saewtindeererntinainiomasiasctn inthis Contents 18 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Preface xi Acknowledgments xii About the Authors xiii Introduction 1 Preview 1 Background 1 What Is Digital Image Processing? 2 Background on MATLAB and the Image Processing Toolbox Areas of Image Processing Covered in the Book 5 ‘The Book Web Site 6 Notation 7 ‘The MATLAB Working Environment 7 1.7.1 The MATLAB Desktop 7 1.7.2. Using the MATLAB Editor to Create M-Files 9 173. Getting Help 9 L7A_ Saving and Retrieving a Work Session 10 How References Are Organized in the Book 11 Summary 1 Fundamentals 12 Preview 12 Digital Image Representation 12 21.1 Coordinate Conventions 13 21.2 Images as Matrices 14 Reading Images 14 Displaying Images 16 Writing Images 18 Data Classes 23 Image Types 24 26.1 Intensity Images 24 262 Binary images 25 263 ANoteon Terminology 25 Converting between Data Classes and Image Types 25 27.1 Converting becween Data Classes 25 27.2 Converting between Image Classes and Types 26 Anay Indexing 30 281 VectorIndexing 20° 282 Matrix Indexing 3 283 Selecting Array Dimensions 3729 2.10 3a 32 33 34 4a 42 43 4a a3 Some Important Standard Arrays 37 Introduction to M-Function Programming 38 2101 M-Files 38 2102 Operators 40 2103 Flow Control 49 210.4 Code Optimization 55 2105 Interactive /O 59 2106 A Briel Introduction to Cell Arrays and Structures 62 Summary 64 Intensity Transformations and Spatial Filtering 65 Preview! 65 Background 65 Intensity Transformation Functions 66 S21" Function inadjust 66 332. Lopanittmic and Contrast Stetching Transformations 68 333. Some Uuty MoFunctions for intensity Transformations 70 Histogram Processing and Function Potting 7 531 “Generating and Poting image Histograms 76 332 Histogram Equalization 81 333. Histogram Matching (Specification). 84 Spatial Filtering 89 SHI Linear Spatial Fitering. 69 342 Nonlinear Spatial Filtering 96 Image Processing Toolbox Standard Spatial Filters 99 B51" Linear Spatal Filters 99 352 Nonlinene Spatial ites 104 Summary. 107 Frequency Domain Processing 108 Preview 108 The 2-D Discrete Fourier Transform 108 Computing and Visualizing the 2-D DFT in MATLAB 112 Filtering in the Frequency Domain 115 [31 fundamental Concepts 3 432 Basie Steps in DFT Filtering 121 $33 Am Mefunction for Filtering in the Frequency Domain 122 Oblaining Frequency Domain Filters from Spatial Filters 122 Ceneatigg Fives Directly inthe Trequency Doma 127 sat Cheating Meshgrid Arrays for Ute in Implementing Filters inthe Frequency Domain 128 Towpass Frequency Domain Fters_ 129 WWieerame and Surface Poting, 132 46 5a 52 53 5 55 56 37 38 59 510 sit 61 62 63 6a = Contents vii Sharpening Frequency Domain Filters 136 461 Basic Highpass Filtering 136 462 High-Frequency Emphasis Filtering 138 Summary 140 Image Restoration 141 Preotwo 101 ‘A Model ofthe Image Degradation Restoration Process 142 Noise Models 133 B21" Adding Noe with Function nose 143 522. Goering Spatial Random Note with a Specified Disuibuton 1s 523. Period Nese 150 524. Estimating Noise Parameters 153 Restoration inthe Presence of Noise Only—Spatial Filtering. 158 SS Spatial Nose Filters 159 532. Aaptve Spatial ters 168 Periodic Nese Reduction by Frequency Domain Filtering, 166 Modeling the Degradation Fancion I6e Ditect Inverse Filtering 169 Wiener Filtering 170 Conrtrsned Lest Squares (Regularized) Filtering 173 erative Nonlinear Restoration Using the Luy-Richandson Algorithm 176 Bind Deconvolution 179 Geometic Transformations and Image Registration 182 S11 Geometric Spatal Tarsformatons “182 5112 Applying Spatal Transformation to Images 187 Bits image Reyetraton 1 Summary "193 Color Image Processing 194 Preview 194 Color Image Representation in MATLAB 194 GL RGBlmages 194 612 Indexed images 197 61.3 IPT Functions for Manipulating RGB and indexed Images 199 Converting to Other Color Spaces 204 621 NTSCColor Space 204 622 TheYCbCrColor Space 205 62% The HSV Calor Spare 205 624 The CMY and CMYK Color Spaces 206 625 The HSIColor Space 207 The Basics of Color Image Processing 215 Color Transformations 216«Contents 65. 66 7a 72 73 Spatial Filtering of Color Images 227 65:1 Color Image Smoothing 227 65.2 Color Image Sharpening 230 Working Directly in RGB Vector Space 251 66.1 Color Edge Detection Using the Gradient 232 662. Image Segmentation in RGB Vector Space 237 Summary 241 Wavelets 242 Preview 242 Background 242 The Fast Wavelet Transform 245 7.2.1 FWTs Using the Wavelet Toolbox 246 72.2 FWTswithout the Wavelet Toolbox 252 Working with Wavelet Decomposition Structures 259 7.3.1 Editing Wavelet Decomposition Coetficients without the Wavelet Toolbox 262, 7.3.2. Displaying Wavelet Decomposition Coefficients 266 The Inverse Fast Wavelet Transform 271 Wavelets in Image Processing 276 Summary 281 Image Compression 282 Proviso 282 Background 283 Coding Redundancy 286 S21 Huffman Coges 289 322 Hulfman Encoding 295 823. Huffman Decoding. 