209 Eee Labmanual - 28 April2012

AIET/Department of Electrical Engineering/209 EEE LAB Page 1
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

LAB-MANUAL
II SEM ALL BRANCHES

209 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS
LAB


INDEX
Sr. No. Content Page No.
1 RTU Syllabus
2 Experiment List
3 Lab PEO
4 Lab Plan
5 Lab Ethics
6 Instructions
7 Experiment-1 To study of various graphical symbols used in electrical &
electronics systems. (Beyond Syllabus)

8 Experiment-2 To study of single line diagram of a power system and a
distribution sub-station and basic functional study of main components used
in power systems.

9 Experiment-3 a) To basic functional study of components used in
house wiring and to make house wiring connections which includes 1-phase
energy meter, MCB, ceiling fan, tube light, three pin socket etc.

b) To make a connection for stair case wiring which can operate a lamp
from two different positions?

10 Experiment-4 a) To study the construction and basic working of ceiling fan
and connections of ceiling fan with regulator.

b) To study the construction and basic working of single phase induction
motor and connect it through auto-transformer to run and vary its speed.

11 Experiment-5 a) To study the construction and connection of single phase
transformer and auto-transformer. Measure input and output voltage and find
turn ratio.

b) To study the construction of a core type three phase transformer. Perform
star and delta connection on it and find relation between line and phase
voltages.

12 Experiment-6 a) Identification, testing and applications of various resistors,
inductors, capacitors, PN-diode, Zener diode, Photo diode.

b) Identification, testing and applications of BJT, photo transistor, LED,
LCD, FET, UJT, SCR

13 Experiment-7 a) To functional study of CRO, function generator and analog
& digital multi-meters.

b) To study of single phase half wave and bridge rectifier, obtain output
voltage and current waveforms. Also find the effects of filters on these
waveforms.

14 Experiment-8 a) To basic functional study and connection of moving coil &
moving iron ammeters & voltmeters, dynamometer type wattmeter and
analog & digital energy meter.

b) To study three phase squirrel cage induction motor and run it at no load
and measure its voltage, current, power and power factor. Reverse the
direction of rotation also.


Sr. No. Content Page No.
15 Experiment-9 a) To study the construction, circuit, working and application
of the Fluorescent lamp and Sodium vapour lamp.

b) To study the construction, circuit, working and application of the Mercury
vapour lamp, Halogen lamp and Neon lamp.

16 Experiment-10 a) To study the BJT amplifier in common emitter
configuration. Measure its voltage gain. Plot Gain v/s Frequency response
and calculate its bandwidth.

b) To study different types of wires and cables used in electrical/electronic
systems. (Beyond Syllabus)

17 Experiment-11 a) To study the construction and basic working of SCR.

b) To study the single phase half wave and full wave (bridge) converter
(controlled rectifier) and observe the effect of firing angle on voltage
waveform.

18 Experiment-12 a) To study the different types of transformer used in
electrical/electronic systems. (Beyond Syllabus)

b) To study connections and testing of electric iron. (Beyond Syllabus)

19 Lab Evaluation Format


RTU SYLLABUS
CLASS: I Yr. II Sem. Evaluation
Branches : CS/ECE/EE/ME/IT
Practical Hrs : 2 Hr/week
Examination Time : 2 Hrs
Maximum Marks : 75 Sessional (45) & Practical(30)
A. ELECTRICAL LAB
1. Single line diagram of a power system a distribution sub-station and basic functional study of main
components used in power systems.
2. Make house wiring including earthing for 1-phase energy meter, MCB, ceiling fan, tube light, three
pin socket and a lamp operated from two different positions. Basic functional study of components used
in house wiring.
3.Study the construction and basic working of ceiling fan, single phase induction motor and three phase
squirrel cage induction motor. Connect ceiling fan along with regulator and single phase induction motor
through auto-transformer to run and vary speed.
4. (a) Basic functional study and connection of moving coil & moving iron ammeters and voltmeters,
dynamometer, wattmeter and energy meter. (b) Run a 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor at no load
and measure its voltage, current, power and power factor. Reverse the direction of rotation.
5. Study the construction, circuit, working and application of the following lamps: (i) Fluorescent lamp,
(ii) Sodium vapour lamp, (iii) Mercury vapour lamp, (iv)Halogen lamp and (v) Neon lamp
6. (a) Study the construction and connection of single phase transformer and auto-transformer. Measure
input and output voltage and fin turn ratio. (b) Study the construction of a core type three phase
transformer. Perform star and delta connection on a 3-phase transformer and find relation between line
and phase voltage.
B. ELECTRONICS LAB
7.Identification, testing and applications of resistors, inductors, capacitors, PN-diode, Zener diode, LED,
LCD, BJT, FET, UJT, SCR, Photo diode and Photo transistor.
8(a) Functional study of CRO, analog & digital multi-meters and function / signal generator. (b) Study
the single phase half wave and bridge rectifier and effects of filters on waveform.
9.Study the BJT amplifier in common emitter configuration. Measure voltage gain, plot gain frequency
response and calculate its bandwidth.
10.(a)Study the construction and basic working of SCR. (b) Study the single phase half wave and bridge
controlled rectifier and observe the effect of firing angle on waveform.


LIST OF EXPERIMENT

1. To study of various graphical symbols used in electrical & electronics systems. (Beyond Syllabus)
2. To study of single line diagram of a power system and a distribution sub-station and basic functional
study of main components used in power systems.
Rotor# 1
3. a) To basic functional study of components used in house wiring and to make house wiring
connections which includes 1-phase energy meter, MCB, ceiling fan, tube light, three pin socket etc.
b) To make a connection for stair case wiring which can operate a lamp from two different
positions?
4. a) To study the construction and basic working of ceiling fan and connections of ceiling fan with
regulator.
b) To study the construction and basic working of single phase induction motor and connect it
through auto-transformer to run and vary its speed.
5. a) To study the construction and connection of single phase transformer and auto-transformer.
Measure input and output voltage and find turn ratio.
b) To study the construction of a core type three phase transformer. Perform star and delta
connection on it and find relation between line and phase voltages.
6. a) Identification, testing and applications of various resistors, inductors, capacitors, PN-diode, Zener
diode, Photo diode.
b) Identification, testing and applications of BJT, photo transistor, LED, LCD, FET, UJT, SCR
7. a) To functional study of CRO, function generator and analog & digital multi-meters.
b) To study of single phase half wave and bridge rectifier, obtain output voltage and current
waveforms. Also find the effects of filters on these waveforms.
Rotor# 2
8. a) To basic functional study and connection of moving coil & moving iron ammeters & voltmeters,
dynamometer type wattmeter and analog & digital energy meter.
b) To study three phase squirrel cage induction motor and run it at no load and measure its voltage,
current, power and power factor. Reverse the direction of rotation also.
9. a) To study the construction, circuit, working and application of the Fluorescent lamp and Sodium
vapour lamp.
b) To study the construction, circuit, working and application of the Mercury vapour lamp, Halogen
lamp and Neon lamp.
10. a) To study the BJT amplifier in common emitter configuration. Measure its voltage gain. Plot Gain
v/s Frequency response and calculate its bandwidth.
b) To study different types of wires and cables used in electrical/electronic systems.
(Beyond Syllabus)
11. a) To study the construction and basic working of SCR.
b) To study the single phase half wave and full wave (bridge) converter (controlled rectifier) and
observe the effect of firing angle on voltage waveform.
12.a) To study the different types of transformer used in electrical/electronic systems.
(Beyond Syllabus)
b) To study, connection and testing of electric iron.


PROGRAM EDUCATION OBJECTIVES
BRANCH: 1
ST
YEAR/SEMESTER: II

SUBJECT: - 209 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. LAB
Total Marks: 75 Practical: 2hrs/week
Internal Marks: 45
External Marks: 30

(1)Lab Objectives

I. To describe how Electrical Engineering has strong background in basic science and general day
to day life.
II. To understand the necessary techniques of circuits, hardware, and electrical tools for modern
engineering applications.
III. To comprehend, analyze design of circuits and create a novel products and solutions for the real
life problem.
IV. To describe the ability to design electrical circuits and its different parameters.
V. To implement professional and ethical attitude, effective Communication Skills, teamwork Skills
and an ability to relate electrical engineering issues to broader social context.
(2)Outcomes

a. Students can understand the knowledge of differential equations, nodal analysis, KCL, KVL,
methods of control of motors, types of wiring, types of lamps, etc.
b. Students can understand the ability to identify, formulate and solve electrical engineering
problems.
c. Students gain the ability to design electrical circuits and conduct experiments with different types
of circuits and load, analyze and interpret data.
d. Student can understand the design of electrical circuits and its different parameters.
e. Student gains the ability to visualize, work on laboratory with safety along with multidisciplinary
tasks.
f. Student can understands the modern engineering tools and software like PLC,MATLAB,My
Power, E-Tab, etc to analyze problems.
g. They gain the knowledge of professional degree holder and ethical responsibilities.
h. Students attains the sound knowledge of basics of electrical engineering.
i. Students understand the impact of electrical engineering and its solutions on daily lifes.
j. Students develop confidence for self education and ability for life-long learning.
k. In depth knowledge of various electrical models and standard provide professional
compatibilities with Public Sector Undertaking like NTPC, BHEL, NPCIL,etc.


(3)Mapping of lab objectives with outcome

(4)Important topics:
1. Testing of celling fan.
2. Single line diagram of power system.
3. Connection of transformer (1-phase and 3- phase).
4. Circuit connection of different types of lamps.

(5)Topic beyond the syllabus:
1. Study of various graphical symbols used in electrical & electronics systems
2. Study different types of wires and cables used in electrical/electronic systems.

(6)Text Book/Reference Books:

Sr. No Book Author Publication
1 A Text Book of Electrical
Technology
B.L.Theraja
A.K.Theraja
S.Chand
2 Basic Electrical Engineering Jimmie J Cathey
Syed S Nasar
Tata Mcgraw Hill
3 Basic Electrical Engineering V.K. Mehta S. Chand

(7)Instructional methods

1. Laboratory
2. Assignment

(8) Learning material consists of :
1. Text
2. Multimedia material (videos, text with animations)
3. Links to learning objects
4. Worked out projects

Outcomes
Lab
Objective
a b c d e f g h i j k
I X X X X X X
II X X X X
III X X X
IV X X
V X X X X X X X X


(9) Relationship to course to program outcomes:

1. This course is required for all electrical and electronics engineering students and has significant
relationship with the program objective for electrical and electronics engineering.
2. To train students with good engineering breadth so as to comprehend, analyse, design and create
solution for real time problems.

(10)Additional seminar/workshops:

NA

(11) Assessment of Outcomes:

1. Internal practical exam (one in each semester)
2. End term practical exam (Conducted by RTU,KOTA)
3. Viva-voice

(12) Relation of course to program outcomes:

This course is required for all electrical and electronics engineering students and has significant
relationship with the program objective for electrical and electronics engineering.


LAB PLAN
EXPERIMENT DITRIBUTIUON CHART

Exp No.
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12 INTERNAL PRACTICAL EXAMINATION


LAB ETHICS

DOs

1. Enter the lab on time and leave at proper time.
2. Keep the bags outside in the racks.
3. Utilize lab hours in the corresponding experiment.
4. Make the Supply off the Kits/Equipments after completion of Experiments.
5. Maintain the decorum of the lab.

Donts

1. Dont bring any external material in the lab.

2. Dont make noise in the lab.

3. Dont bring the mobile in the lab.

4. Dont enter in Faculty room without permission.

5. Dont litter in the lab.

6. Dont carry any lab equipments outside the lab

We need your full support and cooperation for smooth functioning of the lab.


INSTRUCTIONS
BEFORE ENTERING IN THE LAB
1. All the students are supposed to prepare the theory regarding the present Experiment.
2. Students are supposed to bring the practical file and the lab copy.
3. Previous experiment should be written in the practical file.
4. Object, Apparatus Table & Brief Theory of the current practical should be written in the
lab copy.
5. Any student not following these instructions will be denied entry in the lab and Seasonal
Marks will be affected.

WHILE WORKING IN THE LAB

1. Adhere to experimental schedule as instructed by the faculty.
2. Record the observations in lab copy & checked by the faculty
3. Each student should work on his assigned table of the lab.
4. Take responsibility of valuable accessories.
5. Concentrate on the assigned practical and be careful.
6. If anyone is caught red-handed carrying any equipment of the lab, then he will have to face
serious consequences.


EXPERIMENT # 1

OBJECT: To study of various graphical symbols used in electrical & electronics systems.

THEORY: Some basic symbols are

Sr.
No.
COMPONENTS SYMBOLS
DESCRIPTION

1.

RESISTOR

A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or
electronic component that resists an electric
current by producing a voltage drop between
its terminals in R= V/I accordance with Ohm's
law: The electrical resistance is equal to the
voltage drop across the resistor divided by the
current through the resistor
2.

VARIABLE
RESISTOR

Variable resistors consist of a resistance track
with connections at both ends and a wiper
which moves along the track as you turn the
spindle
3.

CAPACITOR

A capacitor is an electrical device that can
store energy in the electric field between a pair
of closely spaced conductors (called 'plates').
When current is applied to the capacitor,
electric charges of equal magnitude, but
opposite polarity, build up on each plate.
4

ELECTROLYTIC
CAPACITOR

An electrolytic capacitor is a type of
capacitor typically with a larger capacitance
per unit volume than other types, making them
valuable in relatively high-current and low-
frequency electrical circuits
5

INDUCTOR

An inductor is a passive electronic component
that stores energy in the form of a magnetic
field. In its simplest form, an inductor consists
of a wire loop or coil
6

TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that transfers
electrical energy from one circuit to another
through a shared magnetic field.
7

MOTOR

An electric motor converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy. The reverse process,
that of converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy, is accomplished by a
generator or dynamo.
8

VOLTMETER

A voltmeter is an instrument used for
measuring the electrical potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit


Sr.
No.
COMPONENTS SYMBOLS
DESCRIPTION

9

AMMETER

An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to
measure the flow of electric current in a
circuit. Electric currents are measured in
amperes, hence the name.
10

WATTMETER

The Wattmeter is an instrument for measuring
the electric power or the supply rate of
electrical energy (Watts) of any given circuit.
11

BATTERY

A galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that
stores chemical energy and makes it available
in an electrical form, and a battery is a string
of two or more cells in series. Other types of
electrochemical cell include electrolytic cells,
fuel cells, flow cells, or voltaic cells.
12

FUSE

In electronics and electrical engineering a fuse,
short for 'fusible link', is a type of over current
protection device. Its essential component is a
metal wire or strip that melts when too much
current flows.
13

SWITCH

A switch is a device for changing the course
(or flow) of a circuit.
14

EARTH

To represent zero potential

15
WIRES (JOINED)

Electric wiring (joined) connects one part of
the circuit to the other.
16
WIRES (NOT
JOINED)

Electric wiring (not joined) isolates one part
of the circuit from the other.
17

D C SUPPLY

A D. C. supply is a fixed supply voltage with
no ripples.
18
SINGLE PHASE
A C SUPPLY

2 wire supply system having 1 phase and one
neutral wire at a fixed frequency of supply
voltage
19

3 PHASE AC
SUPPLY

3 phases each having a 120 phase shift with
the other at a fixed frequency.


EXPERIMENT # 2

OBJECT
Single line diagram of a power system and a distribution sub-station and basic functional study of
main components used in power system.
THEORY
An electrical power system may be divided into three main components mainly the generation system,
the transmission system and the distribution system.

Generation system
Generation is predominantly accomplished by thermal power plants equipped with steam turbines using
traditional fuel (coal, oil, gas, etc.) or nuclear fuel, and/or hydroelectric plants (with reservoir or basin,
or fluent-water type). Generation also can be accomplished by thermal plants with gas turbines or diesel
engines, geothermal power plants (equipped with steam turbines), and other sources (e.g., wind, solar,
tidal, chemical plants, etc.) whose actual capabilities are still under study or experimentation.

Transmission system
The transmission system includes an extensive, relatively meshed network. A single generic line can, for
example, carry hundreds or even thousands of megawatts (possibly in both directions, according to its
operating conditions), covering a more or less great distance, e.g., from 10 km to 1500 km and over. The
long lines might present large values of shunt capacitance and series inductance, which can be, at least
partially, compensated by adding respectively shunt (inductive) reactors and series capacitors.

Distribution system
The task of each generic distribution network at high voltage (HV), often called a sub-transmission
network, is to carry power toward a single load area, more or less geographically extended according to
its user density (e.g., a whole region or a large urban and/or industrial area). The power transmitted by
each line may range from a few megawatts to tens of megawatts. Electric power is then carried to each
user by means of medium voltage (MV) distribution networks, each line capable of carrying, for
example, about one megawatt of power, and by low voltage (LV) distribution networks. To reduce the
total amount of reactive power absorbed, the addition of shunt capacitors might be helpful (power
factor correction).


Fig2.1 Layout of Power Supply Network
Substations
At many systems in the line of power system, it may be divided and necessary to change some
characteristics of electrical supply.
Classification of substation
The substations are mainly classified according to service requirement and construction features.
1.Transformer
2.Power factor
3. Frequency changer
4.Converter
5.Indoor
6.Outdoor
7.Underground
8.Pole mounted
EQUIPMENT USED IN POWER SYSTEM
1. BusBar It is a copper bar, operator at constant voltage. IT is terminated at both ends by using
insulator.


2. Insulator These are usually made up of porcelain material. These support the conductor and
continue the current to the conductor.
3. Isolating switches An isolator is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit used
no load.
4. Circuit Breaker This can open or close circuit under normal as well as fault condition.
5. Power Transformer This is used in substations to step up or step down voltages.
(a) Instrument transformer The line is substations operate at high voltage and carry current
of thousand amperes. These are of two types: Current X-mer, Potential X-mer.
6. Relays This is used to detect the faults
7. Surge arrester or lightening arrester These are used for safety point of view.


Fig.2.2 66kv Sub stations

RESULT Single line diagram of a power system and a distribution sub-station and basic functional
study of main components used in power systems.


VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by single line diagram?
2. What do you mean of primary transmission?
3. What do you mean of primary distribution?
4. What is secondary transmission?
5. What do you mean of secondary distributing?
6. What is transmission line?
7. Why use of isolator in power system?
8. What is circuit breaker?
9. What is the use of circuit breaker?
10. What is the power source?
11. What is the service main?
12. What is the feeder?
13. What is the use of distribution transformer?
14. What is the use of transformer in transmission?
15. What is isolator?


EXPERIMENT # 3(A)

OBJECT To make house wiring including Earthing for Single Phase Energy Meter, M.C.B, and
a Lamp operated from two different positions.

APPARATUS

S.NO. ITEMS RATING QUANTITY
1. Two way switch 6 ampere 250 volt 2
2. Switch 6 ampere 250 volt 4
3. Indicator ------------------------- 1
4. M.C.B. 6 ampere ,250 volt, DPST Type 1
5. Holder -------------------------- 2
6. Bulb 100 watt , 250 volt 2
7. Tester 100 watt , 250 volt 1
8. 3 Pin Socket 6 ampere , 250 volt 1
9. Tube light 40 watt , 250 volt 1
10. Fan with Reg. 12 Pole, Sweep 1200mm 220-230 volt 1
11. Energy Meter 1 Phase , 250 volt 1
12. Wire Stripper 100 mm 1

THEORY
A network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from the
suppliers meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices such as lamps, fans and
other domestic appliances through controlling and safety devices is known as wiring system. The
suppliers service cable feeding an installation terminates in what is usually called the service fuses. In
an ordinary house the service fuse is called as service cutout. Such cutouts including service meters
remain the property of the supplier and represent the furthest point of the supplier responsibility. The
point at which the consumer's wiring is connected into cutout is known as point of commencement of
supply or consumer's terminals. From consumer terminals onwards the supply cables are entirely under
the control of consumer's and so laid out as per his selection. A typical house wiring circuit is shown in
fig. 3.1


Fig 3.1 Connection diagram of House wiring

Fig 3.2 Distribution Board System

In distribution board system, which is most commonly adopted for distribution of electrical energy in a
building, the fuses of various circuits are grouped together on a distribution board, some times simply
known as fuse board. The two copper strips, known as bus-bars, fixed in a distribution board of hard
wood or metal case are connected to the supply main through a linked switch so that the installation can
be switched off as a whole from both the poles of supply if required. A fuse is inserted in the + ve or
phase pole of each circuit so that each circuit is connected up through its own particular fuse.

