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e-Notes by Prof.K.R.

Sudhindra, BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore


BASIC EEC!R"NICS
Sub#e$t Code% EN-&'()' IA *ar+s% )'
,ours -er .ee+ % /0 E1a* ,ours /2
!otal ,rs% ') E1a* Mar+s% &//
C,AP!ER &
C"N34C!I"N IN SEMIC"N34C!"RS
Electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconductors, conductivity of a semiconductor,
carrier concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor, donor and acceptor impurities,
charge densities in a semiconductor, Fermi level in a semiconductor having impurities,
diffusion, carrier life time, Hall effect. 05 Hrs.
The branch of engineering which deals with the flow of Electrons through vacuum,
gas or semiconductor is called Electronics.
Electronics essentially deals with electronic devices and their utilization.
Ato*i$ Stru$ture
Atom is the basic building bloc of all the elements. !t consists of the central
nucleus of positive charge around which small negatively charged particles called
electrons revolve in different paths or orbits.
An Electrostatic force of attraction between electrons and the nucleus holds up
electrons in different orbits.
Electrostatic force.
"
#entrifugal force.

Figure$.$. Atomic structure
$
%ucleus is the central part of an atom and contains protons and neutrons. A proton
is positively charged particle, while the neutron has the same mass as the proton,
but has no charge. &herefore ,nucleus of an atom is positively charged.
ato*i$ .eight 5 no. of -rotons 6 no. of neutrons
An electron is a negatively charged particle having negligible mass. &he charge
on an electron is e'ual but opposite to that on a proton. Also the number of
electrons is e'ual to the number of protons in an atom under ordinary conditions.
&herefore an atom is neutral as a whole.
ato*i$ nu*ber 5 no. of -rotons or ele$trons in an ato*
&he number of electrons in any orbit is given by (n
(
where n is the number of the
orbit.
For e)ample, ! orbit contains ()$
(
*( electrons
!! orbit contains ()(
(
* + electrons
!!! orbit contains (),
(
* $+ electrons and so on
&he last orbit cannot have more than + electrons.
&he last but one orbit cannot have more than $+ electrons.
Positi7e and negati7e ions
-rotons and electrons are e'ual in number hence if an atom loses an electron it
has lost negative charge therefore it becomes positively charged and is referred as
positive ion.
!f an atom gains an electron it becomes negatively charged and is referred to as
negative ion.
8alen$e ele$trons
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons.
&he outermost orbit can have a ma)imum of + electrons.
&he valence electrons determine the physical and chemical properties of a
material.
(
.hen the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than /, the material is
usually a metal and a conductor. E)amples are sodium, magnesium and
aluminium, which have $,( and , valence electrons respectively.
.hen the number of valence electrons of an atom is more than /, the material is
usually a non0metal and an insulator. E)amples are nitrogen, sulphur and neon,
which have 5,1 and + valence electrons respectively.
.hen the number of valence electrons of an atom is / the material has both metal
and non0metal properties and is usually a semi0conductor. E)amples are carbon,
silicon and germanium.
9ree ele$trons
&he valence electrons of different material possess different energies. &he greater
the energy of a valence electron, the lesser it is bound to the nucleus.

!n certain substances, particularly metals, the valence electrons possess so much
energy that they are very loosely attached to the nucleus.
&he loosely attached valence electrons move at random within the material and
are called free electrons.
The valence electrons, which are loosely attached to the nucleus, are known as free
electrons.
Energy bands
!n case of a single isolated atom an electron in any orbit has definite energy.
.hen atoms are brought together as in solids, an atom is influenced by the forces
from other atoms. Hence an electron in any orbit can have a range of energies
rather than single energy. &hese range of energy levels are nown as Energy
bands.
.ithin any material there are two distinct energy bands in which electrons may
e)ist viz 2alence band and conduction band.
,
#onduction band
Forbidden gap
2alence band
Energy level
Figure$.( Energy level diagram
The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is called valence band.
The range of energies possessed by free electrons is called conduction band.
Valence band and conduction band are separated by an energy gap in which no
electrons normally exist this gap is called forbidden gap.
Electrons in conduction band are either escaped from their atoms 3free electrons4 or only
wealy held to the nucleus. &hereby by the electrons in conduction band may be easily
moved around within the material by applying relatively small amount of energy. 3either
by increasing the temperature or by focusing light on the material etc. 4 &his is the reason
why the conductivity of the material increases with increase in temperature.
5ut much larger amount of energy must be applied in order to e)tract an electron from
the valence band because electrons in valence band are usually in the normal orbit around
a nucleus. For any given material, the forbidden gap may be large, small or non0e)istent.
Classifi$ation of *aterials based on Energy band theory
5ased on the width of the forbidden gap, materials are broadly classified as conductors,
!nsulators and semiconductors.
3a4 #onductor 3b4 !nsulator 3c4 6emiconductor
Condu$tors
/
#onduction
band
overlap

