Point-Mass Dynamics and

Aerodynamic/Thrust Forces
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics,
MAE 331, 2012
Properties of the Atmosphere
Frames of reference
Velocity and momentum
Newtons laws
Introduction to Lift, Drag, and Thrust
Simplied longitudinal equations of
motion
Copyright 2012 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html
The Atmosphere
Air density and pressure decay
exponentially with altitude
Air temperature and speed of sound
are linear functions of altitude
Properties of the
Lower Atmosphere
Wind: Motion of the Atmosphere
Zero wind at Earths surface = Inertially rotating air mass
Wind measured with respect to Earths rotating surface
Wind Velocity Proles vary over Time
Typical Jetstream Velocity
Airspeed = Airplanes speed with respect to air mass
Inertial velocity = Wind velocity Airspeed
Air Density, Dynamic Pressure,
and Mach Number
! = Air density, functionof height
= !
sealevel
e
"z
= !
sealevel
e
#"h
!
sealevel
=1.225kg / m
3
; " =1/ 9, 042m
V
air
= v
x
2
+v
y
2
+v
z
2
!
"
#
$
air
1/2
= v
T
v
!
"
#
$
air
1/2
= Airspeed
Dynamic pressure = q =
1
2
! h ( )V
air
2
Mach number =
V
air
a h ( )
; a = speed of sound, m / s
Airspeed must increase as altitude increases
to maintain constant dynamic pressure
Contours of Constant
Dynamic Pressure,
Weight = Lift = C
L
1
2
!V
air
2
S = C
L
qS In steady, cruising ight,
q
Equations of Motion
for a Point Mass
Newtonian Frame of Reference
Newtonian (Inertial) Frame of
Reference
Unaccelerated Cartesian frame
whose origin is referenced to an
inertial (non-moving) frame
Right-hand rule
Origin can translate at constant
linear velocity
Frame cannot be rotating with
respect to inertial origin
Translation changes the position of an object
r =
x
y
z
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
Position: 3 dimensions
What is a non-moving frame?
Velocity and Momentum
Velocity of a particle

v =
dx
dt
= ! x =
! x
! y
! z
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
=
v
x
v
y
v
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
Linear momentum of a particle
p = mv = m
v
x
v
y
v
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
where m = mass of particle
Newtons Laws of Motion:
Dynamics of a Particle
First Law
If no force acts on a particle, it remains at rest or
continues to move in a straight line at constant
velocity, as observed in an inertial reference
frame -- Momentum is conserved
d
dt
mv ( ) = 0 ; mv
t
1
= mv
t
2
Newtons Laws of Motion:
Dynamics of a Particle
d
dt
mv ( ) = m
dv
dt
= F ; F =
f
x
f
y
f
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
Second Law
A particle of xed mass acted upon by a force
changes velocity with an acceleration
proportional to and in the direction of the force,
as observed in an inertial reference frame;
The ratio of force to acceleration is the mass of
the particle: F = m a
!
dv
dt
=
1
m
F =
1
m
I
3
F =
1/ m 0 0
0 1/ m 0
0 0 1/ m
"
#
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
f
x
f
y
f
z
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
Newtons Laws of Motion:
Dynamics of a Particle
Third Law
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
Equations of Motion for a Point Mass:
Position and Velocity

dv
dt
= ! v =
! v
x
! v
y
! v
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
=
1
m
F =
1/ m 0 0
0 1/ m 0
0 0 1/ m
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
f
x
f
y
f
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&

dr
dt
= ! r =
! x
! y
! z
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
= v =
v
x
v
y
v
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
F
I
=
f
x
f
y
f
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
I
= F
gravity
+ F
aerodynamics
+ F
thrust
!
"
$
%I
Rate of change
of position
Rate of change
of velocity
Vector of
combined forces
Equations of Motion for a
Point Mass

x (t) =
dx(t)
dt
= f[x(t),F]
Written as a single equation
x !
r
v
"
#
$
%
&
' =
Position
Velocity
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
=
x
y
z
v
x
v
y
v
z
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
With

! x
! y
! z
! v
x
! v
y
! v
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
=
v
x
v
y
v
z
f
x
/ m
f
y
/ m
f
z
/ m
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
=
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
x
y
z
v
x
v
y
v
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
+
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1/ m 0 0
0 1/ m 0
0 0 1/ m
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
f
x
f
y
f
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
Dynamic equations are linear

x (t) =
dx(t)
dt
= f[x(t),F]
Equations of Motion for a
Point Mass
Gravitational Force:
Flat-Earth Approximation
g is gravitational acceleration
mg is gravitational force
Independent of position
z measured down
F
gravity
( )
I
= F
gravity
( )
E
= mg
f
= m
0
0
g
o
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
Approximation
Flat earth reference is an inertial
frame, e.g.,
North, East, Down
Range, Crossrange, Altitude ()