In large buildings, however, if only one distribution board were used, some of the points would be at a
considerable distance from it and in such cases it is advisable to employ sub-distribution boards either to
save cable or to prevent too great voltage drop at the more distant points (lamps or fans or other
appliances). In such cases main distribution board controls the circuit to each sub-distribution board
from which the sub-circuits are taken, as shown in fig. 3.2


The number of circuits and sub-circuits are decided as per number of points to be wired and load to be
connected to the supply system. For determination of load of an installation the following ratings maybe
assumed unless the values are known or specified.
a) Fluorescent lamps 40 watts.
b) Incandescent lamps, fans, and socket outlets 60 watts.
c) Power socket-outlets 1,000 watts.
d) Exhaust fans as per capacity of exhaust fans.

There are number of methods of installing a wire system.
- Cleat wiring
- Casing Wiring
- T.R.S. Wiring
- Metal Sheathed Wiring
- Conduit Wiring
- PVC Conduit Wiring
Generally, for wiring in the house 20 SWG wire is used and for Earthing 14 SWG is used.
HOUSE WIRE LAYOUT- Two wire from RSEB Pole bring 230 volt A.C. to our house. Our house is
Phase (P) and other is neutral.
ENERGY METER- It may be disk type, Conduction Meter or Electronic Meter.
SOCKET- Socket has three types of terminals-
- Neutral,
- Phase ,
- Earthing
Earthing is of big size and other two are same.

M.C.B. (Miniature Circuit Breaker) normally, in House wiring, 2 Pole M.C.B. is used. As we know
the fuse and M.C.B. are in fact is used to isolate a system from supply in case of:-
- Over load
- Short circuit

EARTHING We know that Earthing is provided for the safety of both, Human Beings and Equipments.
It is of two types-
- Plate earthing
- Pipe earthing


FACTOR AFFECTING EARTH RESISTANCE The earth electrode resistance depend on electrical
resistivity of soil which in turn depends upon-
- Nature of soil
- Extent of moisture
- Presence of suitable salt in moisture
EARTH ELECTRODE It is of two types-
- rod and pipe electrode
- plate electrode

CI RCUI T DI AGRAM

Fig 3.3 Circuit Diagram of House Wiring with Earthing

OBSERVATION TABLE

S. No. Devices Switches
1 Bulb B1
2 Fan B2
3 Tube Light B3
4 5 Amp,3 pin socket B4

RESULT We make connection and get result as shown in Observation Table.
PRECAUTIONS
- No any connections should be loosed.
- Do not touch any wire.
- Do not keep any joint open.
- Use M.C.B. and switches of proper current rating.


EXPERIMENT # 3(B)
OBJECT To wiring for a lamp to be controlled from two positions (stair-case wiring).

APPARATUS - REQUIRED

Sr. No.
Apparatus Rating

Type Quantity
1. Lamp Holder 6Amps, 250 volts

1
2. Lamp 100 Watts,15 Watts

1
3. Switches( Two-way) 5 Amps, 250 Volts

2
4. Connecting Leads
-
- As Reqd.
5. Screw Driver

- -

As Reqd.

THEORY
STAIR-CASE wiring is a special type of wiring ,which is different from ordinary wiring due to
field of application.
In staircase wiring ,bulb used for lightening the staircase can be switched ON and OFF from both
sides, upstairs and downstairs , for this kind of arrangement circuit is shown in fig. When both the
switches are in up position bulb gets neutral at both points hence it will be in OFF-STATE . Now
if position of any of the switch is changed the phase is applied to one end of bulb and it
becomes ON. Now if the position of other switch is also changed, the bulb becomes OFF as
phase gets applied at both the ends of bulb. Now if again position of any off switch is changed
,the bulb becomes ON again.

A Different arrangement for stair-case wiring is shown in fig. In fig.3.4 neutral(N) is directly
connected to the bulb and for phase(P) straight connections are made in the two switches.
In cross connection, if both switches have same position( i.e. either at A or either at B) lamp
would not glow. Whereas in straight connection; if both switches have same position of either
switch has been changed, lamp change its position.

Stair case wiring


Fig 3.4 Circuit Diagram of Stair case wiring

OBSERVATION- TABLE

RESULT
We studies about the house wiring and made connections for different house wiring
application viz. stair case wiring and a room wiring.
PREACAUTIONS
- No any connections should be loosed.
- Do not touch any wire.
- Do not keep any joint open.
- Use M.C.B. and switches of proper current rating

POSI TI ON OF
SWI TCHES &
LAMPS
POSI TI ON
OF SWI TCHES
& LAMPS
POSI TI ON
OF SWI TCHES
& LAMPS
POSI TI ON
OF SWI TCHES
& LAMPS
S1 S2 LAMP S1 S2 LAMP S1 S2 LAMP S1 S2 LAMP


VIVA QUESTIONS

1.What is MCB
2.What is full form of MCB?
3.What is use of MCB in house wiring?
4.What is one way switch?
5.What is two way switches?
6.What is energy meter?
7.Why is use of energy meter in house wiring?
8.What is the application of energy meter?
9. What is the connection of energy meter?
10. How to draw the symbol of one way switch?
11. What is the symbol of energy meter?
12. Why the design of earthing point is long in 3 pin top?
13. Where two way switch is used?
14. Where staircase wiring is used?
15. What is the use of earthing wire in house wiring?


EXPERIMENT # 4 (A)

OBJECT To study the construction and basic working of ceiling fan and connections of ceiling
fan with regulator.
APPRATUS

S. No. Name Range/Rating Type Quantity
1 Fan motor
(stator/rotor)
60W,0.6A,350rpm,23010
%volts
1- squirrel cage
induction motor
1
2 Capacitor 2.5MFD5%, 440V AC
50Hz, Max. Temp.85
+
-| (-
-
1
3 Fan assembly
(Canopy/suspension
rob, blades etc.)
- - 1
4 Fan regulator (0 -350)rpm Resistance/electronics 1/1
5 Test lamp 200W 1
6 Different tools - - As per
requirement
7 Multi meter Analog/digital - 1
8 Voltmeter (0 -300)volts Moving coil 1
9 Ammeter (0 1) Amp. Moving coil 1
10 Connecting leads - - As per
requirement

THEORY

CEILING FAN

A ceiling fan is a propeller blade and having two or more blades, directly driven by an electric motor and
intended for use with free inlet & outlet. It is provided with a device for suspension from ceiling of a
room so that the blades rotate in a plane to give uniform air circulation in the room.
According to the electric motor used, ceiling fans can be classified as follows:
1. DC FANS: DC fans uses series motors and generally used where dc supply is easily available as
like trains, buses etc.
2. AC FANS: AC fans are most commonly used domestic devices, which are generally known.
AC fans use single phase squirrel cage induction motor.


DIFFERENT PARTS OF CEILING FAN

1. Motor
2. Capacitor
3. Blades
4. Canopy
5. Ball-bearings
6. Speed regulators

Fig 4.1 Construction Diagram of ceiling fan
Construction
Main parts of a ceiling fan are
(a) Winding
(b) Capacitor &
(c) Regulator
Winding of the motor can be done manually or by automated machine. Regulator may be electronic type
or resistance type. Electronic type regulator has negligible power loss and compact size. But in the case
of resistance type, resistances are connected in series with the circuit; this may cause power loss as heat.
In table fan one permanent split capacitor run (PSC) motor is the heart of a fan. This motor consists of
two windings one as starting winding and other as running winding.
Starting winding of this motor has high resistance and low reactance but running winding has low
resistance and high reactance. One capacitor is connected in series with the starting winding and whole
of this circuit is put in parallel across running winding. In the case of ceiling fan these two windings are
placed in stator in the inner side of the fan.
Rotor has no winding; it is the outer body of the fan. Ceiling fan motor operates just in opposite manner
as compared to general motor. That is actual rotor of the motor is blocked and the stator is free to rotate.


So ceiling fan runs in anticlockwise direction. At the same time table fan motor is operated as normal
case and so it runs in clockwise direction. Capacitor connected in series with the starting winding should
be value 2.5 microfarad. Pyranel insulated foil paper capacitor is using for this purpose. It helps to
provide a split phase effect from single phase AC supply.

Fig 4.2(a) Ceiling fan winding Diagram Fig 4.2(b) Circuit diagram of ceiling fan

WORKING PRINCIPAL
AC ceiling fan has single phase induction motor, which comprises two distributed windings stator and a
rotor (squirrel cage) when current is given to the motor , the magnetic field is experience a force in the
rotor to move it right angle to the field at the blades attached with the rotor displace the air.
OBSERVATION TABLE

Test for Condition of lamp Test result
1. Running winding
2. Starting winding
3. Earth test of fan
4. Capacitor
(a) Open test
(b) Short test
(c) Continuity test

RESULT
We studied about the ceiling fan and performed various testing and get result as shown in observation
table.


PRECAUTION
1. Do not touch any live wire or contact.
2. Make the proper connection as given in circuit diagram and it should checked by lab in-charge
before switch ON the supply.
3. Save the winding of fan for any damage.
4. Handle the equipments carefully, which are used in the experiment.
5. Use only 200W lamp for testing purpose for saving any damage to windings due to high current.


EXPERIMENT # 4 (B)

OBJECT To study construction and basic working of single phase and three phase induction
motor. Also To control the speed of Single Phase induction motor through auto transformer.

APPARATUS

S.
No.
Name Type Range Quantity
1. Single phase
Induction Motor
Squirrel Cage 230V, 2HP 1500 rpm 50 Hz 1
2. Three phase
Induction Motor
Squirrel Cage 415V 50 Hz2 HP 1500 rpm 1
3. Voltmeter M I (0-600 V)/(0-300 V) 1/1
4. Ammeter M I 2A/5A 1/1
5. Auto
Transformer
Single Phase 230V/(0-270)V 1
6. Tachometer Digital 0-2000rpm 1
7. Watt meter Dynamometer 10/20A,300/600V,1800W/2000W 2

THEORY

Single Phase Induction Motor
Most small power (generally below 2 kW) induction machines have to operate with single-phase a.c.
power supplies that are readily available in homes, and remote rural areas. When power electronics
converters are used three phase a. c. output is produced and thus three phase induction motors may still
be used. However, for constant speed applications (the most frequent situation), the induction motors
are fed directly from the available single-phase a. c. power grids. In this sense, we call them single phase
induction motors. To be self-starting, the induction machine needs a travelling field at zero
speed. This in turn implies the presence of two windings in the stator, while the rotor has a standard
squirrel cage. The first winding is called the main winding while the second winding (for start,
especially) is called auxiliary winding. Single phase IMs may run only on the main winding once they
started on two windings. A typical case of single phase single-winding IM occurs when a three IM ends
up with an open phase. The power factor and efficiency degrade while the peak torque also decreases
significantly. Thus, except for low powers (less than kW in general), the auxiliary winding is active
also during running conditions to improve performance. Three types of single-phase induction motors
are in use today:


Fig 4.3(a) Circuit Diagram of slipt phase induction motor
(b) phasor Diagram of slipt phase induction motor

3.2 SPLIT-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
The split phase induction motor has a main and an auxiliary stator winding displaced by 90 or up to 110-
120 degrees (Figure 4.3a). The auxiliary winding has a higher ratio between resistance and reactance, by
designing it at a higher current density, to shift the auxiliary winding current I ahead of main winding
current I (Figure 4.3b). The two windings-with a 90 space displacement and a 20-30 current time
phase shift-produce in the air gap a magnetic field with a definite forward travelling component (from m
to a). This travelling field induces voltages in the rotor cage whose currents produce a starting torque
which rotates the rotor from m to a (clockwise on Figure 4.3). Once the rotor catches speed, the starting
switch is opened to disconnect the auxiliary winding, which is designed for short duty. The starting
switch may be centrifugal, magnetic, or static type. The starting torque may be up to 150% rated torque,
at moderate starting current, for frequent starts long-running time applications. For infrequent starts and
short running time, low efficiency is allowed in exchange for higher starting current with higher rotor
resistance. During running conditions, the split-phase induction motor operates on one winding only and
thus it has a rather poor power factor. It is used below 1/3 kW, generally, where the motor costs are of
primary concern.

3.3 CAPACITOR INDUCTION MOTORS
Connecting a capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding causes the current in that winding I to lead
the current in the main winding Ia by up to 90. Complete summarization of the two windings m. m. f.
for given slip may be performed this way. That is a pure travelling air gap field may be produced either
at start (S = 1) or at rated load (S = S) or somewhere in between. An improvement in starting and


running torque density, efficiency and especially in power factor is brought by the capacitor presence.
Capacitor motors are of quite a few basic types:

3.4 SHADED POLE INDCUTION MOTOR
Shaded pole motors have only one main winding and no start winding. Start winding means of design
that ring a continuous copper loop around a small portion of the motor pole. This shaded that portion if
the pole, causing the magnetic filed in the shaded area to lag behind the field in the un shaded area.
Shaded pole motor impractical For most industrial or commercial use.

Three Phase Induction Motor
Three phase induction motor consists of silicon steel slotted core in which three phase copper wire
winding is done and connection brought out on terminal box. The motor is also made of silicon steel
stampings core slotted in which copper or aluminum bars are inserted and shorted by copper or
aluminum short circuiting rings on both sides.
The body is made of cast iron on which channel given by a fan fitted on the shaft of the motor on rear
side. The fan is covered by a sheet steel cowl. The connections of stator winding is made inter is star or
in delta. Low HP motors are connected in star, medium and high HP motors are connected in star to
delta or delta to star.
The three phase motor works on mutual induction principle. The three phase stator when supplied with
three phase acts as primary produces three rotating magnetic field links the rotor induces emf in rotor
and the current circulates in rotor bars through short circuiting rings, then force is exerted on rotor
conductors and the rotor rotates in the direction of rotation of the magnetic field and so the three phase
induction motor is hence self starting.
The directions of rotation of three phase rotating magnetic field can be reversed by inter changing any
two phases of the supply.


DIAGRAM

Fig 4.4 Cross section of Single phase I nduction motor

PROCEDURE

1. Make connection as shown in fig
2. Put input voltage at Zero
3. Now slowly vary input voltage and measure the speed by tachometer
4. Record the value of speed at various voltage

OBERVATION TABLE

S. No Input Voltage Speed(rpm)
1 50
2 100
3 150
4 175
5 200
6 230

RESULT Study the construction and basic working of ceiling fan, single phase induction motor and
three phase squirrel cage induction motor. Connect ceiling fan along with regulator and single phase
induction motor through auto-transformer to run and vary speed.


PRECAUTIONS
- Connection should be right and tight
- Main switch , starter and motor should be earthed
- Use of proper range of voltmeter and ammeter
- Dont touch the shaft of the running motor


VIVA QUESTIONS
1.What is motor?
2.How many types of motor are available?
3.What is the working principle of induction motor?
4.Induction motors are of how many types?
5.What is double revolving field theory?
6.Why single phase induction motors are not self starting?
7.What is the difference between stator and rotor?
8. What is armature winding and why it is used?
9. Which method use for speed control in induction motor?
10. Why is use of regulator?
11. What is working of capacitor in fan?
12. Which is the type of winding in ceiling fan?
13. How many winding s are available in ceiling fan?
14. Which winding have high resistance in ceiling fan?
15. Starting winding is high resistance in ceiling fan why?


EXPERIMENT # 5(A)

OBJECT
(A) Study the construction and connection of single phase transformer and auto-transformer.
Measure input and output voltage and fin turn ratio.

APPARATUS

S. No. Name Rating Type Quantity
1 Single phase transformer 2Kva,230V/(0-400)v --- 1
2 Single phase auto transformer

1Kva,230/(0-270)V

--- 1

3 Voltmeter (0-300)/(0-600)

--- 1/1

4 Connecting leads --- As per require

THEORY
1. Types and Construction of Transformers
Types of cores for power transformer (both types are constructed from thin laminations electrically
isolated from each other minimize eddy currents)

Fig 5.1(a) Core type T/F

i) Core Form: a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with the transformer windings wrapped
around two sides of the rectangle.

Fig 5.1(b) Shell type T/F

ii) Shell Form: a three legged laminated core with the windings wrapped around the centre leg.


( )
( )
a
N
N
t v
t v
s
p
s
p
= =
The primary and secondary windings are wrapped one on top of the other with the low-voltage winding
innermost, due to 2 purposes:

i) It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding from the core.
ii) It results in much less leakage flux

Types of transformers:
i) Step up/Unit transformers Usually located at the output of a generator. Its function is to step up
the voltage level so that transmission of power is possible.
ii) Step down/Substation transformers Located at main distribution or secondary level
transmission substations. Its function is to lower the voltage levels for distribution 1
st
level
purposes.
iii) Distribution Transformers located at small distribution substation. It lowers the voltage levels
for 3
nd
level distribution purposes.
iv) Special Purpose Transformers - E.g. Potential Transformer (PT) , Current Transformer (CT)

2. The Ideal Transformer
1. Definition a lossless device with an input winding and an output winding.
2. Figures below show an ideal transformer and schematic symbols of a transformer.

Fig 5.3 (a) ideal transformer Fig5.3 (b) schematic symbols of a transformer

3. The transformer has N
p
turns of wire on its primary side and N
s
turns of wire on its secondary
sides. The relationship between the primary and secondary voltage is as follows:
4.

Where a is the turns ratio of the transformer


( )
( ) a t i
t i
s
p
1
=
The relationship between primary and secondary current is:

N
p
i
p
(t) = N
s
i
s
(t)

5. Note that since both types of relations give a constant ratio, hence the transformer only changes
ONLY the magnitude value of current and voltage. Phase angles are not affected.

6. The dot convention in schematic diagram for transformers has the following relationship:

i) If the primary voltage is +ve at the dotted end of the winding wrt the un dotted end, then the
secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted end also. Voltage polarities are the same wrt
the dots on each side of the core.

ii) If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the primary winding,
the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding.
Power in an Ideal Transformer
1. The power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit:

P
in
= V
p
I
p
cos
p

Where
p
= the angle between the primary voltage and the primary current. The power supplied by
the transformer secondary circuit to its loads is given by:

P
out
= V
s
I
s
cos
s

Where
s
= the angle between the secondary voltage and the secondary current.

2. The primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer have the SAME power factor
because voltage and current angles are unaffected
p
-
s
=

3. How does power going into the primary circuit compare to the power coming out?


( ) u cos
p
p
out
aI
a
V
P =
dt
d
e
ind

=
=
=
N
i
i
1
|
N
| =
dt
d
N e
ind
|
=
P
out
= V
s
I
s
cos

Also, V
s
= V
p
/a and I
s
= a I
p

So,
P
out
= V
p
I
p
cos = P
in

The same idea can be applied for reactive power Q and apparent power S.

Output power =I nput power
3. Theory of Operation of Real Single-Phase Transformers
Ideal transformers may never exist due to the fact that there are losses associated to the operation of
transformers. Hence there is a need to actually look into losses and calculation of real single phase
transformers.
Assume that there is a transformer with its primary windings connected to a varying single phase voltage
supply, and the output is open circuit.
Right after we activate the power supply, flux will be generated in the primary coils, based upon
Faradays law,

where is the flux linkage in the coil across which the voltage is being induced. The flux linkage is
the sum of the flux passing through each turn in the coil added over all the turns of the coil.