301 Interpixel Redundancy "309 Paychovisual Redundancy 315 JPEG Compression 317 B51 yee. 38 852 JPEG2000 305 Summary 338 Morphological Image Processing 334 Preview 334 Preliminaries 335 9.141 Some Basic Concepts from Set Theory 385 91.2 Binary Images, Sets, and Logical Operators 337 Dilation and Erosion 337 921 Dilation 338 92.2 Structuring Element Decomposition 341 923 The strel Function 341 924 Erosion 345 93 94 95. 96 10 10a 102 103 4 105 i ua 8 Contents ix Combining Dilation and Erosion 347 93.1 Opening and Closing 347 93.2 The Hittor-Miss Transformation 350 933 Using Lookup Tables 353 934 Function banorpn 356 Labeling Connected Components 359 Morphological Reconstruction 362 95.1 Opening by Reconstruction 363 952 Filling Holes 365 95.3. Clearing Border Objects 366 Gray-Scale Morphology 366 9.6.1 Dilation and Erosion 366 92 Opening and Closing 369 9.63 Reconstruction 374 Summary 377 Image Segmentation 378 Previtw 373 Point Line, and Edge Detection 373 1041 Point Detection 979 1012 Line Detection 381 1013 Edge Detection Using Function edge 384 Line Detection Using the Hough Transform 33 1021 Hough Transform Peak Detection 399 1022 Hough Transform Line Detection and Linking 401 Thresholding 404 1031 Global Tresholding 405 1032 Local Thresholding 407 Regioa-Based Segmentation 407 1041 Basic Formulation 407 1042 Region Growing "408 1043 Region Spliting and Merging 412 Segmentation Using the Watershed Transform 417 1051 Watershed Segmentation Using the Distance Transform 418 105.2 Watershed Segmentation Using Gradients 420 1053 Marker-Contolled Watershed Segmentation 42 Summary 425 Representation and Description 426 Proview 426 Background 425 1123 Cell Arays and Structures 427 112 Some Advitional MATLAB and IPT Functions Used inthis Chapter 422 113 Some Basie Uilty M-Functons 483Contents| 112 Representation 436 3121 Chain Codes 436 11.22 Polygonal Approximations Using Minimum-Perimeter Polygons 439 11.23 Signatures 449 112.4 Boundary Segments 452 1125 Skeletons 453 113 Boundary Descriptors 455 113.1 Some Simple Descriptors’ 455 3132 Shape Numbers 456 11.33 Fourier Descriptors 458 134 Statistical Moments 462 1A Regional Descriptors $63, ALA Function regionprops 463, 1142 Texture 464 i143 Moment Invariants 470 115 Using Principal Components for Description 474 Summary 483 12 object Recognition 484 | 122 Background 484 122 Computing Distance Measures in MATLAB 485 123 Recognition Based on Decsion-Theoretic Methods 488 123 Forming Patern Verto 488 1232 ator Matching Using MinimarDistance Classifiers 489 1233 Matching by Correlation 50 1234 Opaimum Statistical Casiiers $92 1235 Adaptive Leaning Systems, 498 Cy rene meer TLD Working th Strings in MATLAB 499 1242 String Matching 508 pasneach Appendix A Function Summary 514 Aupentic Bice and MATLAB Graphical User Interfaces 527 Aapentx C M-Functions 552 Bibliography 594 Index 597 Preface Solutions to problems in the field of digital image processing generally requite extensive experimental work involving software simulation and testing wit large sets of sample images Although algorithm development typically is based on theoretical ‘underpinnings. the actual implementation of these algorithms almost always requires parameter estimation and, requenty algorithm revision and comparison of candidte Solutions Thus selection ofa flexible, comprehensive, and well-documented software ‘evelopment envisonment isa key factor that has important implications in the cost, ‘development time, and portability of image processing solutions. In spite of its importance, surprisingly litle has been writen on this aspect of the field in the fom of textbook material dealing with both theoretical principles and sof- ‘ware implementation of digital image processing concepts This book was written for just this purpose. Is main objective so provide foundation for implementing image processing algorithms using modem software tools complementary objective was to prepare a book that is selcontained and easly readable by individuals witha basic buckground in digital image processing, mathematical analysis, and computer pro- gramming all at