2alence
band
#onduction
band
2alence
band
#onduction
band
2alence
band
Forbidden
7ap E7 *$e2
Forbidden
7ap
E7 *1e2
#onductors are those substances, which allow electric current to pass through
them.
E)ample8 #opper, Al, salt solutions, etc.
!n terms of energy bands, conductors are those substances in which there is no
forbidden gap. 2alence and conduction band overlap as shown in fig 3a4.
For this reason, very large number of electrons are available for conduction even
at e)tremely low temperatures. &hus, conduction is possible even by a very wea
electric field.
Insulators
!nsulators are those substances, which do not allow electric current to pass
through them.
E)ample8 9ubber, glass, wood etc.
!n terms of energy bands, insulators are those substances in which the forbidden
gap is very large.
&hus valence and conduction band are widely separated as shown in fig 3b4.
&herefore insulators do not conduct electricity even with the application of a large
electric field or by heating or at very high temperatures.
Se*i$ondu$tors
6emiconductors are those substances whose conductivity lies in between that of a
conductor and !nsulator.
E)ample8 6ilicon, germanium, #ealenium, 7allium, arsenide etc.
!n terms of energy bands, semiconductors are those substances in which the
forbidden gap is narrow.
&hus valence and conduction bands are moderately separated as shown in fig3#4.
!n semiconductors, the valence band is partially filled, the conduction band is also
partially filled, and the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is
narrow.
&herefore, comparatively smaller electric field is re'uired to push the electrons
from valence band to conduction band . At low temperatures the valence band is
completely filled and conduction band is completely empty. &herefore, at very
low temperature a semi0conductor actually behaves as an insulator.
Condu$tion in solids
5
#onduction in any given material occurs when a voltage of suitable magnitude is
applied to it, which causes the charge carriers within the material to move in a
desired direction.
&his may be due to electron motion or hole transfer or both.
Ele$tron *otion
Free electrons in the conduction band are moved under the influence of the applied
electric field. 6ince electrons have negative charge they are repelled by the negative
terminal of the applied voltage and attracted towards the positive terminal.
,ole transfer
Hole transfer involves the movement of holes.
Holes may be thought of positive charged particles and as such they move
through an electric field in a direction opposite to that of electrons.
! !
" "
2 2
3a4 #onductor 3b4 6emiconductor
Flow of electrons Flow of electrons
Flow of current Flow of holes
Flow of current
!n a good conductor 3metal4 as shown in fig 3a4 the current flow is due to free
electrons only.
!n a semiconductor as shown in fig 3b4. &he current flow is due to both holes and
electrons moving in opposite directions.
&he unit of electric current is Ampere 3A4 and since the flow of electric current is
constituted by the movement of electrons in conduction band and holes in valence
band, electrons and holes are referred as charge carriers.
Classifi$ation of se*i$ondu$tors
6emiconductors are classified into two types.
1
a4 !ntrinsic semiconductors.
b4 E)trinsic semiconductors.
a: Intrinsi$ se*i$ondu$tors
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as Intrinsic
semiconductor.
E)ample8 6ilicon, germanium.
5oth silicon and 7ermanium are tetravalent 3having / valence electrons4.
Each atom forms a covalent bond or electron pair bond with the electrons of
neighboring atom. &he structure is shown below.
6ilicon or 7ermanium
2alence electron
#ovalent bond
Figure$.,. #rystalline structure of 6ilicon 3or 7ermanium4
At lo. te*-erature
At low temperature, all the valence electrons are tightly bounded the nucleus
hence no free electrons are available for conduction.
&he semiconductor therefore behaves as an !nsulator at absolute zero
temperature.
:
At roo* te*-erature
Free electron
2alence electron
Holes
Figure $./. #rystalline structure of 6ilicon 3or 7ermanium4 at room temperature
At room temperature, some of the valence electrons gain enough thermal energy
to brea up the covalent bonds.
&his breaing up of covalent bonds sets the electrons free and are available for
conduction.
.hen an electron escapes from a covalent bond and becomes free electrons a
vacancy is created in a covalent bond as shown in figure above. 6uch a vacancy is
called Hole. !t carries positive charge and moves under the influence of an electric
field in the direction of the electric field applied.
%umbers of holes are e'ual to the number of electrons since, a hole is nothing but
an absence of electrons.
E1trinsi$ Se*i$ondu$tor
.hen an impurity is added to an !ntrinsic semiconductor its conductivity changes.
&his process of adding impurity to a semiconductor is called ;oping and the
impure semiconductor is called e)trinsic semiconductor.
;epending on the type of impurity added, e)trinsic semiconductors are further
classified as n0type and p0type semiconductor.
+
n-ty-e se*i$ondu$tor
free e
0
Figure $.5 n0type semiconductor
Fermi level
Figure$.1 Energy band diagram for n0type semiconductor
;hen a s*all $urrent of Penta7alent i*-urity is added to a -ure
se*i$ondu$tor it is $alled as n-ty-e se*i$ondu$tor.
Addition of -entavalent impurity provides a large number of free electrons in a
semiconductor crystal.
&ypical e)ample for pentavalent impurities are Arsenic, Antimony and
-hosphorus etc. 6uch impurities which produce n0type semiconductors are nown
as ;onor impurities because they donate or provide free electrons to the
semiconductor crystal.
&o understand the formation of n0type semiconductor, consider a pure silicon
crystal with an impurity say arsenic added to it as shown in figure $.5.
.e now that a silicon atom has / valence electrons and Arsenic has 5 valence
electrons. .hen Arsenic is added as impurity to silicon, the / valence electrons of
silicon mae co0valent bond with / valence electrons of Arsenic.
<
6
i
6
i
6
i
6
i
6
i
A
s
6
i
6
i
6
i
#onduction band
Forbidden gap
2alence band
&he 5
th
2alence electrons finds no place in the covalent bond thus, it becomes free
and travels to the conduction band as shown in figure. &herefore, for each arsenic
atom added, one free electron will be available in the silicon crystal. &hough each
arsenic atom provides one free electrons yet an e)tremely small amount of arsenic
impurity provides enough atoms to supply millions of free electrons.
;ue to thermal energy, still hole election pairs are generated but the number of free
electrons are very large in number when compared to holes. 6o in an n0type
semiconductor electrons are ma=ority charge carriers and holes are minority charge
carriers . 6ince the current conduction is pre0dominantly by free electrons3 0vely charges4
it is called as n0type semiconductor3 n0 means >ve4.
--ty-e se*i$ondu$tor
hole
Figure $.: p0type semiconductor
$0
6
i
6
i
6
i
6
i
6
i
7
a
6
i
6
i
6
i
Fermi level