This relation is true provided on the assumption that the flux induced at each turn is at the same
magnitude and direction. But in reality, the flux value at each turn may vary due to the position of the
coil itself, at certain positions, there may be a higher flux level due to combination of other flux from
other turns of the primary winding. Hence the most suitable approach is to actually average the flux level
as

Hence Faradays law may be rewritten as :


}
= dt t v
N
P
P
) (
1
|
LP M P
| | | + =

The voltage ratio across a Transformer

Fig5.4 Circuit Diagram of transformer
The voltage source is v
p
(t), how will the transformer react to this applied voltage?
Based upon Faradays Law, looking at the primary side of the transformer, we can determine the average
flux level based upon the number of turns; where,

This relation means that the average flux at the primary winding is proportional to the voltage level at
the primary side divided by the number of turns at the primary winding. This generated flux will travel
to the secondary side hence inducing potential across the secondary terminal.
For an ideal transformer, we assume that 100% of flux would travel to the secondary windings.
However, in reality, there are flux which does not reach the secondary coil, in this case the flux leaks out
of the transformer core into the surrounding. This leak is termed as flux leakage.
Taking into account the leakage flux, the flux that reaches the secondary side is termed as mutual flux.
Looking at the secondary side, there is similar division of flux; hence the overall picture of flux flow
may be seen as below:
Primary Side:

P
|
= total average primary flux
M
|
= flux component linking both primary and secondary coils
LP
|
= primary leakage flux
For the secondary side, similar division applies.


dt
d
N
dt
d
N
dt
d
N t v
LP
P
M
P
P
P P
| | |
+ = = ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( t e t e t v
LP P P
+ =
dt
d
N t e
M
P P
|
= ) (
S
S M
P
P
N
t e
dt
d
N
t e ) ( ) (
= =
|
a
N
N
t e
t e
S
P
S
P
= =
) (
) (
Hence, looking back at Faradays Law,

Or this equation may be rewritten into:

The same may be written for the secondary voltage.
The primary voltage due to the mutual flux is given by

And the same goes for the secondary (just replace P with S)
From these two relationships (primary and secondary voltage), we have

Therefore,

Magnetization Current in a Real transformer
Although the output of the transformer is open circuit, there will still be current flow in the primary
windings. The current components may be divided into 2 components:
1) Magnetization current, i
M
current required to produce flux in the core.
2) Core-loss current, i
h+e
current required compensating hysteresis and eddying current losses.
We know that the relation between current and flux is proportional since,

F Ni R
R
i
N
|
|
= =
=

Therefore, in theory, if the flux produce in core is sinusoidal, therefore the current should also be a
perfect sinusoidal. Unfortunately, this is not true since the transformer will reach to a state of near
saturation at the top of the flux cycle. Hence at this point, more current is required to produce a certain
amount of flux.

SINGLE PHASE AUTO TRANSFORMER
An auto transformer is one winding transformer in which a part of winding is common to
both voltage and low voltage sides. Consider a single winding ABC. The terminals A and C are the high


voltage terminals the low voltage terminals are B and C is a suitable tapping point. The portion BC of
the full winding ABC is common to both high-voltage and low voltage sides. The winding BC is called
the common winding and the smaller winding AB is called the series winding because it is connected in
series with common winding.
A step down auto transformer is one in which the primary voltage is greater than the secondary voltage.
the source voltage v(h) is applied to the full winding ABC and the load is connected across the
secondary terminals BC .this arrangement is called the step down autotransformer. Since the Trans
former winding are physically connected a different terminology is used for the auto transformer than for
other types of transformer. In an auto transformer there are two voltage ratios namely circuit voltage
ratio and winding voltage ratio. The circuit voltage ratio is given as-

VH/VL = TH/TL= a
Fig5.5 Circuit Diagram of transformer
The quantity a also called transformation ratio of the auto transformer it is seen form equation that a is
always greater than 1.
(1) ADAVANTAGES OF AUTO TRANSFORMER
* An auto transformer is smaller in size and cheaper than a two winding transformer of same
output.
* An auto transformer has higher efficiency since core loss and ohmic losses are smaller.
* An auto V has variable output voltage when a sliding contact is used for the secondary.
(2) DISADAVANTAGES OF AUTO TRANSFORMER
* There is direct connection between the high voltage and low voltage side. if there is open
circuit in winding BC the full primary voltage would be applied to the secondary. This high voltage may
cause serious damage to the equipment connected on the secondary side.
(3) APPLICATIONS OF AUTO TRANSFORME
* Auto transformer are used for obtaining continuously variable ac voltage.
* They are used for interconnections of power system of different voltage levels.
* they are applied for boosting of ac mains voltage by a small amount.
* Auto transformer are used for starting the induction motors and synchronous motors.
6. MEASUREMENT OF INPUT AND OUTPUT VOLTAGE


For measurement of input and output voltage of single phase transformer makes connection. Take
readings of voltmeter at various tap positions. Similarly for measurement of input and output voltage of
auto transformer, make connection. Take reading of voltmeter by varying knob of auto transformer and
find turn ratio.

OBSERVATION TABLE

For Single Phase Auto Transformer

S.No. V
H
(V
HV
)(VOLT) V
L
(V
LV
)(VOLT) TURN RATIO
1.
2.
3.
4.
For Single Phase Transformer
S.No. V
p
(VOLT) V
s
(VOLT) TURN RATIO
1.
2.
3.
4.

RESULT Relations between line current and phase current for different connection has been observed.
PRECAUTIONS
1. All connection must be tight.
2. Get the circuit connections checked by the teacher before performing the experiment.
3. Power to the circuit must be switched on in the presence of the teacher.
4. Get the experimental readings checked by the teacher.
5. Dont touch directly the live parts of equipment and circuit.
6. Wear leather shoes in the lab.


EXPERIMENT # 5(B)
OBJECT Study the construction of a core type three phase transformer. Perform star and delta
connection on a 3-phase transformer and find relation between line and phase voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S. No. Name of apparatus Type Range Quantity
1 Voltmeter Digital (0-500)V 03
2 Ammeter Digital (0-5)A 02
3 3 phase Transformer Delta-star 3 KVA,440/440 V 01
4 3 phase Auto Transformer 8/16 A,415/470 V 01

THEORY
Delta/Delta Connection The ratio of primary to secondary line voltages remains equal to the ratio of
transformation a. The main advantage of this connection lies in that the system can still operate on
58%of its rated capacity even in case of failure of one of the transformers. The remaining two
transformers work in open delta or V. This connection is favored for voltages below 50 KV.

Fig. 5.6 Delta/Delta connection
Delta/Star Connection: This gives a higher secondary voltage for secondary for transmission purposes
than connections with delta secondaries without increasing the strain on the insulation of the
transformers. It is the connection commonly used at the generating end of transmission lines. The star
neutral is generally grounded.

Fig. 5.7 Delta/Star connection


Star/Star Connection This permits the neutral points of both primary and secondary 3 phase circuits.
When the primary neutral is not connected to the source neutral, it is necessary to use delta connected
tertiary winding in order to avoid imbalance in the system.

Fig. 5.8 Star/Star connection
Star/Delta Connection This connection is commonly used at the receiving ends of high voltage
transmission lines.

Fig. 5.9 Star/Delta connection
PROCEDURE
(a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
(b) Ensure that variac is at its minimum position.
(c) Switch ON the supply by closing switch and apply the rated voltage slowly by increasing
the position of variac.
(d) Note down the reading of Ammeters & Voltmeters.
(e) Now decrease the applied voltage up to zero by decreasing the position of variac.
(f) Switch OFF the supply.


OBSERVATION TABLE
Type of
Connection
PRIMARY SIDE SECONDARY SIDE
I
line
I
phase
V
line
V
phase
I
line
I
phase
V
line
V
phase

Star/Star
Star/Delta
Delta/Star
Delta/Delta

RESULTS We has studied about the construction, various connections of 3- transformers and
obtains the line and phase voltages on both sides (primary and secondary) of the transformer.

PRECAUTIONS
- All connection must be tight.
- Get the circuit connections checked by the teacher before performing the experiment.
- Power to the circuit must be switched on in the presence of the teacher.
- Get the experimental readings checked by the teacher.
- Dont touch directly the live parts of equipment and circuit.
- Wear leather shoes in the lab.


VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is transformer?
2. On which principle Transformer works?
3. What is turn ratio of transformer?
4. Why core of transformer is laminated?
5. Which type of material used for making of core of transformer?
6. What is auto transformer?
7. What is the difference between auto transformer and two winding transformer?
8. Transformers are of how many types?
9. What is difference between core type and shell type transformer?
10. What is relation between phase current and line voltage in - connection?
11. What is relation between phase current and line current in star connection?
12. What is emf equation of transformer?
13. What are the different types of losses in transformer?
14. What is eddy current?
15. What is hysteresis loss?


EXPERIMENT # 6(A)

OBJECT Identification, testing and applications of various resistors, inductors, capacitors, PN-
diode, Zener diode, Photo diode.
APPARATUS
(i)Different types of resistors, capacitors and inductors.
(ii) Digital/Analog Multi meter

THEORY

RESISTANCE The electrical resistance of an electrical element measures its opposition to the passage
of an electric current; the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, measuring how easily electricity
flows along a certain path. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical
notion of friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (), while electrical conductance is
measured in Siemens (S).
An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity and length and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials show some resistance, except for superconductors,
which have a resistance of zero.
The resistance of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it to current through it:

Fig. 6.1 Resistor
For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance R is constant for a given
temperature; it does not depend on the amount of current through or the potential difference (voltage)
across the object. Such materials are called Ohmic materials. For objects made of ohmic materials the
definition of the resistance, with R being a constant for that resistor, is known as Ohm's law.
In the case of a nonlinear conductor (not obeying Ohm's law), this ratio can change as current or voltage
changes; the inverse slope of a chord to an IV curve is sometimes referred to as a "chordal resistance"
or "static resistance".
DC resistance


The resistance of a given resistor or conductor grows with the length of conductor and specific resistivity
of the material, and decreases for larger cross-sectional area. The resistance R and conductance G of a
conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as

where is the length of the conductor, measured in meters [m], A is the cross-section area of the
conductor measured in square meters [m], (sigma) is the electrical conductivity measured in Siemens
per meter (S m
-1
), and (rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the
material, measured in ohm-meters (m). Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose
electric current. For purely resistive circuits conductance is related to resistance R by:
G=1/R
For practical reasons, any connections to a real conductor will almost certainly mean the current density
is not totally uniform. However, this formula still provides a good approximation for long thin
conductors such as wires.
AC resistance
A wire carrying alternating current has a reduced effective cross sectional area because of the skin effect.
Adjacent conductors carrying alternating current have a higher resistance than they would in isolation or
when carrying direct current, due to the proximity effect. At commercial power frequency, these effects
are significant for large conductors carrying large currents, such as bus bars in an electrical substation,
[3]

or large power cables carrying more than a few hundred amperes.
When an alternating current flows through the circuit, its flow is not opposed only by the circuit
resistance, but also by the opposition of electric and magnetic fields to the current change. That effect is
measured by electrical reactance. The combined effects of reactance and resistance are expressed by
electrical impedance.
Measuring resistance
An instrument for measuring resistance is called an ohmmeter. Simple ohmmeters cannot measure low
resistances accurately because the resistance of their measuring leads causes a voltage drop that
interferes with the measurement, so more accurate devices use four-terminal sensing.


Temperature dependence
Near room temperature, the electric resistance of a typical metal increases linearly with rising
temperature, while the electrical resistance of a typical semiconductor decreases with rising temperature.
The amount of that change in resistance can be calculated using the temperature coefficient of resistivity
of the material using the following formula:

Where T is its temperature, T
0
is a reference temperature (usually room temperature), R
0
is the resistance
at T
0
, and is the percentage change in resistivity per unit temperature. The constant depends only on
the material being considered. The relationship stated is actually only an approximate one, the true
physics being somewhat non-linear, or looking at it another way, itself varies with temperature. For
this reason it is usual to specify the temperature that was measured at with a suffix, such as
15
and the
relationship only holds in a range of temperatures around the reference.

Fig. 6.2: Temperature characteristics of resistance
INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTOR
I. Elementary Characteristics
The coil in the figure simulates an inductor. The main issue is how the magnetic field lines go across the
inductor (lines with arrows). There is some magnetic field at the top bottom of the coil too.

Fig. 6.2 Elementary characteristics


The current I going through the inductor generate a magnetic field which is perpendicular to I. The
Magnetic Field H is given by the loops that surround the current I. The direction of the Magnetic Field
is given by the arrows around the loops. If the current was to flow in the opposite direction the Magnetic
Field arrows would be reversed. For a practical display of this phenomena see: Magnetic field on wire.

Fig. 6.3 Magnetic field on wire
It is the Magnetic Field which contains the current through the coil which by the principle called Self-
Induction will induce a voltage V. More specifically speaking, the voltage V across the inductor L is
given by: V = /T which reads the voltage V is caused by the change in flux over the
correspondent change in time, but since the change in flux is given by the inductance L and the change
in current across the coil I, the voltage V becomes:
V = L*I/T (electrical definition for inductance)
On the other hand the physical definition of inductance L is given by:
L = N
2
* A/l (physical definition for inductance)
where stands for the relative ease with which current flows through the inductor or Permeability of the
medium. N stands for the number of turns in the coil, A stands for its cross-sectional area, and the
length of the coil is given by l. Hence this formula tells us that the more number of turns the larger the
inductance (i.e.: current can be contained better), also the larger the cross-sectional area the larger the
inductance (since there is more flux of current that can be contained) and the longer the coil the smaller
the inductance (since more current can be lost through the turns). L is also proportional to , since the
better the permeability current will flow with more ease.
Inductance and Energy
By containing the current via the magnetic field the inductor is capable of storing Energy. A
Transformer such as the one on the Figure will certainly remind us of the ability of storing Energy
associated with Inductors. Whereas for a capacitor the Energy stored depends on the Voltage across it,
for the inductor the Energy stored depends on the current being held, such that:
W = 1/2*L* I
2
where W stands for the energy on the inductor.
Basic Inductor Circuit


Fig. 6.4 Basic inductor circuit
The electrical parameters V and L (the inductance -measured in Henrys-H - review DC Basics or go
to are given. The current I is implicitly given by the relationship: V = Ldi/dt
In a similar case as with the basic capacitor circuit we are implying that at time 0 a switch closes
connecting the battery to the coil and the inductor starts to get charged. Also, in all real cases there will
be a small resistance in series with the inductor, but we will get to this case in the discussion of R-L
circuits.
At a specific point of time the voltage across the inductor is expressed by V = Ldi/dt which is basically
the electrical definition of inductance, except that since we are just focusing at a point in time and not at
an interval of time delta = T we will need to use the term dt and similarly for the current di instead
of I. The electrical definition still holds, since all we are saying is that the flux or change in current
over time times the inductance is the Induced Voltage across the Inductor.

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of
conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as "charging", and
involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate. A
capacitor's ability to store charge is measured by its capacitance, in units of farads.
Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be
used to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals.

Fig. 6.5 Capacitor


Theory of Operation

Fig 6.6 Parallel-Plate capacitor
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange)
reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

Fig 6.7 Demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor
A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region
is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an
electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be
self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field.
The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops
an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each
conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor
is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor
to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this
case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:


Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor.
When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is
stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in
establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:

LED
A light-emitting-diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric current is
applied in the forward direction of the device, as in the simple LED circuit. The effect is a form of
electroluminescence where incoherent and narrow-spectrum light is emitted from the p-n junction.
LEDs are widely used as indicator lights on electronic devices and increasingly in higher power
applications such as flashlights and area lighting. An LED is usually a small area (less than 1 mm2) light
source, often with optics added to the chip to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. The color
of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semi conducting material used, and
can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. Besides lighting, interesting applications include using UV-LEDs
for sterilization of water and disinfection of devices, and as a grow light to enhance photosynthesis in
plants.

Fig 6.8 LED


P-N DIODE
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device (thermo ionic diodes may also have one or two ancillary
terminals for a heater). Diodes have two active electrodes between which the signal of interest may flow,
and most are used for their unidirectional electric current property. The directionality of current flow
most diodes exhibit is sometimes generically called the rectifying property. The most common function
of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the forward biased condition)
and to block the current in the opposite direction (the reverse biased condition). Thus, the diode can be
thought of as an electronic version of a check valve.

Fig 6.9 P-N diode
Properties of a pn junction
The pn junction possesses some interesting properties which have useful applications in modern
electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped
semiconductor, but the junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, and hence
nonconductive, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating
this non-conductive layer, pn junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow
of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction. This property is explained in terms


of forward bias and reverse bias, where the term bias refers to an application of electric voltage to the p
n junction.
The Zener Diode
In the previous , we saw that a "reverse biased" diode blocks current in the reverse direction, but will
suffer from premature breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage applied across it is too high.
However, the Zener Diode or "Breakdown Diode" as they are sometimes called, are basically the same
as the standard PN junction diode but are specially designed to have a low pre-determined Reverse
Breakdown Voltage that takes advantage of this high reverse voltage. The point at which a zener diode
breaks down or conducts is called the "Zener Voltage" (Vz).
The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When biased
in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but when a
reverse voltage is applied to it the reverse saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of
voltages. The reverse voltage increases until the diodes breakdown voltage V
B
is reached at which point
a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the depletion layer and the current flowing through the
zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series
resistor). This breakdown voltage point is called the "zener voltage" for zener diodes.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

Fig. 6.10 Zener diode I -V characteristics
The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode connects
to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener diode has a
region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value of
the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large changes in current as


long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current I
Z(min)
and the maximum current
rating I
Z(max)
.
This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage source against
supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost
constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator. The function
of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in spite of the
ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode will continue to
regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum I
Z(min)
value in the reverse
breakdown region.

OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No.
Component for
identification/testing
Types of
Component
Measured Value
Result After
Testing
By Multi
meter
By Color
Coding
1.
Resistors
(i)
(ii)
2.
Capacitor
(i)
(ii)
3.
Inductors
(i)
(ii)

PROCEDURE
For Resistance
1. Identify the type of element and write in observation table.
2. Find different vale of resistor using color coding and multi meter, note down in
observation table
3. Using multi meter test given resistor for open and short conditions.
For Inductors
1.Identify the type of element and write in observation table.
2.Find different vale of resistor using color coding and multi meter, note down in
observation table.
3.Using multi meter test given resistor for open and short conditions.
For Capacitor
1.Identify the type of element and write in observation table.
2.Find different vale of resistor using color coding and multi meter, note down in
observation table
3.Using multi meter test given resistor for open and short conditions.


RESULT
Study of various passice components viz. resistance, capacitance, inductor and testing and identification
has done.
PRECAUTIONS


EXPERIMENT # 6(B)

OBJECT Identification, testing and applications of BJT, photo transistor, LED, LCD, FET,
UJT, SCR

APPARRTUS

S. No. Name of apparatus Type Range Quantity
1
Different Electronic
Component
_____ 12V As Per Require
2
Millimeter Digital 01
3
DC Regulated Power Supply Electronic
0-30 V
0-2A
01
4 Voltmeter

0-30V 01
5
Ammeter 0-1A 01
6
Ammeter 0-50 mA 01

THEORY
Bi Polar Transistor(BJT)
A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of
doped semiconductor
Material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named
because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional
diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations.
This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, in which
only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift. By design, most of the BJT collector current
is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the base where they
are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-
carrier devices.


Introduction

Fig. 6.13 NPN BJ T with forward-biased EB junction and reverse-biased BC junction
An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode. In typical operation, the base-
emitter junction is forward biased and the basecollector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor,
for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the baseemitter junction, the equilibrium between
thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced,
allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse")
through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low
concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base
is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base.
To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collectorbase junction, the
transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the
semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than
the diffusion length of the electrons. The collectorbase junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron
injection occurs from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the
collector are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collectorbase
junction. The thin shared base and asymmetric collectoremitter doping is what differentiates a bipolar
transistor from twoseparate and oppositely biased diodes connected in series.
[edit]Voltage, current, and charge control
The collectoremitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the baseemitter current (current
control), or by the baseemitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the currentvoltage
relation of the baseemitter junction, which is just the usual exponential currentvoltage curve of a p-n
junction (diode).
The physical explanation for collector current is the amount of minority-carrier charge in the base
region.
[1][2][3]
Detailed models of transistor action, such as the GummelPoon model, account for the
distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behavior more exactly.
[4]
The charge-control
view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the
absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge


in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the
terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis.
In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear.
That is, the collector current is approximately
F
times the base current. Some basic circuits can be
designed by assuming that the emitterbase voltage is approximately constant, and that collector current
is beta times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the
voltage-control (for example, EbersMoll) model is required.
[1]
The voltage-control model requires an
exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be
modelled as a transconductance, as in the EbersMoll model, design for circuits such as differential
amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-control view is often preferred.
For translinear circuits, in which the exponential IV curve is key to the operation, the transistors are
usually modelled as voltage controlled with transconductance proportional to collector current. In
general, transistor level circuit design is performed using SPICE or a comparable analogue circuit
simulator, so model complexity is usually not of much concern to the designer.
Phototransistor structure
Although ordinary transistors exhibit the photosensitive effects if they are exposed to light, the structure
of the phototransistor is specifically optimized for photo applications. The photo transistor has much
larger base and collector areas than would be used for a normal transistor. These devices were generally
made using diffusion or ion implantation.