g
o
! 9.807 m / s
2
at earth's surface
Aerodynamic Force
F
I
=
X
Y
Z
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
I
=
C
X
C
Y
C
Z
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
I
1
2
'V
air
2
S
=
C
X
C
Y
C
Z
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
I
q S
Referenced to the
Earth not the aircraft
Inertial Frame Body-Axis Frame Velocity-Axis Frame
F
B
=
C
X
C
Y
C
Z
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
B
q S
F
V
=
C
D
C
Y
C
L
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
q S
Aligned with the
aircraft axes
Aligned with and
perpendicular to
the direction of
motion
Non-Dimensional
Aerodynamic Coefcients
Body-Axis Frame Velocity-Axis Frame
C
X
C
Y
C
Z
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
B
=
axial force coefficient
side force coefficient
normal force coefficient
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
C
D
C
Y
C
L
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
=
drag coefficient
side force coefficient
lift coefficient
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
Functions of ight condition, control settings, and disturbances, e.g.,
C
L
= C
L
(", M, "E)
Non-dimensional coefcients allow application of sub-scale model
wind tunnel data to full-scale airplane
u(t ) : axial velocity
w(t ) : normal velocity
V t ( ) : velocity magnitude
! t ( ) : angle of attack
" t ( ) : flight path angle
#(t ) : pitch angle
along vehicle centerline
perpendicular to centerline
along net direction of ight
angle between centerline and direction of ight
angle between direction of ight and local horizontal
angle between centerline and local horizontal
Longitudinal Variables
! = " #$ (with wingtips level)
Lateral-Directional Variables
!(t ) : sideslip angle
"(t ) : yaw angle
# t ( ) : heading angle
$ t ( ) : roll angle
angle between centerline and direction of ight
angle between centerline and local horizontal
angle between direction of ight and compass reference
(e.g., north)
angle between true vertical and body z axis
! = " + # (with wingtips level)
Introduction to
Lift and Drag
Lift and Drag are Oriented
to the Velocity Vector
Drag components sum to produce total drag
Skin friction
Base pressure differential
Shock-induced pressure differential (M > 1)
Lift components sum to produce total lift
Pressure differential between upper and lower surfaces
Wing
Fuselage
Horizontal tail
Lift = C
L
1
2
!V
air
2
S " C
L
0
+
#C
L
#$
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
1
2
!V
air
2
S
Drag = C
D
1
2
!V
air
2
S " C
D
0
+#C
L
2
$
%
&
'
1
2
!V
air
2
S
Aerodynamic Lift
Fast ow over top + slow ow over bottom =
Mean ow + Circulation
Speed difference proportional to angle of attack
Kutta condition (stagnation points at leading and
trailing edges)
Chord Section
Streamlines
Lift = C
L
1
2
!V
air
2
S " C
L
wing
+C
L
fuselage
+C
L
tail
( )
1
2
!V
air
2
S " C
L
0
+
#C
L
#$
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
qS
2D vs. 3D Lift
Inward ow over upper surface
Outward ow over lower surface
Bound vorticity of wing produces tip vortices
Inward-Outward Flow
Tip Vortices
2D vs. 3D Lift
Identical Chord Sections
Innite vs. Finite Span
Finite aspect ratio reduces lift slope
What is aspect ratio?
Aerodynamic Drag
Drag components
Parasite drag (friction, interference, base pressure
differential)
Induced drag (drag due to lift generation)
Wave drag (shock-induced pressure differential)
In steady, subsonic ight
Parasite (form) drag
increases as V
2

Induced drag proportional

to 1/V
2

Total drag minimized at

one particular airspeed
Drag = C
D
1
2
!V
air
2
S " C
D
p
+C
D
i
+C
D
w
( )
1
2
!V
air
2
S " C
D
0
+#C
L
2
$
%
&
'
qS
2-D Equations of Motion
2-D Equations of
Motion for a Point Mass

! x
! z
! v
x
! v
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
=
v
x
v
z
f
x
/ m
f
z
/ m
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
x
z
v
x
v
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
+
0 0
0 0
1/ m 0
0 1/ m
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
f
x
f
z
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
Restrict motions to a vertical plane
(i.e., motions in y direction = 0)
Assume point mass location
coincides with center of mass
Transform Velocity
from Cartesian to
Polar Coordinates

! x
! z
!
"
#
$
%
&
=
v
x
v
z
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
=
V cos'
(V sin'
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
)
V
'
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
=
! x
2
+ ! z
2
(sin
(1
! z
V
*
+
,
-
.
/
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
=
v
x
2
+ v
z
2
(sin
(1
v
z
V
*
+
,
-
.
/
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&