a level typical of that found in a juniorsenior eurticulum ina techai- ‘al discipline Rudimentary knowledge of MATLAB also i desirable. ‘To achieve these objectives, we felt that two key ingredients were needed. The frst was to select image processing material that is representative of material cov- cred in formal course of instruction inthis field, The second was to select soft ‘ware tools that are well supported and documented, and which have a wide range of applications inthe “real” world. “Tomect the fst objective most ofthe theoretical eonceptsin the following chapters were selected fom Digital Image Processing by Gonzsez and Woods, which has been the choie introductory textbook used by educators all ver the world for over two decades The software tools selected ate from the MATLAB Image Processing Toolbox {OPT).which similarly occupies a postion of eminence in both education and industrial pplcations A basic strategy followed in the preparation ofthe book was to provide a seamles integration of wellestablished theoretical concepts and their implementation wing state-of the-art software tools ‘The book is organized along the same lines as Digial Image Processing. In this way, the reader has easy access to a more detailed treatment ofall the image processing ‘concepts discused here, 5 well as an up-to-date set of references for further reading. Following this approach made it possible to present theoretical mate ina sucinct ‘manner and thus we were able to maintain afocuson the software implementation as- ects of image processing problem solutions Because it works in the MATLAB com- Puting environment, the Image Processing Toolbox offers some significant advantages, ot ony in the breadth ofits computational took, but also because it is supported under most operating systems in se today. nique feature of this book sits empia- sis on showing How to develop new code o enhance existing MATLAB and TPT func- tionality. This i an important feature in an area Such as image processing, which, as ‘oted ale, is characterized by the need for extensive algorithm development and experimental work ‘Aller an introduction to the fundamentals of MATLAB functions and program- ming, the book proceeds to address the mainstream areas of image processing. The1 Preface major areas covered include intensity transformations, linear and nonlinear spatial fk tering, filering in the frequency domain, image restoration and registration, color image processing wavelets image data compression, morphological image prosesing, image Seementation, region and boundary representation and description, and object recognition This material is complemented by numerous illustrations of how to solve jmage processing problems using MATLAB and IPT functions In cases where a fune- tion cid not exist, a new function was written and documented as part ofthe instruc- tional focus ofthe book, Over 60 new functions are included in the following chapters. “These functions inerease the scope of IPT by approximately 35 percent and also serve the important purpose of futher illustrating how to implement new image processing, software solutions “The material is presented in textbook format, not a a software manual. Although the book is self-contained, we have established a companion Web site (See Section 13) signed to provide support in a number of areas For students following a forrmal ‘course of study or individuals embarked on a program of set study, the site contains tutorials and reviews on background material, as wel as projects and image databases, ‘including all images in the book, For instructors, te site contains classroom presenta~ tion materials that inelude PowerPoint slides ofall the images and graphics used inthe book, Individuals already familiar with image processing and IPT fundamentals will find the site a useful place for up-to-date references new implementation techniques, ‘and a host of other support material not easly ound elsewhere. Al purchasers ofthe ‘book are eligible to download executable files of all the new functions developed in the text. ‘Asis true of most writing efforts of this nature, progress continues after work on the _manuscript stops For ths reason, we devoted significant effort to the selection of ma- terial that we believe is Findamental, and whose value is likely to remain applicable in 2 rapidly evolving body of knowledge. We trust that readers ofthe book will benefit from this effort and thus find the material imely and usefl in their work. Acknowledgments ‘We are indebted to a numberof individuals in academic circles as wel asin industry and government who have contributed tothe preparation ofthe book. Their contribu- tions have been important in so many different ways that we find it dificult to ac- Knowledge them in any other way but alphabetically. We wish to extend our appreciation to Mongi A. Abid, Peter J.Acklam, Serge Beucher, Emesto Bribesca, Michael W, Davidson, Courtney Esposito, Naomi Fernandes, Thomas R. Gest, Roger Head, Brian Johnson, Lisa Kempler, Roy Lurie, Ashley Mohamed, Joseph E. Paseente, David R. Pickens, Edgardo Felipe Riveron, Michael Robinson, Loren Shure, Jack Sklanski, Sally Stowe, Craig Watson, and Greg Wolodkin, We also wish to ac knowledge the organizations cite inthe captions of many of th figures inthe book fr their permission to use that materia 1 oUt tne go to-Tom Robins, Rose Kemi, Ace Dworkin, Xohong Zhu, Bruce Kenselaa, and Jayne Conte at Prentice Hal for their commitment to excellence in all aspects of the production ofthe book. Their creativity assistance, and patience are trly appreciated. Ragas. C GonzaLez Ricuaro E.Wooos ‘Steven L. EDDINS About the Authors Rafael C. Gonzalez R.C. Gonzalez received the BSE.E, degree from the University of Mian ia 1965 and the MEE and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engincering from the University of Florida, Gainesville, in 1967 and 1970, respectively. He joined the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at the University of Tennessee, Knowvile (UTK) in 1970, where he became Associate Professor in 1973, Professor in 1978, and Distinguished Service Professor in 1984, He served as Chairman of the de- partment from 1994 through 1997. He is currently a Professor Emeritus of Elect al ond Computer Engineering at UTK. He isthe founder of the Image & Patter Analysis Laboratory and the Robot- ies & Computer Vision Laboratory atthe University of Tennessee. He also found cd Perceptics Corporation in 1982 and was its president until 1992, The lat three years of this period were spent under a fulltime employment conteact with West inghouse Corporation, who acquired the company in 1989, Under his direction Perceptics became highly successful in image processing, computer vision, laser disk storage technologies In its initial ten years Perceptics introduced # se- rics of innovative products, including: The world’s first commercally-available computer vision system for automatically reading the license plate on moving ve- hile: a series of large-scale image processing and archiving systems used by the US. Navy at six different manufacturing sites throughout the country to inspect the rocket motors of missiles in the Trident Il Submarine Program: the market leading family of imaging boards for advanced Macintosh computers: and a line of trillion-byte laser disk products. He isa frequent consultant to industry and government inthe areas of pattern recognition, image processing, and machine earning. His academic honors for work in these fields include the 1977 UTK College of Engineering Faculty Achievement ‘Awardthe 1978 UTK Chancellor's Research Scholar Award: the 1980 Magnavox En- tineering Professor Award: and the 1980 M. E. Brooks Distinguished Professor ‘Awatd In 1981 he became an IBM Professor a the University of Tennesse and in 1984 he was named a Distinguished Service Professor there. He was awarded Di tinguished Alumnus Award by the University of Miami in 1985, the Phi Kappa Phi Scholar Award in 1986, and the University of Tennessee's Nathan W. Dougherty ‘Award for Excellence in Engineering in 1992. Honors fr industrial ascompishment include the 1987 IEEE Outstanding Engineer Award for Commercial Development in Tennessee: the 1988 Albert Rose National Award for Excellence in Commercial lenage Processing the 1589 B, Otto Whecley Award for Excllence in Technology Transter, the 1989 Coopers and Lybrand Entrepreneur of the Year Award; the 1992 IEEE Region 3 Outstanding Enginzer Award: and the 1993 Automated Imaging As- sociation National Award fr Technology Development. ir Gonzalez is author oF co-author of over 100 technical articles, two edited books. and five textbooks in the fields of pattern recognition, image processing, And robotics, His books are used in over 500 universities and research institutions throughout the world. He is listed inthe prestigious Marquis Who’ Who in Amer- ‘ea, Marquis Who's Who in Engineering, Marquis Who's Who in the World. and in 10 other national and intemational