Fig. 6.14 Homo junction planar phototransistor structure
Early photo transistors used germanium or silicon throughout the device giving a homo-junction
structure. The more modern phototransistors use type III-V materials such as gallium arsenide and the
like. Hetero structures that use different materials either side of the p-n junction are also popular because
they provide high conversion efficiency. These are generally fabricated using epitaxial growth of
materials that have matching lattice structures. These photo transistors generally use a mesa structure.
Sometimes a Schottky (metal semiconductor) junction can be used for the collector within a
phototransistor, although this practice is less common these days because other structures offer better
levels of performance.


Fig. 6.15 Hetero junction mesa-structure phototransistor
In order to ensure the optimum conversion and hence sensitivity, the emitter contact is often offset
within the phototransistor structure. This ensures that the maximum amount of light reaches the active
region within the phototransistor.
Phototransistor operation
Photo transistors are operated in their active regime, although the base connection is left open circuit or
disconnected because it is not required. The base of the photo transistor would only be used to bias the
transistor so that additional collector current was flowing and this would mask any current flowing as a
result of the photo-action. For operation the bias conditions are quite simple. The collector of an n-p-n
transistor is made positive with respect to the emitter or negative for a p-n-p transistor.
The light enters the base region of the phototransistor where it causes hole electron pairs to be generated.
This mainly occurs in the reverse biased base-collector junction. The hole-electron pairs move under the
influence of the electric field and provide the base current, causing electrons to be injected into the
emitter.
Phototransistor characteristics
As already mentioned the photo transistor has a high level of gain resulting from the transistor action.
For homo-structures, i.e. ones using the same material throughout the device, this may be of the order of
about 50 up to a few hundred. However for the hetero-structure devices, the levels of gain may rise to
ten thousand. Despite their high level of gain the hetero-structure devices are not widely used because
they are considerably more costly to manufacture. A further advantage of all phototransistors when
compared to the avalanche photodiode, another device that offers gain, is that the phototransistor has a
much lower level of noise.
One of the main disadvantages of the phototransistor is the fact that it does not have a particularly good
high frequency response. This arises from the large capacitance associated with the base-collector
junction. This junction is designed to be relatively large to enable it to pick up sufficient quantities of
light. For a typical homo-structure device the bandwidth may be limited to about 250 kHz. Hetero-
junction devices have a much higher limit and some can be operated at frequencies as high as 1 GHz.


The characteristics of the photo-transistor under different light intensities. They are very similar to the
characteristics of a conventional bipolar transistor, but with the different levels of base current replaced
by the different levels of light intensity.
There is a small amount of current that flows in the photo transistor even when no light is present. This
is called the dark current, and represents the small number of carriers that are injected into the emitter.
Like the photo-generated carriers this is also subject to the amplification by the transistor action.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light modulating
properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly.
They are used in a wide range of applications, including computer monitors, television, instrument
panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices such as video
players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have displaced cathode ray
tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact, lightweight, portable, less
expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes.
[citation needed]
They are available in a wider range of screen
sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image
burn-in.
LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power
consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-
modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front
of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. The earliest
discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from
1888.
[1]
By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.

Fig. 6.16 LCD alarm clock
Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between
two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of
the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing


filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. In most
of the cases the liquid crystal has double refraction.
The surfaces of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align
the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a
thin polymer layer that is unidirectional rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid
crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent
conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO).
Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the
alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device (still the most common liquid crystal
device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the
molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization
of the incident light, and the device appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal
molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident
light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly
polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By
controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass
through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. This electric field also controls
(reduces) the double refraction properties of the liquid crystal.

Fig. 6.17
LCD with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers
are parallel.
The optical effect of a twisted nematic device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations
in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, these devices are usually
operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more
sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). These devices can also be operated between
parallel polarizers, in which case the bright and dark states are reversed. The voltage-off dark state in
this configuration appears blotchy, however, because of small variations of thickness across the device.
Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric
field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the


surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating
current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the
liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).
When a large number of pixels are needed in a display, it is not technically possible to drive each
directly since then each pixel would require independent electrodes. Instead, the display is multiplexed.
In a multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (typically
in columns), and each group gets its own voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also
grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink. The groups are designed so each
pixel has a unique, unshared combination of source and sink. The electronics or the software driving the
electronics then turns on sinks in sequence, and drives sources for the pixels of each sink.
'FIELD-EFFECT' TRANSISTOR (FET) The 'field-effect' transistor (FET) relies on an electric field to
control the shape and hence the conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in
a semiconductor material. FETs are sometimes called unipolar transistors to contrast their single-carrier-
type operation with the dual-carrier-type operation of bipolar (junction) transistors (BJT). The concept of
the FET predates the BJT, though it was not physically implemented until after BJTs due to the
limitations of semiconductor materials and the relative ease of manufacturing BJTs compared to FETs at
the time.
History The principle of field-effect transistors was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925 and
by Oskar Heil in 1934, but practical semi-conducting devices (the JFET, junction gate field-effect
transistor) were only developed much later after the transistor effect was observed and explained by the
team of William Shockley at Bell Labs in 1947. The MOSFET (metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect
transistor), which largely superseded the JFET and had a more profound effect on electronic
development, was first proposed by Dawon Kahng in 1960.
Terminals

Fig. 6.18 Cross section of an n-type MOSFET
All FETs have a gate, drain, and source terminal that correspond roughly to the base, collector,
and emitter of BJTs. Aside from the JFET, all FETs also have a fourth terminal called
the body, base, bulk, or substrate. This fourth terminal serves to bias the transistor into operation; it is
rare to make non-trivial use of the body terminal in circuit designs, but its presence is important when


setting up the physical layout of anintegrated circuit. The size of the gate, length L in the diagram, is the
distance between source and drain. The width is the extension of the transistor, in the diagram
perpendicular to the cross section. Typically the width is much larger than the length of the gate. A gate
length of 1 m limits the upper frequency to about 5 GHz, 0.2 m to about 30 GHz. The names of the
terminals refer to their functions. The gate terminal may be thought of as controlling the opening and
closing of a physical gate. This gate permits electrons to flow through or blocks their passage by creating
or eliminating a channel between the source and drain. Electrons flow from the source terminal towards
the drain terminal if influenced by an applied voltage. The body simply refers to the bulk of the
semiconductor in which the gate, source and drain lie. Usually the body terminal is connected to the
highest or lowest voltage within the circuit, depending on type. The body terminal and the source
terminal are sometimes connected together since the source is also sometimes connected to the highest
or lowest voltage within the circuit, however there are several uses of FETs which do not have such a
configuration, such as transmission gates and cascode circuits.

FET operation

Fig 6.19 I V characteristics and output plot of a J FET n-channel transistor.
The FET controls the flow of electrons (or electron holes) from the source to drain by affecting the size
and shape of a "conductive channel" created and influenced by voltage (or lack of voltage) applied
across the gate and source terminals (For ease of discussion, this assumes body and source are
connected). This conductive channel is the "stream" through which electrons flow from source to drain.
In an n-channel depletion-mode device, a negative gate-to-source voltage causes a depletion region to
expand in width and encroach on the channel from the sides, narrowing the channel. If the depletion
region expands to completely close the channel, the resistance of the channel from source to drain
becomes large, and the FET is effectively turned off like a switch. Likewise a positive gate-to-source
voltage increases the channel size and allows electrons to flow easily.
Conversely, in an n-channel enhancement-mode device, a positive gate-to-source voltage is necessary to
create a conductive channel, since one does not exist naturally within the transistor. The positive voltage
attracts free-floating electrons within the body towards the gate, forming a conductive channel. But first,
enough electrons must be attracted near the gate to counter the dopant ions added to the body of the


FET; this forms a region free of mobile carriers called a depletion region, and the phenomenon is
referred to as the threshold voltage of the FET. Further gate-to-source voltage increase will attract even
more electrons towards the gate which are able to create a conductive channel from source to drain; this
process is called inversion.
For either enhancement- or depletion-mode devices, at drain-to-source voltages much less than gate-to-
source voltages, changing the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance, and drain current will be
proportional to drain voltage (referenced to source voltage). In this mode the FET operates like a
variable resistor and the FET is said to be operating in a linear modeor ohmic mode.
If drain-to-source voltage is increased, this creates a significant asymmetrical change in the shape of the
channel due to a gradient of voltage potential from source to drain. The shape of the inversion region
becomes "pinched-off" near the drain end of the channel. If drain-to-source voltage is increased further,
the pinch-off point of the channel begins to move away from the drain towards the source. The FET is
said to be in saturation mode; some authors refer to it as active mode, for a better analogy with bipolar
transistor operating regions. The saturation mode, or the region between ohmic and saturation, is used
when amplification is needed. The in-between region is sometimes considered to be part of the ohmic or
linear region, even where drain current is not approximately linear with drain voltage.
Even though the conductive channel formed by gate-to-source voltage no longer connects source to drain
during saturation mode, carriers are not blocked from flowing. Considering again an n-channel device,
a depletion region exists in the p-type body, surrounding the conductive channel and drain and source
regions. The electrons which comprise the channel are free to move out of the channel through the
depletion region if attracted to the drain by drain-to-source voltage. The depletion region is free of
carriers and has a resistance similar to silicon. Any increase of the drain-to-source voltage will increase
the distance from drain to the pinch-off point, increasing resistance due to the depletion region
proportionally to the applied drain-to-source voltage. This proportional change causes the drain-to-
source current to remain relatively fixed independent of changes to the drain-to-source voltage and quite
unlike the linear mode operation. Thus in saturation mode, the FET behaves as a constant-current
source rather than as a resistor and can be used most effectively as a voltage amplifier. In this case, the
gate-to-source voltage determines the level of constant current through the channel.
Composition
The FET can be constructed from a number of semiconductors, silicon being by far the most common.
Most FETs are made with conventional bulk semiconductor processing techniques, using the single
crystal semiconductor wafer as the active region, or channel.


Among the more unusual body materials are amorphous silicon, polycrystalline silicon or other
amorphous semiconductors in thin-film transistors or organic field effect transistors that are based
on organic semiconductors and often apply organic gate insulators and electrodes.
[edit]Types of field-effect transistors

Fig. 6.20 FET
Depletion-type FETs under typical voltages. JFET, poly-silicon MOSFET, double-gate MOSFET, metal-
gate MOSFET, MESFET. depletion , electrons , holes , metal , insulator . Top=source, bottom=drain,
left=gate, right=bulk. Voltages that lead to channel formation are not shown

The channel of a FET is doped to produce either an N-type semiconductor or a P-type semiconductor.
The drain and source may be doped of opposite type to the channel, in the case of depletion mode FETs,
or doped of similar type to the channel as in enhancement mode FETs. Field-effect transistors are also
distinguished by the method of insulation between channel and gate. Types of FETs are:
CNTFET
The DEPFET is a FET formed in a fully-depleted substrate and acts as a sensor, amplifier and
memory node at the same time. It can be used as an image (photon) sensor.
The DGMOSFET is a MOSFET with dual gates.
The DNAFET is a specialized FET that acts as a biosensor, by using a gate made of single-strand
DNA molecules to detect matching DNA strands.
The FREDFET (Fast Reverse or Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diode FET) is a specialized FET
designed to provide a very fast recovery (turn-off) of the body diode.
The HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor), also called a HFET (heterostructure FET), can
be made using bandgapengineering in a ternary semiconductor such as AlGaAs. The fully
depleted wide-band-gap material forms the isolation between gate and body.
The IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a device for power control. It has a structure
akin to a MOSFET coupled with a bipolar-like main conduction channel. These are commonly


used for the 200-3000 V drain-to-source voltage range of operation. Power MOSFETs are still
the device of choice for drain-to-source voltages of 1 to 200 V.
The ISFET is an Ion-Sensitive Field Effect Transistor used to measure ion concentrations in a
solution; when the ion concentration (such as H
+
, see pH electrode) changes, the current through
the transistor will change accordingly.
The JFET (Junction Field-Effect Transistor) uses a reverse biased p-n junction to separate the
gate from the body.
The MESFET (MetalSemiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) substitutes the p-n junction of the
JFET with a Schottky barrier; used in GaAs and other III-V semiconductor materials.
The MODFET (Modulation-Doped Field Effect Transistor) uses a quantum well structure formed
by graded doping of the active region.
The MOSFET (MetalOxideSemiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) utilizes
an insulator (typically SiO
2
) between the gate and the body.
The NOMFET is a Nanoparticle Organic Memory Field-Effect Transistor.
The OFET is an Organic Field-Effect Transistor using an organic semiconductor in its channel.
Uses
IGBTs see application in switching internal combustion engine ignition coils, where fast switching and
voltage blocking capabilities are important.
The most commonly used FET is the MOSFET. The CMOS (complementary metal oxide
semiconductor) process technology is the basis for modern digital integrated circuits. Thisprocess
technology uses an arrangement where the (usually "enhancement-mode") p-channel MOSFET and n-
channel MOSFET are connected in series such that when one is on, the other is off.
The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable
to electrostatic damage during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed
in a properly designed circuit.
Uni-junction Transistor (UJT)
A Uni-junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor switching device. this device has a
unique characteristics that when it is triggered , the emitter current increases regenerative until is limited
by emitter power supply the uni-junction transistor can be employed in a variety of applications
switching pulse generator saw tooth generator etc.


Fig. 6.21 Uni-junction Transistor (UJ T)
Construction
It consists of an N type silicon bar with an electrical connection on each end the leads to these
connection are called base leads. Base 1 B1 Base 2 B2 the bar between the two bases nearer to B2 than
B1. A pn junction is formed between a p type emitter and bar. The lead to the junction is called emitter
lead E.
Operation

Fig. 6.22 The device has normally B2 positive w.r.t B1

If voltage VBB is applied between B2 and B1 with emitter open. Voltage gradient is established along
the n type bar since emitter is located nearer to B2 more than half of VBB appears between the emitter
and B1. the voltage V1 between emitter and B1 establishes a reverse bias on the pn junction and the
emitter current is cut off. A small leakage current flows from B2 to emitter due to minority carriers

If a positive voltage is applied at the emitter the pn junction will remain reverse biased so long as the
input voltage is less than V1 if the input voltage to the emitter exceeds V1 the pn junction becomes
forward biased. Under these conditions holes are injected from the p type material into the n type bar
these holes are repelled by positive B2 terminal and they are attracted towards B1 terminal of the bar.
This accumulation of holes in the emitter to B1 region results in the degrees of resistance in this section


of the bar the internal voltage drop from emitter to b1 is decreased hence emitter current Ie increases as
more holes are injected a condition of saturation will eventually be reached at this point a emitter current
limited by emitter power supply only. The devices are in on state.
If a negative pulse is applied to the emitter, the pn junction is reverse biased and the emitter current is
cut off. The device is said to be off state.
Characteristics of UJT

Fig. 6.23 V-I Characteristics of UJ T
The curve between Emitter voltage Ve and emitter current Ie of a UJT at a given voltage Vbb between
the bases this is known as emitter characteristic of UJT
Initially in the cut off region as Ve increases from zero, slight leakage current flows from terminal B2 to
the emitter the current is due to the minority carriers in the reverse biased diode.
Above a certain value of Ve forward Ie begins to flow, increasing until the peak voltage Vp and current
Ip are reached at point P.
After the peak point P an attempt to increase Ve is followed by a sudden increases in emitter current Ie
with decrease in Ve is a negative resistance portion of the curve
The negative portion of the curve lasts until the valley point V is reached with valley point voltage Vv
and valley point current Iv after the valley point the device is driven to saturation the difference Vp-Vv
is a measure of a switching efficiency of UJT fall of Vbb decreases
Advantages of UJT
1. It is a low cost device
2. It has excellent characteristics
3. It is a low-power absorbing device under normal operating conditions
Phototransistor
This phototransistor overview or tutorial is split into several pages each looking at different types of
photo-transistor including the photodarlington, photo FET and different aspects of their operation and
technology:


There is a wide selection of photosensitive devices that are available to the electronic designer. Whilst
photo-diodes fulfill many requirements, phototransistors or photo transistors are also available, and are
more suitable in some applications. Providing high levels of gain and standard devices are low cost,
these phototransistors can be used in many applications.
The idea of the photo transistor has been known for many years. William Shockley first proposed the
idea in 1951, not long after the ordinary transistor had been discovered. It was then only two years
before the photo transistor was demonstrated. Since then phototransistors have been used in a variety of
applications, and their development has continued ever since.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier
Thyristor is a four layers, three junction, and p-n-p-n semiconductor switching devices. It has three
terminals; anode, cathode and gate. Fig 10.1 gives constructional details of a typical thyristor. Basically
a thyristor consists of four layers of alternate p-type and n-type silicon semiconductors forming three
junctions J1, J2 and J3. The terminal connected to outer p-region is called anode (A), the terminal
connected to outer n-region is called cathode (K) and that connected to inner p-region is called the gate
(G).
An SCR is so called because silicon is used for its construction and its operation as a rectifier (very low
resistance in the forward conduction and very high resistance in reverse direction) can be controlled.
Like the diode, an SCR is a unidirectional device that blocks the current flow from cathode to anode.

Fig. 6.24 SCR: (a) Circuit symbol of SCR, (b) Schematic diagram of SCR, (c) and, (d) Represent two
transistor model of SCR.

STATIC V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A THYRISTOR
An elementary circuit diagram for obtaining static V-I characteristics of a thyristor is shown in fig 6.26
The anode and cathode are connected to main source through the load. The gate and cathode are fed
from a source E
s
which provides positive I
g
from gate to cathode.


Fig. 6.25 Circuit diagram to determine the V-I characteristics of SCR
Fig Shows the V-I characteristics of a thyristor. Here V
a
is the anode voltage across thyristor terminals
A, K and I
a
is the anode current. Typical SCR V-I characteristics reveals that a thyristor has three basic
modes of operation; namely reverse blocking mode, forward blocking (off state) mode and forward
conduction (on-state) mode.

Fig. 6.26 V-I characteristics of SCR
REVERSE BLOCKING MODE
When cathode is made positive with respect to anode with switch S open, thyristor is reverse biased;
junction J1, J3 are seen to be reverse biased where as junction J2 is forward biased. The device behaves
as if two diodes are connected in series with reverse voltage applied across them. A small leakage
current of the order of few mili-amp flows. This is reverse blocking mode, called the off-state, of the
thyristor. If the reverse voltage is increased, then at a critical breakdown level, called reverse breakdown
voltage V
BR
, an avalanche occurs at J1 and J3 and the reverse current increased rapidly. A large current
associated with V
BR
gives rise to more losses in the SCR. This may lead to thyristor damage as the
junction temperature may exceed its permissible temperature rise. It should therefore, be ensured that
maximum working reverse voltage across a thyristor does not exceed V
BR
. When reverse voltage applied
across a thyristor is less than V
BR
, the device offers high impedance in the reverse direction. The SCR in
the reverse blocking mode may therefore be treated as an open switch.


OBSERVATION TABLE

S.
No.
Component for
identification/testing
Types of
Component
Measured Value Result After
Testing
1. Diodes

2. Zener Diodes

3. LED

4. Transistors

5. UJT

6. SCR

7. DIAC

8. TRIAC

9. Photo Diode

10. Photo Transistor

RESULT
Study of Various electronic components, testing and identification has been done. Testing/Identification
result is given in observation table.

PRECAUTIONS


VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is BJT?
2. How can we identify the different terminals of BJT?
3. What is diode, photo diode, zener diode, LED?
4. What do you understand by the term resistance
5. What do you understand by the term resistance
6. Without using multi meter how can we measure the value of resistance?
7. What is the difference between inductor and inductance?
8. Which stores electric energy in the form of magnetic field, capacitor or inductor?
9. Which is voltage controlled device BJT or FET?
10. What is the difference between BJT, FET?
11. Draw the characteristics of diode.
12. What is the unit of resistance, capacitance and inductance?
13. What is photo transistor?
14. What do you mean by common emitter?
15. What is the duty cycle in transistor?


EXPERIMENT # 7(A)

OBJECT To functional study of CRO, function generator and analog & digital multi-meters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.N. Name of Equipment Quantities Types
1. Multi meter 1 Digital
2. Function generator 1
3. CRO 1
4. Multi meter 1 Analog

THEORY

(a) Digital Multi meter (DMM)

Fig 7.1 Digital Multi meter
(b) CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time and
amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and
ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a
cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig. 7.2.


Fig:-7.2 Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) (a) Schematic (b) Details of deflection Plate

The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative electrode) and
accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and
accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron
beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two
pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented to
give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical
deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the
fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is
emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or
lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.