!
V
! !
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
=
d
dt
v
x
2
+ v
z
2
(sin
(1
v
z
V
)
*
+
,
-
.
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
=
d
dt
v
x
2
+ v
z
2
(
d
dt
sin
(1
v
z
V
)
*
+
,
-
.
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
Inertial axes -> wind axes and back
Rates of change of velocity and ight path angle
Longitudinal Point-Mass
Equations of Motion

! r(t ) = ! x(t ) = v
x
=V(t )cos!(t )
!
h(t ) = "! z(t ) = "v
z
=V(t )sin!(t )
!
V(t ) =
Thrust " Drag " mg h ( ) sin!(t )
m
=
C
T
"C
D
( )
1
2
# h ( )V
2
(t )S " mg h ( ) sin!(t )
m
! !(t ) =
Lift " mg h ( )cos!(t )
mV(t )
=
C
L
1
2
# h ( )V
2
(t )S " mg h ( )cos!(t )
mV(t )
r = range
h = height (altitude)
V = velocity
! = flight path angle
Equations of motion, assuming mass is xed, thrust is
aligned with the velocity vector, and windspeed = 0
In steady, level ight
Thrust = Drag
Lift = Weight
Introduction to
Propulsion
Reciprocating (Internal Combustion)
Engine (1860s)
Linear motion of pistons converted
to rotary motion to drive propeller
Single Cylinder
Turbo-Charger (1920s)
Increases pressure of incoming air
Thrust
produced
directly by
exhaust gas
Axial-ow Turbojet (von Ohain, Germany)
Centrifugal-ow Turbojet (Whittle, UK)
Turbojet
Engines
(1930s)
Turboprop
Engines
(1940s)
Exhaust gas drives a
propeller to produce
thrust
Typically uses a
centrifugal-ow
compressor
Turbojet + Afterburner (1950s)
Fuel added to exhaust
Additional air may be introduced
Dual rotation rates, N1 and N2, typical
Turbofan Engine (1960s)
Dual or triple rotation rates
High Bypass Ratio Turbofan
Propfan Engine
Aft-fan Engine
Ramjet and Scramjet
Ramjet (1940s) Scramjet (1950s)
Talos
X-43
Hyper-X
Thrust and Thrust Coefcient
Thrust ! C
T
1
2
"V
2
S
Non-dimensional thrust coefcient,
C
T
C
T
is a function of power/throttle
setting, fuel ow rate, blade angle,
Mach number, ...
Reference area, S, may be aircraft
wing area, propeller disk area, or
jet exhaust area

I
sp
=
Thrust
! m g
o
" Specific Impulse, Units =
m/s
m/s
2
= sec
! m! Mass flow rate of on "board propellant
g
o
! Gravitational acceleration at earth' s surface
Thrust and Specic Impulse
Sensitivity of Thrust to Airspeed
Nominal Thrust = T
N
! C
T
N
1
2
"V
N
2
S
If thrust is independent of velocity (= constant)
!T
!V
= 0 =
!C
T
!V
1
2
"V
N
2
S +C
T
N
"V
N
S
. ( )
N
= Nominal or reference ( ) value
Turbojet thrust is independent of airspeed over a
wide range
!C
T
!V
= "C
T
N
/ V
N
Power
Assuming thrust is aligned with airspeed vector
Power = P = Thrust !Velocity " C
T
1
2
#V
3
S
If power is independent of velocity (= constant)
!P
!V
= 0 =
!C
T
!V
1
2
"V
N
3
S +
3
2
C
T
N
"V
N
2
S
Velocity-independent power is typical of propeller-
driven propulsion (reciprocating or turbine engine,
with constant RPM or variable-pitch prop)
!C
T
!V
= "3C
T
N
/ V
N
Next Time:
Aviation History

Reading
Airplane Stability and Control, Ch. 1
Virtual Textbook, Part 3
Supplementary
Material
Early Reciprocating Engines
Rotary Engine:
Air-cooled
Crankshaft xed
Cylinders turn with propeller
On/off control: No throttle
Sopwith Triplane
SPAD S.VII
V-8 Engine:
Water-cooled
Crankshaft turns with propeller
Reciprocating Engines
Rotary
In-Line
V-12
Opposed
Radial
Turbo-compound
Reciprocating Engine
Exhaust gas drives the turbo-compressor
Napier Nomad II shown (1949)
Jet Engine Nacelles
Pulsejet
Flapper-valved motor (1940s)
Dynajet Red Head (1950s)
V-1 Motor
Pulse Detonation Engine
on Long EZ (1981)
http://airplanesandrockets.com/motors/dynajet-engine.htm
Fighter Aircraft and Engines
Lockheed P-38
Allison V-1710
Turbocharged Reciprocating Engine
Convair/GD F-102
P&WJ57
Axial-Flow Turbojet Engine
MD F/A-18
GE F404
Afterburning Turbofan Engine
SR-71: P&W J58
Variable-Cycle
Engine (Late 1950s)
Hybrid Turbojet/
Ramjet