applications requiring small amounts of
portable energy, such as for remote weather stations and weather balloons, and navigation
beacons and buoys. They are more environmentally friendly than batteries because once all the
energy from radioactivity is used, there are few left-over wastes except for the stable atoms
formed, whereas used batteries will always contain toxic heavy metals that are hazardous to the
environment.


20
2.5.4 Environmental Monitoring
All substances that exist are likely to have radioactive atoms in them occuring naturally.
Water is an example of this. Underground bore water in particular is likely to have radioactive
minerals and gases present. The rocks underground will often contain small amounts of
radioactive elements such as uranium. The decay of uranium will produce other radioactive
elements, and these may leak into the bore water.
The concentration of these radioactive elements in the water can be analysed to determine
whether the bore water deposits are being used faster than they are being replenished, as well as
the "age" of the water.
Ocean pollution can be analysed for radioactivity to trace the source that caused it.
Similarly, the dispersion of a known factory's pollutants can be monitored this way.
The rate and extent of soil erosion can be determined through the use of radioisotopes.
In general, it is the labelling property of radioisotopes that allows them to be used in a
wide range of environmental assessment techniques.
2.5.5 Other Industrial Uses
Radiation is also used in determining the nature and extent of termite infestation in
buildings. This is done by feeding the termites a sample of artificially synthesised radioactive
wood. The termites then disperse the radiation when they buy into the building structures, and
the spread of radiation is used to give an indication of the nature of termite infestation. This
process sometimes is better than physically removing and examining parts of the building,
because the radiation can be detected easily through the building materials without needing to
dismantle anything.




21
Table 2.2: List of Some Common Radioisotopes used in Industry
Radioisotope Industrial Uses
Hydrogen-3 Water age measurement, study of sewage
carbon-14 Water age measurement
Chlorine-36 Water age measurement
Scandium-40 Study of blast furnace efficiency
Manganese-54 Study of environmental impact of mining
Chromium-57 Study of coastal erosion
Cobalt-60 Sterilisation
Zinc-65 Study of environmental impact of mining
Cesium-137 soil erosion monitoring
Iridium-192 Study of coastal erosion, checking of aircraft welding faults
Gold-198 Study of sewage and sources of water pollution, monitoring of sand movements
in ocean floors and river beds, coastal erosion, study of blast furnace efficiency
Lead-210 soil and sand age measurement

2.6 HOUSEHOLD USES OF RADIATION
2.6.1 Smoke Detector
One of the commonest uses of radioisotopes today is in household smoke detectors.
These contain a small amount of
241
Am which is a decay product of
241
Pu originating in nuclear
reactors. The
241
Am emits alpha particles which ionise the air and allow a current between two
electrodes. If smoke enters the detector it absorbs the alpha particles and interrupts the current,
setting off the alarm.


22

Fig.2.9: Smoke Detector
2.6.2 Other Uses of Radionuclides in Houses
Other items that contain radiation are collectors and those who acquire antiquesare
watches and clocks; glassware (canary or Vaseline glass), tile, and ceramics; gas lantern mantles;
and camera lenses. Some old watches and clocks have dials that were painted with a radiation-
emitting compound to make them visible in the dark. Old glassware, tile, and ceramics that
contain radioactivity generally have enhanced naturally occurring radionuclides (such as
uranium, thorium, or potassium) incorporated right into the glass or into the glaze. An older-style
gas lantern mantle with thorium in its silk threads is often used by radiation safety offices as a
source to check the operation of their radiation-detection instruments. Old camera lenses also
might contain some thorium, which was believed to create a better image on the film.

2.7 ARCHEOLOGY AND GEOLOGY
The principals of radioactive decay are employed widely in many fields of archeology
and geology to determine the nature and age of materials, artifacts and rocks.



23
2.7.1 Radioactive Dating
The principals of radioactive decay are applied in the technique of radioactive dating, a
process widely used by geologists and archaeologists to determine the age of materials and
artifacts.
Radioactive
14
C atoms exist naturally. They are everywhere around us: in our clothes, in
the food we eat, even in the air we breathe. However, there are not many of these 1.310
-12

percent of all carbon atoms are the
14
C isotope. This is why they do not pose danger to us - there
are so few of them.
The ratio of radioactive
14
C atoms to stable
12
C atoms in the atmosphere has remained
constant over thousands of years.
14
C atoms are formed when neutrons from the sun's cosmic
radiation collide with
14
N atoms in the atmosphere
Thus the decay of
14
C is reasonably balanced with its production, resulting in a constant
ratio of
14
C to
12
C.

Fig.2.10: Production of Carbon - 14
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) molecules in the air can contain either isotope of carbon. This CO
2

is continually used by plants to grow. Because the ratio of
14
C to
14
C in atmospheric CO
2
is
constant, the intake of CO
2
by a plant results in a constant ratio of the two isotopes in the plant's