Fig 7.3 Block Diagram of Oscilloscope

CONNECTIONS FOR THE OSCILLOSCOPE
Vertical Input A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical) amplifier. The
lower jack is grounded to the case.
Horizontal Input A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal amplifier. The lower
terminal is grounded to the case of the oscilloscope.
External Trigger Input input connector for external trigger signal.
Cal. Out Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 mili volts for use in calibrating the
gain of the amplifiers.
Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable.
Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is variable
Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as
follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counters clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the center of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1

WARNING Never advance the Intensity Control so far that an excessively bright spot appears. Bright
spots imply burning of the screen. A sharp focused spot of high intensity (great brightness) should never


be allowed to remain fixed in one position on the screen for any length of time as damage to the screen
may occur.
PROCEDURE
I. Set the signal generator to a frequency of 1000 cycles per second. Connect the output from the
generator to the vertical input of the oscilloscope. Establish a steady trace of this input signal on the
scope. Adjust (play with) all of the scope and signal generator controls until you become familiar with
the function of each.
II. Measurements of Voltage: By adjusting the Horizontal Sweep time/cm and trigger, a steady trace of
the sine wave may be displayed on the screen. The trace represents a plot of voltage vs. time, where the
vertical deflection of the trace about the line of symmetry CD is proportional to the magnitude of the
voltage at any instant of time.

Fig 7.4 (a) Circuit for Procedure (b) Trace Seen on Scope

The relationship between the magnitude of the peak voltage displayed on the scope and the effective or
RMS voltage (VRMS) read on the AC voltmeter is
VRMS = 0.707 Vm (for a sine or cosine wave).
Thus.
V
m
=

III. Frequency Measurements: When the horizontal sweep voltage is applied, voltage measurements can
still be taken from the vertical deflection. Moreover, the signal is displayed as a function of time. If the


time base (i.e. sweep) is calibrated, such measurements as pulse duration or signal period can be made.
Frequencies can then be determined as reciprocal of the periods.
IV. Lissajous Figures: When sine-wave signals of different frequencies are input to the horizontal and
vertical amplifiers a stationary pattern is formed on the CRT when the ratio of the two frequencies is an
integral fraction such as 1/2, 2/3, 4/3, 1/5, etc. These stationary patterns are known as Lissajous figures
and can be used for comparison measurement of frequencies.
Use two oscillators to generate some simple Lissajous figures like those shown in Fig. 7.5. You will find
it difficult to maintain the Lissajous figures in a fixed configuration because the two oscillators are not
phase and frequency locked. Their frequencies and phase drift slowly causing the two different signals to
change slightly with respect to each other.

Fig 7.5 Lissajous figures for Horizontal to vertical frequency Ratio(a)1:1 (b)1:2 (c) 2:1 & (d) 1:3


(b) FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety of frequencies
and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to common input signals.

Fig. 7.6 Function generators output waveforms

RESULT

We studied about the construction, working of CRO, function generator and multi meters and
learn how to observe waveform on CRO and make graph of different waveforms.
PRECAUTIONS


EXPERIMENT # 7(B)

OBJECT To study of single phase half wave and bridge rectifier, obtain output voltage and
current waveforms. Also find the effects of filters on these waveforms.
APPARATUS
S.N. Name of Equipment Quantities Types
1. Half wave rectifier board 1
2. Full wave rectifier bridge board 1
3. CRO 1
4. Multi meter 1

THEORY
There are two types of single-phase diode rectifier that convert a single-phase ac supply into a dc
voltage, namely, single-phase half-wave rectifiers and single-phase full-wave rectifiers. In the following
subsections, the operations of these rectifier circuits are examined and their performances are analyzed
and compared in tabular form. For the sake of simplicity the diodes are considered to be ideal, that is,
they have zero forward voltage drop and reverse recovery time. This assumption is generally valid for
the case of diode rectifiers that use the mains, a low-frequency source, as the input, and when the
forward voltage drop is small compared with the peak voltage of the mains. Furthermore, it is assumed
that the load is purely resistive such that load voltage and load current have similar waveforms. In
Section 10.5 the effects of both inductive and capacitive load on a diode rectifier are considered in detail.
The simplest single-phase diode rectifier is the single-phase half-wave rectifier. A single-phase half-
wave rectifier with resistive load is shown in Fig. 7.7. The circuit consists of only one diode that is
usually fed with a transformer secondary as shown. During the positive half-cycle of the transformer
secondary voltage, diode D conducts. During the negative half-cycle, diode D stops conducting.
Assuming that the transformer has zero internal impedance and provides perfect sinusoidal voltage on its
secondary winding, the voltage and current waveforms of resistive load R and the voltage waveform of
diode D are shown in Fig. 7.8.
By observing the voltage waveform of diode D in Fig. 10.2, it is clear that the peak inverse voltage (PIV)
of diode D is equal to Vm during the negative half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage. Hence the
Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage (VRRM) rating of diode D must be chosen to be higher than Vm to
avoid reverse breakdown. In the positive half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, diode D has a
forward current which is equal to the load current and, therefore, the Peak Repetitive Forward Current
(IFRM) rating of diode D must be chosen to be higher than the peak load current Vm=R, in practice. In


addition, the transformer has to carry a dc current that may result in a dc saturation problem of the
transformer core.
Single Phase Full wave Rectifiers
There are two types of single-phase full-wave rectifier, namely, full-wave rectifiers with center-tapped
transformer and bridge rectifiers. A full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer is shown in Fig.
7.9. It is clear that each diode, together with the associated half of the transformer, acts as a half-wave
rectifier. The outputs of the two half-wave rectifiers are combined to produce full-wave rectification in
the load. As far as the transformer is concerned, the dc currents of the two half-wave rectifiers are equal
and opposite, such that there is no dc current for creating a transformer core saturation problem. The
voltage and current waveforms of the full wave rectifier are shown in Fig. 7.10.

Fig. 7.7 A single-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load.

Fig. 7.8 Voltage and current waveforms of the half-wave rectifier

Fig 7.9 Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.


Fig 7.10 Voltage and current waveforms of the full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.
By observing diode voltage waveforms V
D1
and V
D2
in Fig. 7.10, it is clear that the peak inverse voltage
(PIV) of the diodes is equal to 2Vm during their blocking state. Hence the Peak Repetitive Reverse
Voltage (VRRM) rating of the diodes must be chosen to be higher than 2Vm to avoid reverse
breakdown. (Note that, compared with the half-wave rectifier shown in Fig. 7.7 the full-wave rectifier
has twice the dc output voltage, as shown in Fig.7.10. wave form) During its conducting state, each
diode has a forward current that is equal to the load current and, therefore, the Peak Repetitive Forward
Current (IFRM) rating of these diodes must be chosen to be higher than the peak load current Vm=R in
practice. Employing four diodes instead of two, a bridge rectifier as shown in Fig. 7.11 can provide full-
wave rectification without using a center-tapped transformer. During the positive half cycle of the
transformer secondary voltage, the current flows to the load through diodes D1 and D2. During the
negative half cycle, D3 and D4 conduct. The voltage and current waveforms of the bridge rectifier are
shown in Fig. 7.12. As with the full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer, the Peak Repetitive
Forward Current (IFRM) rating of the employed diodes must be chosen to be higher than the peak load
current Vm=R. However, the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of the diodes is reduced from 2Vm to Vm
during their blocking state.
7.2.3 Performance Parameters
In this section the performance of the rectifiers mentioned in the preceding will be evaluated in terms of
the following parameters.


7.2.3.1 Voltage Relationships
The average value of the load voltage V
L
is V
dc
and it is defined as

In the case of a half-wave rectifier, Fig. 7.7 indicates that load voltage V
L
. 0 for the negative half-cycle.
Note that the angular frequency of the source o. 2p=T, and Eq. (7.1) can be rewritten as

Fig. 7.11 bridge rectifier

In the case of a full-wave rectifier, Figs. 7.10 and 7.12 indicate that V
L
. Vm sint

nt j for both the positive and negative half-cycles. Hence Eq. (7.1) can be rewritten as
The root-mean-square (rms) value of load voltage V
L
is V
L
, which is defined as V
L
.

Fig 7.12 Voltage and current waveforms of the bridge rectifier.


In the case of a half-wave rectifier, V
L
. . 0 for the negative half-cycle, therefore, Eq. (7.6) can be
rewritten as

In the case of a full-wave rectifier, V
L
. Vmjsinot j for both the positive and negative half-cycles. Hence,
Eq. (7.6) can be rewritten as

The result of Eq. (7.10) is as expected because the rms value of a full-wave rectified voltage should be
equal to that of the original ac voltage.
7.2.3.2 Current Relationships
The average value of load current I
L
is I
dc
and because load R is purely resistive it can be found as

The root-mean-square (rms) value of load current I
L
is I
L
and it can be found as

In the case of a half-wave rectifier, from Eq. (7.3) half-wave I
dc.

And from Eq. (7.8)
Half-wave I
L
.

In the case of a full-wave rectifier, from Eq. (7.5)

and from Eq. (7.10)

7.2.3.3 Rectification Ratio


The rectification ratio, which is a figure of merit for comparing the effectiveness of rectification, is
defined as

In the case of a half-wave diode rectifier, the rectification ratio can be determined by substituting Eqs.
(7.3), (7.13), (7.8), and (7.14) into Eq. (7.17).

In the case of a full-wave rectifier, the rectification ratio is obtained by substituting Eq. (7.5), (7.15),
(7.8), and (7.16) into Eq. (7.17).

Form Factor
The form factor (FF) is defined as the ratio of the root-mean square value (heating component) of a
voltage or current to its average value,

In the case of a half-wave rectifier, the FF can be found by substituting Eqs. (7.8) and (7.3) into Eq.
(7.20)

In the case of a full-wave rectifier, the FF can be found by substituting Eqs. (7.16) and (7.15) into Eq.
(7.20)

7.2.3.5 Ripple Factor
The ripple factor (RF), which is a measure of the ripple content, is defined as

Where Vac is the effective (rms) value of the ac component of load voltage V
L
,

Substituting Eq. (7.24) into Eq. (7.23), the ripple factor can be expressed a

In the case of a half-wave rectifier,


In the case of a full-wave rectifier,

Procedure
Single-phase half-wave rectifier
1. We have connect the transformer from ac supply from primary side
2. Secondary side connect a diode across a resistive load r
3. Take out the wave form and study them
OBSERVATION TABLE

Without Filter With Filter
Half Wave
Rectifier
Full Wave
Rectifier
Half Wave
Rectifier
Full Wave
Rectifier
Wave Form
Trace on CRO
Trace On Graph Trace On Graph Trace On Graph Trace On Graph
Vmax(volt)
Vavg(volt)
Vrms(volt)
(%)

RESULT
Study the single phase half wave and bridge rectifier and effects of filters on waveform.
PRECAUTIONS
4. Trace on graph without filter and with filter half wave and full wave rectifier carefully.


VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by CRO and main purpose of CRO?
2. What is a digital multi meter?
3. Without using multi meter how can we measure the value of resistance?
4. What is the signal and main purpose of function generator?
5. What is rectifier?
6. What is the half wave rectifier?
7. How much diodes are used in half wave and full wave rectifier?
8. What is difference between half wave and full wave rectifier?
9. What is PIV?
10. What is the PIV of half wave and full wave rectifier?
11. What is happens if diodes are replaced by SCR?
12. Why bridge configuration of full wave rectifier is better than midpoint configuration?
13. What is range of firing angle?
14. What is filter?
15. What are types of filter mainly used?


EXPERIMENT # 8(A)

OBJECT To basic functional study and connection of moving coil & moving iron ammeters &
voltmeters, dynamometer type wattmeter and analog & digital energy meter.
APPARATUS

S. No. Name Rating Type Quantity
1 Voltmeter 0-20 volt Moving coil 1
2 Voltmeter 0-300V Moving coil 1
3 Ammeter 0-2A Moving coil 1
4 Ammeter 01A Moving coil 1
5 Wattmeter 300V, 300W 1
6 Energy meter 0-300kWhr 1-phase induction
type
1
7 Connecting leads As per
required
8 Lamp load with holder 200W 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig8.1 Connection of Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter

THEORY
(i) Moving coil (or Permanent magnet moving coil) instrument
A PMMC

instrument is shown in fig. 8.2 Below. The principle on which a permanent magnet
coil (PMMC) instrument operates is that a torque is exerted on a current carrying coil placed in
the fixed of a permanent magnet. The coil C is wound on a rectangular aluminum frame. The frame
with spindle S is mounted in Jewel bearings J 1, J2. A pointer is attached to the spindle so that it


moves over a calibrated scale.
PMMC type of instrument cannot be operated by AC, these instruments are only used for DC
supply.

Fig. 8.2 Moving coil instrument

(ii) Moving Iron Instruments (MI instruments)
These are classified as (a) the attraction type and (b) the repulsion type.
Repulsion principle is very commonly used in MI instruments. The operation of such an
instrument depends upon the mutual repulsion of two vanes -of ferromagnetic material
magnetized by a current carrying coil.
Below given fig. 8.3 shows a typical form of a repulsion type MI instrument. It consists of a
fixed coil C in which are placed two vanes A and B. Vane A is f
i
xed in space while vane B is
attached to a spindle S carrying a pointer.

Fig. 8.3 Moving iron instruments


When the current to be measured is passed through the coil a magnetic field is produced. This
magnetic field magnetizes the two vanes with the same polarity. Hence the vanes repel each other,
with the result that the pointer is deflected.
NOTE: MI type of instruments can be used both for AC and DC supply systems.

Fig. 8.4 Analog voltmeter and ammeter are connected to an element
Consider Fig. 8.4 Shown above where an analog voltmeter and ammeter are connected to an
element. The voltmeter measures the voltages across a load and is therefore connected in parallel
with element shown.

Fig. 8.5 voltages across a load and is therefore connected in parallel with element.
The voltmeter consist of moving system in series with a resistor whose resistance R
Se
, is
deliberately made very large to minimize the current drawn from the circuit as shown in fig. (4)
Above. The moving system may be moving coil or moving iron. Similarly ammeter measures the
current through the load and is connected in series with it. The ammeter consists of the moving
system in parallel with a resistor R
Sh
, whose resistance is deliberately made very small to minimize
voltage drop across it as shown in figure (5).
Dynamometer Wattmeter
The electrodynamics (or dynamometer) instrument is a moving coil instrument, but the
magnetic field, in which the coil moves, is provided by two fixed coils rather than by permanent
magnets. The dynamometer wattmeter consists of two fixed coil CC, which are connected in
series with the load as shown if fig. 8.6 and are called current coils. The moving coil VC, in series
with a high resistance R
s
, is connected across the supply. The moving coil is also called voltage coil.
The connection diagrams of such types of wattmeter in a circuit are shown below in fig. 8.7 and
fig.(8.8).


Fig. 8.6 Dynamometer wattmeter

Fig. 8.7 Dynamometer wattmeter series with load
M terminal always remain toward main supply and L point toward load side. Point M and C are
normally shorted.
Energy Meter:
As we know that the instrument which is used to measure the electrical energy is called watt-hour
(WH) meter or energy meter. These meters measure electrical energy in kilowatt hours (kwh). Since 1
kwh = 1 unit of electrical energy, the energy, meter continuously register the energy in units.
There are two coils in single phase energy meter, current coil and voltage coil. Current coil is
always connected in series with load and voltage coil is connected across the supply (or load) mean
parallel to load as shown in fig. (8.8).
There is a thin aluminum disc mounted on a spindle. The disc is placed in the air gap between
the series and shunt magnets. Current coil and voltage coil are placed over series and shunt
magnets respectively.
The disc spindle is connected through a set of gears to a counting mechanism. This mechanism
records a number which is proportional to the number of revolutions of the disc and indicates us the
energy consumed directly in kilowatt-hours (kwh).


Fig. 8.8 Single phase energy meter
Name plate of energy meter A typical meter has following details:
Single phase, 230 V, 50 Hz 6 A, 1500 revolutions/ kwh, 2 wire supply.
Here 1500 rev. kWh is known as meter constant, which mean that for an energy consumption of 1 kwh
by the load, the disc will make 1500 revolutions.

RESULT Study of various types of measuring instruments is successfully done.


EXPERIMENT # 8(B)

OBJECTS Run a 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor at no load and measure its voltage,
current, power factor. Reverse the direction of rotation.
THEROY
Three phase induction motor consists of silicon steel slotted core in which three phase copper wire
winding is done and connection brought out on terminal box. The motor is also made of silicon steel
stampings core slotted in which copper or aluminum bars are inserted and shorted by copper or
aluminum short circuiting rings on both sides.
The body is made of cast iron on which channel given by a fan fitted on the shaft of the motor on rear
side. The fan is covered by a sheet steel cowl. The connections of stator winding is made inter is star or
in delta. Low HP motors are connected in star, medium and high HP motors are connected in star to
delta or delta to star.
The three phase motor works on mutual induction principle. The three phase stator when supplied with
three phase acts as primary produces three rotating magnetic field links the rotor induces emf in rotor
and the current circulates in rotor bars through short circuiting rings, then force is exerted on rotor
conductors and the rotor rotates in the direction of rotation of the magnetic field and so the three phase
induction motor is hence self starting.
The directions of rotation of three phase rotating magnetic field can be reversed by inter changing any
two phases of the supply.
DIAGRAM

Fig 8.9 phase squirrel cage induction motor


OBSERVATION TABLE

S. No. Voltmeter(volt) Ammeter (Amp.) Wattmeter
W
1
(watt)
Wattmeter
W
2
(watt.)
1.
2.
3.

Circuit diagram of 3-Phase

Fig.8.10 Circuit diagram of 3 phase induction motor at NO load

CALCULATION
Voltage of motor (line) V
L=V volt
Current of the motor (line) I
L=
I Amp
Power of the motor P = P
1
+ P
2
watt.
Power factor of the motor (cos)= P/3V
L
I
L
lagging
RESULT we have study constructions and connection of moving coil & moving iron ammeters &
voltmeters, dynamometer type wattmeter and analog & digital energy meter) and constructions of 3-
phase squirrel cage induction
PRECAUTIONS
- Connection should be right and tight
- Main switch , starter and motor should be earthed
- Use of proper range of voltmeter and ammeter
- Dont touch the shaft of the running motor


VIVA QUESTIONS
1.What is voltmeter?
2.What is ammeter?
3.What is wattmeter?
4.What is different between moving coil and moving iron coil
5.What is energy meter?
6.How the ammeters and voltmeters are connecting in any circuit?
7.Moving iron instrument can be used?
8. Why a moving iron ammeter coil has few turns of thick wire in order?
9. Why a moving iron volt meter coil has large number of turns of thin wire in order?
10. What is principle of induction motor work?
11. How we can calculate slip speed?
12. How we can reverse the directions of the squirrel cage induction motor?
13. What is the normal value of slip of an I M operating at full load?
14. Why rotor of squirrel cage induction motor is skewed?
15. What is the advantage of squirrel cage inductions motor?


EXPERIMENT # 9(A)

OBJECT To study construction circuit, working and application of the Fluorescent lamp and
Sodium vapour lamp.

APPARATUS
S. No. Equipment Name Range Type Quantity
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6
7

8
9
10

11
12
13
14
15
16
HPSV Lamp
HPSV Lampe Holder
Copper Ballast

Igniter
Capacitor
DPMC
Leads

HVPV Lamp
HVPV Lamp Holder
Copper Ballast

Capacitor
DPMCB
Neon Lamp
Neon Lamp Holder
Neon Lamp
Neon Lamp Holder
220-250V,70W
5A
220-240V,1A, Cos=.34
2000V(Surge)
250V,10uf
6A, 250V
Red, Black, Yellow
200-250V, 125W
5A
220-240V,1A, Cos=.5
250V,10uf
6A,250V
5W, 220V
5A
500W,250V
5A
A.C
---
A.C

A.C
--
A.C
---

A.C
---
A.C

A.C
A.C
A.C
---
A.C
--
1
1
1

1
1
1
As Required

1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1

S. No. Name Range Type Quantity
1.

Fluorescent tube

40W, 230V, 50Hz, 120cm.