biographical citations. He s the co-holder of two US. Patents, and has been an associate editor of the [EEE Transactions on4 About the Authors “Systems, Man and Cybernetic and the Intemasional Journal of Computer and In- Jovmation Sciences. He is 4 member of numerous professional and honorary soci- ‘ties, including Tau Beta Pi, Phi Kappa Phi, Eta Kappa Nu, and Sigma Xi, He is 8 Fellow of the IEEE. Richard E. Woods Richard E. Woods earned his BS, MS. and Pp.D. degrees in Flectrical Engineer- ing ftom the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. His professional experiences range from entrepreneurial to the more traditional academic, consulting, govemn- ‘meatal, and industrial pursuits Most recently, be founded MedData Interactive, a high technology company specializing in the development of handheld computer systems for medical applications, He was also a founder and Vice President of Per- ‘eptics Corporation, where he was responsible forthe development of many ofthe company’s quantitative image analysis and autonomous decision making products, rior to Perceptics and MedData, Dr. Woods was an Assistant Protessor of Elec ‘vical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Tennessee and prior to that, computer applications engineer at Union Carbide Corporation. As a consul- tant he has been involved inthe development of a aumber of special-purpose digital processors for a variety of space and military agencies including NASA. the Ballistic Missle Systems Command, and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Dr. Woods has published numerous articles related to digital signal processing ‘and is co-author of Digital Image Processing, the leading text in the field. He is a member of several professional societies, including Tau Beta Pi, Phi Kappa Phi, and the IEEE, In 1986, he was recognized as a Distinguished Engineering Alum- rus of the University of Tennessee. Steven L. Eddins Steven L. Eddins is development manager of the image processing group at The ‘MathWorks, In. He fed the development of several versions of the company’s Image Processing Toolbox, His professional interests include building software tools that are based on the latest research in image processing algorithms, and that have a broad range of scientific and engineering applications. Prior to joining The MathWorks, Inc. in 1993, Dr, Eddins was on the faculty of the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department atthe University of Illinois Chicago. There he taught graduate and senior-level classes in digital image processing, computer vision, pattern recognition, and filter design, and he per- formed research in the area of image compression, De. Eddins holds a BE.E. (1986) and a Ph.D. (1990), both in cletrcal engineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology. He is a member ofthe IEEE. Preview Digital image processing is an area characterized by the need for extensive ex- perimental work to establish the viability of proposed solutions to a given problem. In this chapter we outline how a theoretical base and state-of-the-art software can be integrated into a prototyping environment whose objective is, {to provide a set of well-supported tools for the solution of a broad class of problems in digital image processing, HAR Background ‘An important characteristic underlying the design of image processing 5ys- temsis the sigfcant evel of esting and experimentation thst normaly ise 4uited before arriving at an acceptable solution. Ths characteristic implies that the ability to formulate approzches and quickly prototype candidate solu- tions generally plays a major role in reducing the cost and time required to ave at viable system implementation, tle has been Written in the way of instructional material to bridge the betseen theory and applation na wellsppored software enrronment the rain objective of this book sto integrate under one cover abroad base of the- retical concepts with the knowiedge required to implement those concepts ‘wing state-of the-art image processing software tools The theoretical underpin- rings ofthe material inthe following chapters are mainly from the leading text- book in the field: Digital mage Processing, by Gonzalez and Woods, published by Prentice Hall The software code and supporting tools are based on the lead- ing sottware package in the field: The MATLAB Image Processing Toolbor. cuson nin sueguen chapter we sometimes ee Digi Image Poe Woods asthe Gonss oots bok anda the nage Peng Faker UPES