24
body while it is alive. However, when the plant dies it will no longer take in CO
2
. As a result, the
14
C decaying in the dead plant will not be replenished by a "fresh supply" of more CO
2
, resulting
in the ratio of
14
C to
12
C decreasing over time.
Because animals eat plants, the ratio of
14
C to
12
C in them also decreases once they die,
since the
14
C cannot be replenished.
This process of dating using
14
C is used by paleontologists. Paleontologists burn a small
sample of a fossil to react the carbon in it with oxygen, to form CO
2
. The CO
2
that contains
14
C
will be radioactive, and the amount can be easily measured using a radiation counter. Burning is
done to facilitate measuring the level of
14
C.
14
C has a half life of about 5730 years. This means that in a given sample of a carbon-
containing substance, the ratio of
14
C to
12
C will decrease by half every 5730 years. Suppose for
example, some archaeologists uncovered ancient manuscripts and found that the ratio of
14
C to
12
C in the paper was half of that found in living trees. This would mean that the manuscripts
would be about 5730 years old.
The use of radioactive
14
C for dating was first done by William Libby, an academic at the
University of Chigaco, USA, in 1947.
The relatively short half-life of
14
C (5730 years) means that the amount of
14
C remaining
in materials and objects older than about 80,000 years is too small to be measured with today's
equipment. Thus carbon dating is limited to objects which are not older than this. However, the
abundance of other atoms with longer half-lives, such as
238
U (half-life 4.5 10
9
years) can be
measured in place of
14
C. Geologists measure the amounts of other radioactive metal isotopes
such as
238
U,
84
Rb and
40
P found in rocks to determine their age. Measurements show that the
oldest rocks on Earth are about 4.6 billion years old - which is a reasonably accurate estimate of
the Earth's age. Similarly, analysis of fossilised plants shows that they first occurred on Earth
about 3 billion years ago.
The major problem using radiocarbon dating is the chance of getting carbon from the
samples mixed up with "fresh" carbon.


25
As well as using
14
C to
12
C decay, geologists also measure the decay of
40
P to argon in
dating rocks. This method is not accurate for rocks that have been heated above 120c (250f)
because the argon diffuses out from the rock at these temperatures. The decay of
87
Rb to
87
Sr is
used to check potassium-argon dates, and is much more accurate because neither isotope is
diffused by heat. This rubidium technique was used by scientists to determine the age of the
moon. Measurements using
238
U were used to determine the age of the Earth.
2.7.2 Geology and Element Identification
Radioactivity is also used to identify the location of deposits of uranium and other
radioactive minerals. This is useful in mining exploration. The intensity of detected radiation
also is an indication of the amount of uranium that may be located there.
The mining industry employs radioactivity in its routines. One example is identification
of rocks and minerals. X-rays from a radioactive material can induce other materials to emit
fluorescent X-rays. These subsequent X-rays can have their energies measured, and then this
gives an indication of the elements present in the original material. The intensity of these X-rays
also is an indicator of the amount of the element present.
This technique is done by placing probes into the slurry - water that contains sediments of
minerals, etc. The probes contain a radioisotope and a detector. The radiation from the isotope
causes metals in the slurry to emit fluorescent X-rays - these are identified by the detector also
located on the probe. The probe's input is then analysed to give an indication of the types and
amount of metals present in the slurry. Metals that are detected this way include lead, copper, tin,
zinc, nickel and iron.
Elements that can absorb neutrons will release gamma rays. These gamma rays can be
analysed for their energies. Specific energies correspond to specific elements - thus this is
another way of identifying the metals and minerals that may be present.




26
2.8 SPACE MISSIONS
Radioisotope thermal generators are used in space missions. The heat generated by the
decay of a radioactive source, often
238
Pu, is used to generate electricity. The Voyager space
probes, the Cassini mission to Saturn, the Galileo mission to Jupiter and the New Horizons
mission to Pluto all are powered by RTGs. A typical RTG produces about 300 watts of
electricity and will operate unattended for many years. The Spirit and Opportunity Mars rovers
have used a mix of solar panels for electricity and RTGs for heat. The latest Mars rover,
Curiosity, is much bigger and uses RTGs for heat and electricity as solar panels would not be
able to supply enough electricity.
In the future electricity or heat from nuclear power plants could be used to make hydrogen.
Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells to power cars, or can be burnt to provide heat in place of gas,
without producing emissions that would cause climate change.



Fig.2.11: Space crafts







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3. CONCLUSION

The development of nuclear technology has marked a new step forward of science. We
often talk them as atomic bombs which totally destroy the planet and it is condemned more and
more during a long time. However, not all the effects of nuclear technology on our life have been
passive.

Although it is true that nuclear technology has destructive potential, if we can use it judiciously
we will be much benefited. Maybe, the most important of nuclear technology in over half of
century is applications in health's field such as to decontaminate health equipments; to try new
medicines by radioactive isotope; to manufacture equipments to use for diagnostic health as X-
ray, mammogram; and to destroy cancerous cells. In addition, we use it in creating new energy
which helps mankind very much in the future when natural energy is exhausted. Nowadays, it
also applies in agriculture's field to develop various trees, to process food... And many other
applications use in our life.
Nuclear Technology is not only clean, but it is also safe, reliable, and competitive
Technology. It is the only technology that can replace potentially harmful chemical fumigants to
eliminate insects from dried fruit and grain, legumes, and spices.
Research and development in the field of cutting edge nuclear technologies have to be
necessarily based on elaborate programmes, and the velocity of such R&D is strongly dependent
on the level of inputs of our limited resources to such programmes, in competition with other
shorter term priorities.





28

4. References


http://dae.nic.in/

www.world-nuclear.org/info/Non-Power-Nuclear-Applications

www.cna.ca/nuclear_facts/commercial/

www.slideshare.net/mohkab1/nuclearenergyapplications

www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nuctek/application.html

library.thinkquest.org/C004606/applicationscont.shtml

http://www.slideshare.net/MarieWalker1/nuclear-magnetic-resonance

http://www.slideshare.net/mohkab1/nuclearenergyapplications

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technology

Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry by Gregory R. Choppin, Jan-Olov and Jan
Rydberg, 2002