Tubular

1
2. Choke coil 40W,230V,cos=.5

1
3. Starter

Glow type for 20/40/65/80W tube 2
4. Test lamp

15/100/200W

1/1/1
5. Connecting leads As Per
Reuired


THEORY
A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury
vapor. The excited mercury atoms produce short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to
fluoresce, producing visible light. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light more
efficiently than an incandescent lamp. Lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost of the
lamp. The lamp is more costly because it requires a ballast to regulate the flow of current through the
lamp while larger fluorescent lamps have been mostly used in commercial or institutional buildings; the
compact fluorescent lamp is now available in the same popular sizes as incandescent and is used as an
energy-saving alternative in homes.
The fluorescent lamps are a type of gas discharge device. The gas in the tube consists of some inert gases
(e.g. Argon) and a few drops of mercury at very low pressure. The inside of the tube is coated with a
phosphor substance or fluorescent powder. It converts U.V. radiation into visible light. Since electric
discharge of the inert gas at low pressure gives ultra violet radiations. The electrodes are in the form of
oxide coated tungsten filaments at both ends of tube.
Fluorescent tube verses incandescent lamp
S.NO. POINT OF
CONSIDERATI
ON
FLUORESCENT TUBE OR
LAMP
INCANDESCENT OR
FILAMENT LAMP
1 Initial cost High Low
2 Running cost Low, i.e. more economical
working
High
3 Life More (about 7500 working
hours)
Low (about 1000 working hours)
4 Luminous
efficiency
High (40 lumens /watt) Low( 10 lumens /watt)
5 Heating effect Nil Lot of heat is evolved
6 Starting trouble May be there Nil
7 Illumination Gives shadow less diffused light
with no glare or glitter
Gives light with glare, and
shadow of dark, and bright
patches


Starter
Its appearance like a small glass bulb which consist of two electrode, one is fixed and other is made up
of U-shade bimetallic strips. Such type of starter is known as glow type starter. A paper capacitor may
also be placed in parallel with a tie to metallic strips. To avoid the welding up together of strips, we use
resister and to avoid interference in radio and T.V. at the time of switching the tube line ON.
Fluorescent Lamps
Fluorescent lamp is the most widely used discharge lamp. It is an energy efficient lamp available in low
and medium wattage range making it suitable for domestic and commercial lighting purposes.
Construction
8 Effect of frequent
switching on &
off
Life reduced, since the coating
on the electrodes is destroyed at
each starting.
There is no such problem.
9 Fixing process Fixing, and fault finding is
somewhat difficult
Very easy process
10 Effect of voltage
fluctuations
Causes flickering of the tube Only intensity of light alters
11 Effect of voltage
supply
(2) its supply voltage is low
then the tube may blink a
number of times before
staring, and this process
reduces the life of tube.
(3) If voltage is high, then it
reduces the life of tube by
rapid deterioration of
cathode coating.
(1) An increase of 5% in
voltage increases light
output by 15%, but
reduces the life of the
bulb to half.
(2) A decrease of 5% in
voltage decreases the
output by 15%, but
increases the life of bulb
by about 100%.
12 Problem during
running condition
(1) It can produce humming
sound.
(2) A defective choke or
starter makes the staring
difficult, and shortens the
life of the tube.
No problem


The construction of a standard fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig. 9.1. It consists of a glass tube of around
36 mm diameter and a length of 1200 mm. The inner surface of the tube is coated with a fluorescent
powder - usually phosphor coating. Tungsten wire electrodes with bi-pin cap are provided at both ends.
There is an electrode shield around each electrode to reduce the blackening of the tubes due to
deposition of evaporated tungsten. The tube is filled with an inert gas such as argon to a pressure of 1.5
to 5 mm of mercury. A small drop-let of mercury is also introduced into the tube. During normal
operation this mercury vaporizes and helps to maintain the discharge.

Fig. 9.1 Fluorescent lamps
Operation


Fluorescent lamps are designed for switch start operation. A typical switch start circuit is shown in Fig.
9.2. The starter consists of two bimetallic contacts, housed in a small glass bulb filled with a noble gas at
low pressure. The contacts are positioned with a narrow separation between them. When the normal
voltage is applied, it creates a glow discharge between the bimetallic contacts and due to heating they
bend towards each other. The contacts touch each other for one or two seconds and the current path is
completed through the inductive ballast and the filament electrodes. This current results in preheating the
electrodes. As the bimetallic contacts touch, the glow discharge stops and now the contacts cool down
and leave apart to open the circuit. The sudden break of current will induce a high voltage (600-1500V)
in the ballast and is applied across -the tube, which in turn trigger the discharge through the tube. The
capacitor, which is connected across the starter contact, is provided to reduce the radio interference due
to switching operations. The starter has no function once the lamp is started. Like other discharge lamps,
fluorescent lamps are also having a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. This means the
resistance of the tube decreases when temperature is increased, resulting in increase of current. Therefore
the ballast is essential during normal operation also to regulate the lamp current. When the ballast is
connected in series with the circuit, it regulates the lamp current. The capacitor across the supply line is
for power factor improvement.
When there is a discharge through the lamp, it produces radiations mainly in the ultraviolet region. This
radiation is converted to visible radiation by the phosphor coating on the inner side of the glass tube.
Performance
The luminous efficiency of the fluorescent lamp is around 75 lumens/watt, which is much higher than
incandescent lamps. The colour rendering index of this lamp is in the rage of 50-60 and this is sufficient
for normal domestic or commercial lighting.
Fluorescent tamps have an expected life varying from 6000 to 20000 hours. One disadvantage with this
lamp is that the power factor of the circuit is low (around 0.5), but this problem can be solved to some
extent by connecting a capacitor across the supply.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. 9.2 fluorescent tube light circuit diagram


Sodium Vapour Lamps
Sodium vapour lamp is also. a discharge lamp. The discharge tube of this lamp contains a mixture of
sodium vapour and an inert gas usually neon. At normal temperature, the sodium inside the tube shall
be in solid state and therefore do not contribute to discharge. The inert gas is added as a 'starting gas' and
the initial discharge shall be due to the presence of this gas. The radiation produced by sodium lamp is
predominantly a monochromatic yellow colored radiation at 589 nm wavelength. This wavelength has a
speciality that it is very near to the peak of the eye sensitivity curve.

Construction and operation
There are two variants of sodium vapor lamps - low pressure and high pressure types. There is slight
difference in the construction of these two types.

Fig. 9.3 Low pressure sodium vapour lamp

Fig. 9.4 High pressure sodium vapour lamp
Above figure shows the construction of a low pressure sodium vapour lamp. The vapour pressure of
sodium is about 0.1 Pa for this type. The discharge tube is a U shaped glass tube. The inside of the arc
tube is coated with a sodium resistant glass layer. At the two ends of the tube, there are coiled electrodes.
When the lamp is not burning, the sodium will be in solid state deposited on the inner side of the tube.
At startup the lamp functions like a neon lamp with a characteristic pink colour. As the temperature


builds up, the sodium vaporizes and starts radiating yellow light. The lamp shall give it full brightness
within a few minutes.
There is an outer envelope for the lamp and the space between the discharge tube and the envelope is
vacuum. Vacuum is necessary to reduce the heat loss from the discharge tube. It is also important to
maintain the temperature of the discharge tube at around 260 C for generating proper radiation.
In high pressure sodium vapor lamp, the vapour pressure is much higher (about 7000 Pa). At this
pressure, the radiation from the discharge covers a good part of the visible spectrum and therefore the
colour rendering properties improves. The temperature of the discharge tube is around 1300 C. Fig
9.4(g) shows a typical construction of a high pressure sodium vapour lamp. The operating temperature is
much higher compared to the low pressure type. The arc tube is made of a translucent ceramic material.
This material is particularly selected because it does not react with sodium or loose its shape even at
higher temperatures. There is an outer envelope for the lamp and the space between the arc tube and the
envelope is vacuum or an inert gas filling.
Sodium vapour lamps are also having a negative temperature coefficient of resistance and therefore
require a ballast to control the current during normal operation. The lamp has another requirement that
for starting, it requires a higher voltage than the normal operating voltage. For low pressure sodium
vapour lamp, the starting voltage is around 450V and for high pressure type the striking voltage is
between 1000 and 4000 V. Fig. 17.11 shows a typical circuit suitable for low pressure sodium vapour
lamp. An autotransformer with high leakage reactance is used for starting and to control the current
during normal operation. High leakage reactance results in higher voltage regulation. At start the lamp
current will be low and the high voltage required for starting will be available from the auto transformer.
As the sodium vaporize the lamp current increases and due to the high regulation of the autotransformer,
the voltage falls to the normal operating voltage. These circuits have low lagging power factor between
0.3 and 0.4 and to improve the power factor, a capacitor is connected across the input.
Electronic igniters are available now for all types of discharge lamps. These igniters are designed to give
the high startup voltage required by discharge lamps.
Performance
Low pressure sodium vapour lamps have very high efficacy of 100 to 180 lumens/watt. This is mainly
because the radiation produced is in the visible spectrum. On the other hand these lamps have extremely
low colour rendering index since the light output is monochromatic. Low pressure sodium vapour lamps
are available in the range of 18-180 W.
The colour rendering index of high pressure sodium lamps is better than low pressure type (about 25%),
but the efficacy is slightly less (65 to 140 lumens/watt).
High pressure sodium vapour lamps are available in the range of 35 - 1000 W.


Due to the low colour rendering properties, the application for sodium vapour lamps is limited to street
lighting, security lighting etc where the colour discrimination is not important. The life of these lamps is
about 20000 hours.

RESULT Study of various lamps is successfully done.

PRECAUTIONS
1) Tools should be used carefully.
2) Fitting should be tightly fitting.
3) Connection should be tight.
4) Wire should be on the conduit, power gripped properly.


EXPERIMENT # 9 (B)
OBJECT To study the construction, circuit, working and application of the Mercury vapour
lamp, Halogen lamp and Neon lamp.
THEORY
Mercury Vapour Lamps
Mercury vapour lamp is a discharge lamp, available in a wattage range of 50 to 1OOO W. It is
commonly used for street lighting, yard lighting etc.
Construction and operation
The lamp has an arc tube inside and an outer envelope as shown in Fig.9.5. The inner side of the
envelope has a phosphor coating. The actual discharge takes place inside the arc tube.

Fig. 9.5 Mercury vapour lamp construction
The arc tube is made of quartz and is capable of withstanding high temperature and pressure. Inside the
discharge tube there are two main electrodes placed at both ends and an auxiliary electrode near to one
of the main electrodes. The tube contains a mixture of mercury vapour and an inert gas - usually argon.
Initially, when the voltage is applied there will be no discharge between the main electrodes, but the
same voltage is available between the auxiliary electrode and the main electrode next to it. Since the gap
between these two electrodes is less, it triggers a discharge between them. A series resistance limits this
discharge current. The heat generated by this discharge evaporates more mercury and within a few
minutes, the discharge starts between the main electrodes, giving its full brightness.
The radiations produced by the tube include ultraviolet and infrared rays in nearly equal proportions. The
ultraviolet rays are converted to visible radiation by the phosphor coating on the outer envelope.
Being discharge type, mercury vapour lamp also has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Therefore an equipment to regulate the current is necessary. Ballast connected in series with the lamp
serves the purpose.
Performance
There are different types of mercury lamps available and the efficacy and colour rendering index vary
from type to type. The highest efficacy is around 60 lumens/watt, but with colour rendering index of


around 20 only. Certain types of MV lamps have higher colour index at the expense of efficacy.MV
lamps are generally used for street lighting and some commercial exteriors where colour rendering is not
important. These lamps have long life (up to 20000 hours).
NEON LAMP
It is a cold cathode lamp and consists of a glass bulb filled with neon gas with a small percentage of
helium. These lamps give orange pink colored light. Electrodes are of pure iron and are spaced only few
mm apart so that lamps can be made for voltage as low as 110 volts a.c. or 150 volt d.c, for use on a.c.
the electrodes are of equal size. On d.c .the gas glows near the negative electrode, therefore, negative
electrode is made large in size. The efficiency of neon lamp lies between 15-40 lumen/watt.
Owing to discharge of the gas between the electrodes in the form of an arc, it may cause the current
drawn by the lamp to increase indefinitely. This is prevented by connecting a high resistance of few
thousands ohms in series and mounting it in the cap. The power consumption is of the order of 5 watts.
Neon lamps are used as indicator lamp, night lamps, for determination of polarity of d.c. mains and in
large size as neon tubes for the purpose of advertising.

Fig. 9.6 butt welded neon lamp with resister
OBESERVATIONS
S.
No.
Lamp Lamp Turn
ON Time
Color of Light Lamp Turn
OFF Time Initial Final
1. HPSV Lamp

2. HPMV Lamp

3. Neon Lamp

4. Halogen Lamp


RESULT
The study of the construction, working & circuit of the fluorescent lamp (tube light) sodium vapor lamp,
halogen lamp, mercury vapour lamp and neon lamp have been done.
PRECAUTIONS
- Lamps should be handled carefully.
- All the connections should be tight.
- Lamps should be kept & connected properly (horizontally/vertically)
- Circuit must be get checked before switching on the supply.
- Do not touch live wire/parts.
- Switch off supply, when not used.


VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What do you know about fluorescent lamp?
2. What do you know about sodium vapor lamp and mercury vapor lamp?
3. What is the use of chock coil in fluorescent lamp?
4. What is the use of starter in fluorescent lamp?
5. How do you test the filament in fluorescent lamp?
6. How do you test the chock coil in fluorescent lamp?
7. How do you check the starter is working or not?
8. What is the Application of fluorescent lamp in general life?
9. What are the applications of neon lamp?
10. What is coiled coil filament? What is its advantage?
11. What is the function of starter in tube light?
12. What are the damnations (diameter & length) of the fluorescent lamp?
13. Which gas is filled in sodium vapor lamp?
14. Which gas is filled in fluorescent lamp?
15. What do you mean by lamp efficiency?


EXPERIMENT # 10(A)
OBJECT Study the BJT amplifier in common emitter configuration. Measure voltage gain, plot
gain frequency response and calculate its bandwidth.
APPARATUS
S. No. Equipment Name Range Type Quantity
1. BJT Amplifier Kit 1
2. Function Generator Digital 1
3. Voltmeter 0-2 V
0-10V
PMMC
PMMC
1
4. Ammeter 0-50mA PMMC 2
5. Connecting Lead As per require

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. 10.1 BJ T amplifier in common emitter configuration
THEORY
The common emitter configuration of BJT is shown in fig. 10.1
In C.E. configuration the emitter is made common to the input and output. It is also referred to as
grounded emitter configuration. It is most commonly used configuration. In this, base current and output
voltages are taken as impendent parameters and input voltage and output current as dependent
parameters
V
BE
= f
1
(I
B
, V
CE
)
I
C
= f
2
( I
B
, V
CE
)


Input Characteristic
The curve between I
B
and V
BE
for different values of V
CE
is shown in fig. 10.2. Since the base emitter
junction of a transistor is a diode, therefore the characteristic is similar to diode one. With higher values
of V
CE
collector gathers slightly more electrons and therefore base current reduces. Normally this effect
is neglected. (Early effect). When collector is shorted with emitter then the input characteristic is the
characteristic of a forward biased diode when V
BE
is zero and I
B
is also zero.

Fig. 10.2 I nput characteristic
Output Characteristic
The output characteristic is the curve between V
CE
and I
C
for various values of I
B
. For fixed value of I
B
and is shown in 10.3. For fixed value of I
B
, I
C
is not varying much dependent on V
CE
but slopes are
greater than CE characteristic. The output characteristics can again be divided into three parts.

Fig. 10.3 Output characteristic
(1) Active Region
In this region collector junction is reverse biased and emitter junction is forward biased. It is the area to
the right of V
CE
= 0.5 V and above I
B
= 0. In this region transistor current responds most sensitively to I
B
.
If transistor is to be used as an amplifier, it must operate in this region.


If
dc
is truly constant then I
C
would be independent of V
CE
. But because of early effect,
dc
increases by
0.1% (0.001) e.g. from 0.995 to 0.996 as V
CE
increases from a few volts to 10V. Then
dc
increases from
0.995 / (1-0.995) = 200 to 0.996 / (1-0.996) = 250 or about 25%. This shows that small change in (
reflects large change in . Therefore the curves are subjected to large variations for the same type of
transistors.
(2) Cut Off
Cut off in a transistor is given by I
B
= 0, I
C
= I
CO
. A transistor is not at cut off if the base current is simply
reduced to zero (open circuited) under this condition,
I
C
= I
E
= I
CO
/ ( 1-
dc
) = I
CEO

The actual collector current with base open is designated as I
CEO
. Since even in the neighborhood of cut
off,
dc
may be as large as 0.9 for Ge, then I
C
=10 I
CO
(approximately), at zero base current. Accordingly
in order to cut off transistor it is not enough to reduce I
B
to zero, but it is necessary to reverse bias the
emitter junction slightly. It is found that reverse voltage of 0.1 V is sufficient for cut off a transistor. In
Si, the
dc
is very nearly equal to zero, therefore, I
C
= I
CO
. Hence even with I
B
= 0, I
C
= I
E
= I
CO
so that
transistor is very close to cut off.
In summary, cut off means I
E
= 0, I
C
= I
CO
, I
B
= -I
C
= -I
CO
, and V
BE
is a reverse voltage whose magnitude
is of the order of 0.1 V for Ge and 0 V for Si.
Reverse Collector Saturation Current I
CBO

When in a physical transistor emitter current is reduced to zero, then the collector current is known as
I
CBO
(approximately equal to I
CO
). Reverse collector saturation current I
CBO
also varies with temperature,
avalanche multiplication and variability from sample to sample. Consider the circuit shown in fig. 10.4.
V
BB
is the reverse voltage applied to reduce the emitter current to zero.
I
E
= 0, I
B
= -I
CBO

If we require, V
BE
= - 0.1 V
Then - V
BB
+ I
CBO
R
B
< - 0.1 V


If R
B
= 100 K, I
CBO
= 100 m A, Then V
BB
must be 10.1 Volts. Hence transistor must be capable to
withstand this reverse voltage before breakdown voltage exceeds.
(3).Saturation Region
In this region both the diodes are forward biased by at least cut in voltage. Since the voltage V
BE
and
V
BC
across a forward is approximately 0.7 V therefore, V
CE
= V
CB
+ V
BE
= - V
BC
+ V
BE
is also few
tenths of volts. Hence saturation region is very close to zero voltage axis, where all the current rapidly
reduces to zero. In this region the transistor collector current is approximately given by V
CC
/ R
C
and
independent of base current. Normal transistor action is last and it acts like a small ohmic resistance.
Large Signal Current Gain
dc

The ratio I
c
/ I
B
is defined as transfer ratio or large signal current gain
dc

Where I
C
is the collector current and I
B
is the base current. The
dc
is an indication if how well the
transistor works. The typical value of
dc
varies from 50 to 300.
In terms of h parameters,
dc
is known as dc current gain and in designated h
fE
(
dc
= h
fE
). Knowing the
maximum collector current and
dc
the minimum base current can be found which will be needed to
saturate the transistor.

This expression of
dc
is defined neglecting reverse leakage current (I
CO
).
Taking reverse leakage current (I
CO
) into account, the expression for the
dc
can be obtained as follows:
dc
in terms of
dc
is given by

Since, I
CO
= I
CB

Cut off of a transistor means I
E
= 0, then I
C
= I
CBO
and I
B
= - I
CBO
. Therefore, the above expression
dc

gives the collector current increment to the base current change form cut off to I
B
and hence it represents
the large signal current gain of all common emitter transistor.


PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as per shown above
2. Set Function generator at 50 mV
3. Vary the input frequency in regular steps and the output voltage and note down the reading.
4. Plot the graph gain (db) v/s Frequency.
5. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph
OBSERVATION TABLE
S.
No.
Frequency V
o
(Volt) V
s
(Volt) Gain(V
o
/V
s
) Voltage
gain(db)=20log (V
o
/V
s
)

PRECAUTIONS


EXPERIMENT # 10(B)
OBJECT To study different types of wires and cables used in electrical/electronic systems.
(Beyond Syllabus).
APPARATUS:
1 Different wires
2 Different cables
THEORY:
Electrical wiring in general refers to insulated conductors used to carry electricity, and associated
devices. Wires and cables and been in vogue ever since the invention of telephone and electricity
performing the key role of interconnection conduction and transmission of signal and electric power.
These have been widely used as the interconnecting medium in a variety of electric, electronic and
power distribution system.
10.1 TYPES OF WIRES:
10.1.1 Triplex Wire:
Triplex is an aerial cable that the utility company uses to feed the power pole. This wire ties to the wires
sticking out of the weather head.

10.1.2 Main Feeder Wires:
These wires are usually type THHN wire and are rated for 125% of the load required. These are usually
black insulated wires coming out of the service weather head.

10.1.3 Panel Feed Wires:
These wires are also type THHN, like the main feeders. A typical 100-amp service would have a #2
THHN set of wires. They would then be rated at 125 amps. This would protect the wires if the amperage
was a full 100 amps.


10.1.4 Non-Metallic Sheathed Wire (NM):
This wire, commonly called Romex, is a plastic coated wire that has either two or three conductors and a
bare ground wire. This is the typical wiring used in most homes. The rating for this wire is either 15
amps, 20 amps, or 30 amps, depending on the installation.

10.1.5 Single Strand Wire:
When your home is piped, youll have to have another type of wire. Single strand wire is insulated and
many of these can be pulled into the same pipe. Normally, youll be using THHN wire for this
installation.

10.1.6 Copper Electrical Wire:
Copper is considered the "gold standard" in the world of wiring. Most homes and electrical appliances
rely on copper wire to transfer electricity for two reasons: it is a very good conductor, and is easy to
mold and bend. Copper is not difficult to come by (though its abundance is not as great as that of some
other conductive metal), so the price is reasonable for residential use.
10.1.7 Aluminum Electrical Wire:
Aluminum is cheaper and more abundant than copper. It is also easy to shape and bend. It is, however, a
less conductive material. An aluminum wire that is meant to carry the same amount of electricity as a
copper one needs to be larger in diameter.
Electrical safety is an issue with aluminum wiring in residences; this is especially true of wiring installed
in the 60's and 70's. Problems occur in the form of excess heat when aluminum wires are to carry the
same load that a copper wire of the same size would normally carry. In many cases, this wiring has been


replaced as it is known to be a fire hazard. Aluminum wiring is used safely today in larger diameters for
commercial purposes. It can also be found in some modern appliances.
10.1.8 Alloys and Silver wire:
For industrial use, an alloy is sometimes made from aluminum and copper to bridge the gap between
performance and cost effectiveness. This type of wiring is generally not found in a residence.
10.2 Size Electrical Wire:
In order to install any electrical wire installation, the proper wire size for the application is needed. But
how do know what size wire to use? Wire is sized by the American Wire Gauge (AWG) system. The
installation of conductors will depend on a few factors. The gauge of the wire, wire capacity, and what
the wire will feed should all be considered.Notice that the smaller the wire gauge, the larger the
ampacity that the wire can handle. Wire ampacity is the safe amount of current that a wire can handle
without getting hot or causing a fire. The following examples of devices in home, the ampacity that they
are rated for, and the wire gauge, will help determine the right size wire for the appropriate application.
Wire Use Rated Ampacity Wire Gauge
Low-voltage Lighting and
Lamp Cords
10 Amps 18 Gauge
Extension Cords 13 Amps 16 Gauge
Light Fixtures, Lamps,
Lighting Runs
15 Amps 14 Gauge
Receptacles, 110-volt Air
Conditioners, Sump Pumps,
Kitchen Appliances
20 Amps 12 Gauge
Electric Clothes Dryers, 220-
volt Window Air
Conditioners, Built-in Ovens,
Electric Water Heaters
30 Amps 10 Gauge
Cook Tops 45 Amps 8 Gauge
Electric Furnaces, Large
Electric Heaters
60 Amps 6 Gauge
Electric Furnaces, Large
Electric Water Heaters, Sub
Panels
80 Amps 4 Gauge
Service Panels, Sub Panels 100 Amps 2 Gauge
Service Entrance 150 Amps 1/0 Gauge
Service Entrance 200 Amps 2/0 Gauge

10.3 TYPES OF CABELS:
According to conductor size, shape type and placement of conductors. Cables may be classified in to
following main type-
1. Co-axial


2. Twisted pair
3. Fiber optic
10.3.1 CO-AXIAL CABLE: These cables are used in many different applications ranging from
common cable television, transmission to cellular telephone power cabling. Co-axial comprised of an
inner
Conductor, electric, outer conductor and a jacket. Cable is constructed with a single solid or stranded
center conductor surrounded the dielectric layer .A conducting layer of aluminum foil or metallic braid
or a combination of the two encompasses the dielectric and act as the return ground for the cable.
10.3.2 TWISTED PAIR CABLE: For transmission of signals for short be distance, twisted pair
cables are used. Twisted pair cable is shown in fig.
It has two conductors, which are twisted around each other. T he twisted are important they give it
electrical characteristics, which allow some kind of communication otherwise not possible. Twisted of
wires minimizes interference from other twisted pair in the cable. Twisted pair cables are available in
two types, unshielded (UTP) and shielded (STP).Both STP & UTP come in flexible and solid wire
variety. The solid wire cable has less attenuation and can span longer distances.
STP is a type of twisted pair cable with a metallic shield around the twisted conductors. This metal
shield on the conductors adds protection against external interference. The shielded reduces the effect of
noise on the communication in the cable.
10.3.3 FIBER OPTIC CABLE: Fiber is a very long narrow, flexible piece of glass mainly used
for high-speed communication.
Fiber optic used light rather than electricity to transmit data in a fiber optic system; electricity is
converted in to light by a LED or laser and sent down a run of fiber optic cabling. Than in cable, the
light bounces off from an inner metallic shield called cladding. This cladding keeps the light contained
along the fiber optic strand.
Generally fiber optic cables are made of three layers. The jacket, the cladding and the core. The core is
made of Germania doped silica, which contains and reflects light. The surrounding cladding is made of
pure silica and allow for handing of cable without touching the glass.
10.4 TYPE OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE:
There are two main types of fiber optic cables used for communication- single mode and multi mode.
Single mode is a type of fiber optic cable used for longer distance and higher speed e.g for long distance
telephone .Multimode is a type of fiber optic cable used mainly for shorter, e.g campus distances. Single
mode fiber is single, tiny strand of fiber optic glass. It is used in telephone applications, cable television
etc. it allows a single ray of light to pass through the fiber at a time.


Multimode fiber is much larger in diameter than of the single of that of the single mode fiber. This type
of fiber can accommodate many rays of light along its core. Telephone companies typically use this type
of fiber because it can accommodate hundreds of phone conversation along one fiber.

Fig. 10.4 Cross-Sectional View of Different types of cables
10.5 ADVANTAGES: Fiber optic cables have several advantage: wide usable bandwidth, excellent
noise immunity, good ground isolation high voltage isolation, non electronic radiation, small size and
lightweight.
10.6 DISADVANTAGE: Despite the above advantages relatively high cost of fiber optic cables
limit their application.
RESULTS We studied various types of wires and cables.
PRECAUTIONS Following precautions must keep in mind:
1. Handle with care, every equipment or devices.
2. Do not open any device without permission.


VIVA VOICE
1. What is BJT?
2. How many configurations are used in BJT?
3. Which type of configurations is mostly used and why?
4. What do you mean amplifier?
5. What do you mean amplifier?
6. What is the value of slope in output characteristics of transistor?
7. Draw the block diagram of BJT as an amplifier.
8. What is formula of voltage gain?
9. In common emitter configurations power gain is? (Low/high)
10. What is the operating point?
11. Name some of the cables used in the electronic field, with typical applications for each?
12. What are the different parts of a cable?
13. Why shields are required for cables?
14. Why insulation is required for cables?
15. What are main parts of optical fiber cables?


EXPERIMENT # 11(A)
OBJECT Study the construction and basic working of SCR.
APPARATUS
S. No. Name Range Type Quantity
1. SCR Characteristics Kit 1
2. Multi meter Digital 2
3. Patch Cords As per Required

Thyristor is a four layers, three junction, and p-n-p-n semiconductor switching devices. It has
three terminals; anode, cathode and gate. Fig 11.1 gives constructional details of a typical thyristor.
Basically a thyristor consists of four layers of alternate p-type and n-type silicon semiconductors forming
three junctions J1, J2 and J3. The terminal connected to outer p-region is called anode (A), the terminal
connected to outer n-region is called cathode (K) and that connected to inner p-region is called the gate
(G).
An SCR is so called because silicon is used for its construction and its operation as a rectifier
(very low resistance in the forward conduction and very high resistance in reverse direction) can be
controlled. Like the diode, an SCR is a unidirectional device that blocks the current flow from cathode to
anode.

Fig. 11.1- SCR: (a) Circuit symbol of SCR, (b) Schematic diagram of SCR, (c) and, (d) Represent two
transistor model of SCR.
STATIC V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A THYRISTOR
An elementary circuit diagram for obtaining static V-I characteristics of a thyristor is shown in
fig 11.2. The anode and cathode are connected to main source through the load. The gate and cathode
are fed from a source E
s
which provides positive I
g
from gate to cathode.


Fig. 11.2 Circuit diagram to determine the V-I characteristics of SCR
Fig 11.2 Shows the V-I characteristics of a thyristor. Here V
a
is the anode voltage across thyristor
terminals A, K and I
a
is the anode current. Typical SCR V-I characteristics reveals that a thyristor has
three basic modes of operation; namely reverse blocking mode, forward blocking (off state) mode and
forward conduction (on-state) mode.
REVERSE BLOCKING MODE
When cathode is made positive with respect to anode with switch S open, thyristor is reverse
biased; junction J1, J3 are seen to be reverse biased where as junction J2 is forward biased. The device
behaves as if two diodes are connected in series with reverse voltage applied across them. A small
leakage current of the order of few mili-amp flows. This is reverse blocking mode, called the off-state,
of the thyristor. If the reverse voltage is increased, then at a critical breakdown level, called reverse
breakdown voltage V
BR
, an avalanche occurs at J1 and J3 and the reverse current increased rapidly. A
large current associated with V
BR
gives rise to more losses in the SCR. This may lead to thyristor
damage as the junction temperature may exceed its permissible temperature rise. It should therefore, be
ensured that maximum working reverse voltage across a thyristor does not exceed V
BR
. When reverse
voltage applied across a thyristor is less than V
BR
, the device offers high impedance in the reverse
direction. The SCR in the reverse blocking mode may therefore be treated as an open switch.
FORWARD BLOCKING MODE
When anode is positive with respect to the cathode, with gate circuit open, thyristor is said to be
forward biased. Junction J1, J3 is forward biased but junction J2 is reverse biased. In this mode, a
small current, called forward leakage current flows. In case the forward voltage is increased, then the
reverse biased junction J2 will have an avalanche breakdown at a voltage called forward and break
over voltage (V
BO
). When forward voltage is less than V
BO
, SCR offers high impedances. Therefore, a
thyristor can be treated as an open switch even in the forward blocking mode.


FORWARD CONDUCTION MODE
In this mode, thyristor conducts currents from anode to cathode with a very small voltage drop
across it. A thyristor is brought from forward blocking mode to forward conduction mode by turning it
on by exceeding the forward break over voltage or by applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode.
In this mode, thyristor is in on-state and behaves like a closed switch. Voltage drop across thyristor in
on-state is of 1-2 V depending upon the rating of SCR. This voltage drop increases slightly with an
increase an anode current. In conduction mode, anode current is limited by load impedance alone as
voltage drop across SCR is quite small. This small voltage drop (V
T
) across the device is due to ohmic
drop in the four layers.

Fig. 11.3 Forward conduction mode
PROCEDURE:-
i. Connect the required supply to the unit and see that the supply indicator glows.
ii. Connect the 60 W lamp on the holder provided along with the inductor in place of load.
iii. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
iv. Observe and trace the full wave rectifier waveform at the output of bridge formed by D2 to D5
and D7 to D10.
v. Observe and trace the waveform across zener diode D1 and D6.
vi. Observe and trace the waveform across capacitor C1 and C2 and pulses available at pulse
transformers.
vii. Connect one channel of the C.R.O to the output of full wave rectifier, and another to the pulses
available at the pulse transformer. And compare both the waveforms and observe the change in
the trigger pulses with change in value of pot P1 and same for P2.
viii. Observe and trace the output voltage
o
at minimum and maximum value of firing angle (),
when 0 90 for converter operation.


ix. Observe and trace the output voltage
o
at minimum and maximum value of firing angle (),
when 90 for inverter operation.
x. Also observe and trace the thyristor voltage
T1
or
T2
,
T3
or
T4
at minimum and maximum
value of firing angle ().
OBSERVATION TABLE

S. No. Input Voltage Ig=Ig
1
Ig=Ig
2

Vscr(Volt) Iscr(mA) Vscr(Volt) Iscr(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
RESULT We Studies construction and V-I characteristics of SCR and V-I characteristics are plotted
for different gate current on graph.
PRECAUTIONS
2. Keep the Order of Ig=5mA or more.


EXPERIMENT # 11(B)

OBJECT Study the single phase half wave and bridge controlled rectifier and observe the effect
of firing angle on waveform.

APPARATUS
S. No. Name Type Quantity
1 Single phase Half wave controlled Rectifier Converter Single Phase 1
2 Single Phase bridge controlled rectifier converter Single Phase 1
3 Patch Chords As per Required
4 CRO 1

THEORY
Single phase uncontrolled rectifiers are extensively used in a number of power electronic based
converters. In most cases they are used to provide an intermediate unregulated dc voltage source which
is further processed to obtain a regulated dc or ac output. They have, in general, been proved to be
efficient and robust power stages. However, they suffer from a few disadvantages. The main among
them is their inability to control the output dc voltage / current magnitude when the input ac voltage and
load parameters remain fixed. They are also unidirectional in the sense that they allow electrical power
to flow from the ac side to the dc side only. These two disadvantages are the direct consequences of
using power diodes in these converters which can block voltage only in one direction. As will be shown
in this module, these two disadvantages are overcome if the diodes are replaced by thyristors; the
resulting converters are called fully controlled converters.
Thyristors are semi controlled devices which can be turned ON by applying a current pulse at its gate
terminal at a desired instance. However, they cannot be turned off from the gate terminals. Therefore, the
fully controlled converter continues to exhibit load dependent output voltage / current waveforms as in
the case of their uncontrolled counterpart. However, since the thyristor can block forward voltage, the
output voltage / current magnitude can be controlled by controlling the turn on instants of the thyristors.
Working principle of thyristors based single phase fully controlled converters will be explained first in
the case of a single thyristor half wave rectifier circuit supplying an R or R-L load. However, such
converters are rarely used in practice.
Single phase fully controlled half wave rectifier


Fig. 11.4 Single phase fully controlled half wave rectifier
Fig.11. 4(a) shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled half wave rectifier supplying a purely
resistive load. At t = 0 when the input supply voltage becomes positive the thyristor T becomes forward
biased. However, unlike a diode, it does not turn ON till a gate pulse is applied at t = . During the period 0
< t , the thyristor blocks the supply voltage and the load voltage remains zero as shown in fig 11.4(b).
Consequently, no load current flows during this interval. As soon as a gate pulse is applied to the thyristor at
t = it turns ON. The voltage across the thyristor collapses to almost zero and the full supply voltage
appears across the load. From this point onwards the load voltage follows the supply voltage. The load being
purely resistive the load current Io

is proportional to the load voltage. At t = as the supply voltage passes
through the negative going zero crossing the load voltage and hence the load current becomes zero and tries
to reverse direction. In the process the thyristor undergoes reverse recovery and starts blocking the negative
supply voltage. Therefore, the load voltage and the load current remains clamped at zero till the thyristor is
fired again at t = 2 + . The same process repeats thereafter.
From the discussion above and Fig 11.4 (b) one can write


Similar calculation can be done for i
0
. In particulars for pure resistive loads FF
io
= FF
vo
.
Resistive-Inductive load
Fig 11.4 (a) and (b) shows the circuit diagram and the waveforms of a single phase fully controlled half wave
rectifier supplying a resistive inductive load. Although this circuit is hardly used in practice its analysis does
provide useful insight into the operation of fully controlled rectifiers which will help to appreciate the
operation of single phase bridge converters to be discussed later.


(b)
Fig. 11.5 Circuit diagram and wave form for R-L load
As in the case of a resistive load, the thyristor T becomes forward biased when the supply voltage becomes
positive at t = 0. However, it does not start conduction until a gate pulse is applied at t = . As the
thyristor turns ON at t = the input voltage appears across the load and the load current starts building up.
However, unlike a resistive load, the load current does not become zero at t = , instead it continues to flow
through the thyristor and the negative supply voltage appears across the load forcing the load current to
decrease. Finally, at t = ( > ) the load current becomes zero and the thyristor undergoes reverse
recovery. From this point onwards the thyristor starts blocking the supply voltage and the load voltage
remains zero until the thyristor is turned ON again in the next cycle. It is to be noted that the value of
depends on the load parameters. Therefore, unlike the resistive load the average and RMS output voltage


depends on the load parameters. Since the thyristors does not conduct over the entire input supply cycle this
mode of operation is called the discontinuous conduction mode.
From above discussion one can write.

Since the average voltage drop across the inductor is zero.
However, I
ORMS
cannot be obtained from V
ORMS
directly. For that a closed from expression for i
0
will be
required. The value of in terms of the circuit parameters can also be found from the expression of i
0
.


Equation (10.13) can be used to find out I
ORMS
. To find out it is noted that

Equation (10.14) can be solved to find out
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH R LOAD
BRIDGE-CONFIGURATIONS (FOR R LOAD)
An alternative-circuit arrangement of a two-quadrant converter, operating from a single-phase supply, is
a fully controlled bridge-circuit as shown in Fig. 5.1 The operation of this circuit is in principle similar to
that of the 2-pulse midpoint circuit of Fig. 5.2. In the bridge circuit, diagonally opposite pair of thyristors
are made to conduct, and are commutated, simultaneously.

During the first positive half-cycle, SCRs T1 and T2 are forward biased and if they are triggered
simultaneously, then current flows through the path L-T1-R-T2-N. Hence, in the positive half cycle,
thyristors T1 and T2 are conducting.


Fig. 11.6 Fully Controlled Bridge circuit with Resistive Load

Fig 11.7 Waveforms for Fully Controlled Bridge circuit with Resistive Load


During the negative half-cycle of the A.C. input, SCRs T3 and T4 are forward biased and if they are
triggered simultaneously, current flows through the path N-T3-R-T4-L. Thyristors T1, T2 and T3, T4 are
triggered at the same firing angle in each positive and negative half-cycles of the supply voltage,
respectively.
FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE CIRCUIT WITH INDUCTIVE LOAD ) R-L LOAD
The single phase fully controlled bridge circuit with R-L load is shown in Fig. 5.3 Conduction does not
takes place until the thyristors are fired and, in order for current to flow, thyristors T1 and T2 must be
fired together, as must thyristors T3 and T4 in the next half-cycle. To ensuring simultaneous firing, both
thyristors T1 and T2 are fired from the same firing circuit. Inductance L is used in the Circuit to reduce
the ripple.

Fig 11.8 Fully controlled single phase bridge with R-L Load
As shown in Fig. 5.4, at firing angle =600, thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered. Current flows through
the path N-T1-A-L-R-B-T2-N. Supply voltage from this instant appears across output terminal and
forces the current through load. This load-current, I
d
, is assumed to be constant. This current also flows
through the supply and the direction is from line to neutral, which is taken positive, as shown in Fig. 5.4
along with the applied voltage. Now, at instant , voltage reverses. However, because of very large
inductance L, the current is maintained in the same direction at constant magnitude I
d
which keeps the
thyristors T
1
and

T
2
in conducting state and hence, the negative supply voltage appears across output
terminals.
As shown, the line current is positive when T
1
,

T
2
are conducting and negative when T
3
,

T
4
are
conducting.
The average output D.C. voltage can be obtained as
Edc= 1+Emsintdt=[-cost]+
=Emcos-cos+Edc=2Emcos


By controlling the phase-angle of firing pulses, applied to the gates of the thyristors in the range 0
0
-180
0
,
the average-value of the D.C. voltage can be varied continuously from positive maximum to negative
maximum, assuming continuous current flow at the D.C. terminals.

Mode 1, Rectifying Mode During the interval to , both supply-voltage E
s
and supply-current I
s
are
positive; power, therefore, flows from A.C. source to load. During the interval ( to +), E
s
is negative
but I
s,
is positive, the load therefore returns some of its energy to the supply system.

Mode 2, I nverting Mode In Fig. 11.9, the firing pulses are retarded by an angle of 135
0
. The D.C.
terminal voltage waveforms now contain a mean negative component, and the fundamental component
of the A.C. line-current waveforms lags the voltage by an angle of 135
0
. Since the mean D.C. terminal
voltage is negative [>900] , the D.C. power, and hence also the mean A.C. power, must also be
negative. In other words, power is now being delivered from the D.C. side of the converter to the A.C.
side, and the converter is operating as a "line-commutated inverter." This is confirmed by the fact that
the A.C. line current is displaced from the A.C. voltage by an angle greater than 90
0
, which indicates that
a mean component of power is being delivered to the A.C. side of the circuit. If this D.C. voltage-source
is not connected, the conduction will cease somewhere before the angle 1800+.

Fig 11.9


OBSERVATION
V0=2Vm(1+cos)
Where V
0
= Output Voltage
V
m
= Supply Voltage
= Firing Angle

V
m
= 3.3 x CRO probe x voltage channel rat.

OBSERVATION TABLE

S. NO. = HALF WAVE CONVETER FULL WAVE CONVERTER
V
o
I
o
V
max
I
rms
V
o
I
o
V
max
I
rms

1 30
o

2 45
o

3 60
o

4 90
o

RESULT
We have successfully study the wave form of single phase full wave bridge control converter and also
study the waveform of output voltage (V
0
) with respect to firing angle ().
PRECAUTIONS
2. Keep the Order of Ig=5mA or more.


VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What the symbol of SCR?
2. In which state SCR turns of conducting state to blocking state?
3. What are the applications of SCR?
4. What is the rectifier?
5. What are the important types thyristors?
6. How many numbers of junctions are involved in SCR?
7. What is the function of gate in SCR?
8. When gate is open, what happens when anode voltage is increased?
9. What is holding current?
10. What is the condition for making from conducting state to non conducting state?
11. What is the value of forward resistance offered by SCR?
12. Various methods of turning on the SCR?
13. What is the maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier?
14. What is the R.F for half wave rectifier?
15. What is the maximum efficiency of full wave rectifier?


EXPERIMENT NO. # 12(A)
OBJECT To study the different types of transformer used in electrical/electronic systems.

APPARATUS:
(i) Isolation transformers
(ii) Current transformers
(iii) Auto transformers
(iv) Pulse transformers
(v) Audio transformers
(vi) Radio frequency transformers
(vii) Rectifier transformers
(viii) Constant transformers

THEORY:
Transformer is a static device used for transferring electrical energy from one circuit to another circuit
through the medium of magnetic field and without any change of frequency.
It consists of two windings. The electrical circuit, which receives energy from the supply is called
primary winding and other circuit which delivers electrical energy to the load is called secondary
winding.
Type:
Step up transformer: Primary winding voltage<secondary winding voltage
Step down transformer: Primary winding voltage>secondary winding voltage
Types of transformer:
Transformers are used in electronic equipment not only to step up or step down the voltage but also to
electrically isolate the electronic circuit from the mains. Transformers are made in great variety to meet
application requirements. Following types of transformer are generally used in electronic equipments.
(i) Isolation transformers
(ii) Current transformers
(iii) Auto transformers
(iv) Pulse transformers
(v) Audio transformers
(vi) Radio frequency transformers
(vii) Rectifier transformers
(viii) Constant transformers
These are described in brief in the following sections:


12.1 Isolation transformers:
In these transformers, the primary and secondary coils have the same number of turns, which means that
the primary and secondary will have the same amount of voltage. This type of transformer is used to
provide isolation between the primary circuit and the secondary circuit. It is often used where one of the
circuits is grounded and other is not.
Service technicians frequency employs such transformers while working on DC receivers. The
transformer isolated the chassis from the power line, reducing the possibility of accidental shock.
12.2 Current Transformers:
Current transformers are used for the accurate measurement of large alternating current. This can be
achieved only when the transformers are properly designed and constructed and then utilized within their
ratings.
The current transformer must be designed so that the no load current is small
Compared with the transformer load current. use of an, impedance greater than rated will cause the
voltage on the primary and the no load current to increase.
The load current will then be a smaller multiple of the no load current, and the accuracy of the current
transformer will be reduced. Therefore care must be taken in designing this transformer to obtain
minimum ratio and phase errors.
It is important to keep the secondary of a current transformer of a current transformer loaded or shorted
as very high destructive voltage can develop if it is operated with the secondary open circuited.
12.3 Auto transformers:-
In an auto transformer the same turns are used for both primary and secondary windings. If all the turns
are used as the primary. The transformer has a step down ratio. If all the turns are used as the secondary.
The transformer has step up ratio, generally, the auto transformer is constructed with several fixed tape
of a movable tap to permit variation of secondary voltage. These transformers are used where saving of
copper is required. They are smaller in size and weight and cheaper than an equivalent isolation
transformer.
12.4 Pulse Transformer:
A pulse transformer is a special kind of wide band transformer, designed to accommodate rapid rise and
decay of pulse times with minimum of distortion, particularly of video pulses. A normal transformer
may introduce distortion into a square pulse by slowing down the rise and decay times.
The electrical requirements of a pulse transformer are, first, that the winding must be tightly coupled to
minimize leakage inductance and thereby to ensure that the output pulse will have a fast rise time and
second that the insulation be good enough to provide the isolation required.


12.5 Audio Transformer:-
Audio transformer are used to connect transformer to amplifiers, for inter stage coupling, to change
signal levels to match impedance, to invert signal polarities and to provide electrical isolation. Ideally
audio transformers should have a flat response throughout the audio range, in practice however, the
response tends to fall off at the low and high ends of audio spectrum because inductive reactance is small
at these frequencies. This can be corrected by increasing the size and cost of the transformer, a well as
the distributed capacitance. This stray capacitance results in the poor high frequency response, as these
high frequencies are bypassed through the low shunt capacitive reactance.
12.6 Radio frequency Transformer:
Radio frequency transformer is usually air core types, but powdered iron cores may be used depending
on the signal amplitude they provide. Skin effect losses and distributed capacitance become significant at
radio frequencies. These effects can minimize by the use of a special Litz wire. Rf transformer are
more often shielded, to reduce the undesirable coupling and feedback effects of stray capacitance. RF
transformer are used for inter stage coupling and for coupling a signal to or from an antenna.
12.7 Intermediate Transformers:
These are similar to RF transformer but are designed to operate at a fixed or intermediate frequency
equal to the difference between the RF signal and local oscillator frequency in super heterodyne
receivers.
12.8 Rectifier Transformers:
Rectifiers are among the most common application for transformer. They increase or decrease ac
voltages for rectification, filtering etc. they operate from a narrow band of sine ware frequencies or from
a fixed wave from. The transformer secondary voltage and current ratings are calculated from the output
dc requirement. The main objective is thus establishing the required dc voltage at the required current
most optimally. They are used in traction devices, electroplating battery charges, electronic and
communication system, computer power supplies and x-ray equipment.
12.9 Constant Voltage Transformers:
It is essentially, a saturable device, which maintains a constant output voltage irrespective of the changes
in the magnitude of the input voltage. It differs from a conventional transformer by having a large
leakage inductance, a saturating shunt inductance, and a large capacitance in parallel with the load.
12.10 Testing of Transformer:
A transformer is tested for following parameters---
12.10.1 Voltage Test:


The transformer is first subjected to its rated supply voltage. The output is checked across various
tapping on open circuit. It is normal to get a value that is 10-15% higher than the on load rating. The
output is again measured under a Load. It should be close to the specified rating. Furthermore, the
voltage across the two sections of a centre-tapped secondary must be almost identical. The voltage ratio
of the transformer is worked out from this test.
12.10.2 Load Test:
If the current rating is around 500mA. This can easily be arranged through a wire wound resistor,
preferably a rheostat. The transformer should be kept on full load for about an hour. It if overheats, it
should be rejected. Humming on load is a bad sign. If tightening the core or another varnish dip does not
get rid of it. The piece should be discarded.
12.10.3 Insulation Resistance Test:
The transformer should also be put across an insulation resistance tester such as a Meggar. The
transformer is disconnected from the supply and the resistance between the core body and the terminals
is measured. A low value means there is a leak. The piece must be rejected.
12.10.4 Open Circuit
This test is carried out on the transformers which are rated at 1 KVA or more. They are not
recommended for smaller units, since direct loading can help test their efficiency.
12.10.5 Dielectric Test:
A given winding is subjected to a specified voltage for a short period, with the other windings connected
to the core. The winding should withstand the voltage without over heating or rupturing.
12.11 DC resistance measurement:
For DC resistance measurement the windings are connected separately across the test arm of a DC
wheat-stone bridge.
12.11.1 To measure short circuit impedance:
The low voltage winding is short-circuited. While the high voltage winding is energized at a reduced
voltage, bringing the current up to full load. The ratio of applied voltage to the current gives the short
circuit impedance. This test is carried out to determine the copper losses of a suitable wattmeter is
incorporated in supply circuit.
12.12 To measure Temperature:
Temperature rise can be measured by running the transformer loaded for a specified period. This cold
resistance R
1
of the input circuit is recorded at the start of the test, as is the room temperature t
1
. The hot
resistance R
2
is measured immediately after disconnecting bolts supply and load.

Where a
0
= temperature coefficient of coil,


T
2
= is calculated hot temperature

Result We studied various transformers.
Precautions
Following precautions must keep in mind:


EXPERIMENT # 12 (B)
OBJECT:
To study, connection and testing of electric iron.

APPARATUS:
Sr. No. Name Range Type Quantity
1. Electric iron
a. Automatic
b. Non automatic

750 W, 250 V
350W, 250 V
Automatic metal
tube type heating
element Ordinary
heating element
1
2. Thermostat ------------- Bi-metal type 1
3. Test lamp 100W / 200 W 1/1
4. Pilot lamp 3 V 1
5. Pendant lamp holder 5 A, 250 V 1
6. Tools: screw driver/ piler/
tester
------- ---------- 1/1/1
7. Connecting leads ----- ------- As per require
8. Multimeter -------- Digital / analog 1

THEORY:
Electric iron is a commonly used electric appliance in our houses. Here electrical energy is converted in
to heat energy.
The electric irons have its advantage of easy operation and maintenance over the coal type and irons.
Irons are used to press the garments and other clothes. Basically electric irons are of two types.
1. Ordinary or non automatic electric iron
2. Automatic electric iron

12.1 CONSTRUCTION OF NON AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC IRON
Electric iron can broadly classified as:
1. Heavy weight iron
2. Light weight iron
12.1.1 HEAVY WEIGHT IRON
The heavy weight iron mainly consists of following parts (as shown in fig. 1)
1. Sole plate or base plate


It is made of cost iron and is the lowest part of iron, which comes in contact with the clothes.
Surfaces of base plate which contacts the clothes is generally chromium and nickel plated steel,
to avoid rust.\

2. Pressure plate or weight plate
This is made of cast iron and is kept over the heating element, for airtight fitting.

3. Heating element
Heating element is made of Nichrome strip wound on the mica piece and insulated with mica on
both sides which is kept under the pressure plate. Air tight fitting of this type of heating element
is essential air will be oxidize the Nichrome strip and they will be break.

4. Iron case or iron cover
Iron case is also generally chromium plated or varnished to avoid rust and is used to cover the
element, pressure plate etc.

5. Handle
Handle is made of wood or ebonite fitted with the iron strip or without iron strip is used to over
the iron case to hold or to use the electric iron.

6. Insulating materials
Procelain cleats (flat and round) are used for insulating terminals and electric cord and heating
element from metal body i.e. for insulating conducting parts.
Cotton sleaves are used for insulating conducting joints.
Asbestos sheet Asbestos sheet is placed above the heating element. Asbestos is a bad
conductor of heat and is used to prevent the heating or upper part of the iron i.e. cover plate and
handle.

7. Terminal housing
The terminal housing in which the terminals (pins) are fitted with nuts with the iron case and
insulated with porcelain cleats on both sides of the iron case. The ends of the heating element are
connected with these terminals to give the supply. If an electric cord is directly connected with
heating element, than terminal housing will not be in electric iron.


8. Rest heel or iron support
This is made of iron rod, fitted with the base plate in the V shape is used to support the iron,
when it is not in use.

9. Pilot lamp
This is a small lamp of 3 to 6 volt used for indicating supply or iron ON of OFF.


12.1.2 LIGHT WEIGHT
In light weighted iron a special type of heating element is used, which eliminates the requirement
of heavy role plate and heavy pressure plate. Other parts are almost same, but there will be some
change in design.

Heating element
Heating element consists of metal tube, modeled as the shape of plate and element (nichrome
wire) is passed through the tube insulated with non-affecting heat material, i.e. this material
should be good conductor of heat but bad conductor of current.

This metal tube-heating element is properly housed on the sole plate. Both ends of the element
are brought out of the tube at the terminal housing to give the supply. The ends of metal tube are
sealed with insulating compound.

12.2 WORKING OF NON AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC IRON
Fig. 2 shows the connection diagram of non automatic electric iron. When power supply is ON,
pilot lamp will up and current passes through heating element. In heating element this current will
produce I
2
R losses, which result to give heat us.
In this type of iron temperature control is not possible, hence no any protection of clothes. These
irons give heat at a certain constant rate depending upon the wattage of the heating elements. Such
irons may attain a very high temperature if kept on the supply for more time.
This drawback of non-automatic iron is completely abolished in automatic iron by using
temperature control device called thermostat.

12.3 CONSTRUCTION OF AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC IRON
Automatic electric irons are heavy weighted and light weighted. Following are the parts used in
automatic electric iron in addition to the parts used in non-automatic electric iron:
1. Temperature control device (thermostat)
2. Heat adjustment handle or knob

12.3.1 Temperature control device (thermostat)


The necessity of thermostat arises due to the fact that clothes like silk, Terence, cotton, Terence,
poplin etc. need low temperature for their safety and thick clothes like cotton etc. need high
temperature for easy ironing.

The thermostat is connected in serried with heating element.The thermostat is usually a bimetal
strip, which is placed in that region of the iron where heat is produces and is connected to one
terminal. The other terminal is connected to a fixed contact point. It is prepared by joining two
strips of dissimilar metals, having different co-efficient of expansion say brass and iron when


heated. When the temperature is within safe value, terminals remains closed through the metal
strip and contact point, when the temperature rise above the safe value, the brass part of the metal
strip expands more than the iron part and tends to flex in such a direction that the contact are
opened and the circuit is broken. When the strip cools, it becomes straight again and the contacts
are closed. A capacitor is also connected across the contacts to save from the damage of made
and break at the contacts.
12.3.2 Heat controller adjustment know or handle
The thermostat can be adjusted by setting the control knob. By rotating the heat control knob, the
movable strip or pressed or released by rotation, which makes the firm or loose connections.
Firm connections of contact points release high heat while loose connections release low heat.
Fig.3 diagram of thermostat with heat control knob.
12.4 WORKING OF AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC IRON
Fig.4 shows the connection diagram of automatic electric iron. Here thermostat and a pilot lamp
are connected in serried with heating element and a resistor is connected parallel across the pilot
lamp. A capacitor is also connected parallel with thermostat, avoids radio interference and
breakage of bimetal strip.
Initially contact of thermostat are closed, and current is passes through heating element and pilot
lamp. Pilot lamp glows up and shows that heating is take place, after some time the bimetal strip
expands and bands which open the contacts i.e. circuit is open. In this position pilot lamp does
not glow. After some time bimetal strip get cools and thermostat contact points will close and
current flow through it. This process will continue until the power supply OFF.
Pilot lamp performs two function
1. it shows the conitinuity of the circuit i.e. the element is correct.
2. It does not indicate when the element is overheated or the element is open circuited.

12.5 DISMANLING AND REASSEMBLING OF ELECTRIC IRON

12.5.1 Dismantling of on automatic electric iron
Loosen the nuts with the help of spanners & pliers and remove. Remove the handle also. Open
the iron cover, discoonect the connections from the terminals and remove it. Now loosen the nuts
of weight plate and remove them. Separate the weight plate and the element.
12.5.2 Reassembling of Non-automatic electric iron
Place the element insulated with mica on both sides on the sole plate. Place the asbestos sheet
and weight plate above the element, keep the washes on the bolts and tighten the weight plate


with nuts, connect the strip of element with the terminals in the iron cover and insulate them with
mica. Close the iron cover. Put the handle on the bolt above the iron cover, place the washers &
tighten the handle with nuts.
12.5.3 Dismantling and reassembling of an automatic electric iron
Following steps are taken for this purpose:
1. To dismantle an automatic iron, open the small screw fitted in the knob of heat controlled
system with the help of connector screw driver and remove the knob by pulling it upward.
Now loosen the nut with the help of spanner key and remove it.
2. To open the cover the indicating lamp open the screw with connector screw driver and
remove it. Now the cover of indicating lamp can easily be separated. Remove the indicating
lamp to check its filament.
3. To remove the main supply wires and upper cover of the iron, loosen the screw of the
terminals strips with connector screw driver and separate the wires i.e. phase neutral and an
earth wire & also the upper cover of the iron by holding the handle.
4. To remove the pressure plate(if it is heavy weight iron) and thermostat system, loosen the
nuts and remove them. Be careful that thermostat assembly should not be disturb.
5. Check the faults and replace the defective parts.
6. Reassembling is just opposite operation of dismantling. So repeat steps in opposite direction.

12.6 Testing of electric iron
In an electric iron there may be open circuit fault, short-circuit fault, earth fault or leakage fault,
fault in thermostat etc.
To perform tests on iron for the above said possible faults, a test lamp is needed and different
illumination of test lamp conveys the result.

12.6.1 Open circuit and short circuit test
Connect the two ends of testing leads to the terminals of iron or terminals of heating elements, as
shown in fig. 5(a) & 5(b). Switch ON the supply, following observation may occur:
i. If lamp glow dimly, it mean element of iron is in proper working condition.
ii. If lamp does not glow, i.e. there is a breakage either in the element or disconnection in
terminals, which is called as open circuit.
iii. If lamp glow brightly, it indicates that either both sides of element are touching to side
plate (or weight plate) or both ends at the terminals are touching together or heating
coil is short in case of metal tube element, this is known as short-circuit.


12.6.2 Earth test
To perform earth test, connect one wire of testing lead to one terminal of electric iron and another
and of testing lead to the metal part of the iron as shown in fig. 6.
If lamp glow i.e. any part of the element is touching the metal body inside the iron, which is
called as earth fault.

12.6.3 Leakage fault
In the setup for earth test, if the lamp does not glow and sparking occurs at the meatal body of
iron. i.e. insulating material of iron is not proper (i.e. leaking). It is known as leakage fault.
12.6.4 Testing of thermostat
As connection given in fig. 4 for automatic electric iron, if pilot lamp is ON-OFF in a period of
time, then thermostat is OK.
If lamp continuous glow i.e. contacts of thermostat are permanently shorted.
If lamp does not glow i.e. thermostat contact are open.


12.6.5 Testing of supply cord
For testing of supply chord,(digital) multi-meter is used. Set the knob of multi-meter at continuity
point-shaving terminals common V/ (as shown in fig. 7). Now connect both ends of a wire
(red/black/green) with multi-meter cord. If its buzzes i.e. shows continuity than wire is OK. If it
does not buzzes than wire is open circuited.


Testing of supply cord by test lamp is given in fig. 8. Test lamp (1) gives continuity of wire and
test lamp (2) gives short circuit between wires.
12.6.6 SHORT CIRCUIT TEST BETWEEN TWO WIRES OF A CORD
Connect two different wires end with multi-meter, if it buzzes, i.e. there is short circuit between
them.
12.7 OBSERVATION
S. No. Test for Test Result
1. Heating element
2. Thermostat
3. Earth test
4. Leakage test
5. Supply chord

RESULT
Study of various parts and testing of electric iron has been done. Results of testing are given in
observation table.

PRECAUTION
Following precautions keep in mind during the experiments-
1. Perform testing only in series of supply and always check supply before testing.
2. Do not touch any live wire or parts.
3. Never connect the direct supply unless you are sure that iron is fault free completely.
4. There should not be any loose and open connection.
5. Heating element (mica sheet type) is very soft, so handle it with care.


VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is transformer?
2. What are the difference between step up and step down transformer?
3. Classified the transformers?
4. What are the various tests, which are performed on transformer?
5. What is auto transformer?
6. What is the difference between auto transformer and two winding transformer?
7. What are the main parts of an ordinary electric iron?
8. Why sole plate is chromium and nickel-plated?
9. Why pressure or weight plate is used in ordinary electric iron?
10. What are the insulating materials, used in electric iron and why?
11. Why we insert a resistance point pilot lamp?
12. What are the main difference between heavy weight and light weighted electric iron?
13. What is the function of necessity to control the temperature of electric iron?
14. What is the function of and how it works?
15. What are the differences between automatic and non-automatic electric iron?

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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