Figure $.+ Energy band diagram for p0type semiconductor
;hen a s*all a*ount of tri7alent i*-urity is added to a -ure se*i$ondu$tor
it is $alled --ty-e se*i$ondu$tor.
&he addition of trivalent impurity provides large number of holes in the
semiconductor crystals.
E)ample8 7allium, !ndium or 5oron etc. 6uch impurities which produce p0type
semiconductors are nown as acceptor impurities because the holes created can
accept the electrons in the semi conductor crystal.
&o understand the formation of p0type semiconductor, consider a pure silicon crystal with
an impurity say gallium added to it as shown in figure $.:.
.e now that silicon atom has / valence electrons and 7allium has , electrons.
.hen 7allium is added as impurity to silicon, the , valence electrons of gallium
mae , covalent bonds with , valence electrons of silicon.
&he /
th
valence electrons of silicon cannot mae a covalent bond with that of
7allium because of short of one electron as shown above. &his absence of
electron is called a hole. &herefore for each gallium atom added one hole is
created, a small amount of 7allium provides millions of holes.
;ue to thermal energy, still hole0electron pairs are generated but the number of holes are
very large compared to the number of electrons. &herefore, in a p0type semiconductor
holes are ma=ority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. 6ince the current
conduction is predominantly by hole3 " charges4 it is called as p0type semiconductor3 p
means "ve4
$$
#onduction band
Forbidden gap
2alence band
3rift and 3iffusion $urrent
&he flow of current through a semiconductor material is normally referred to as one of
the two types.
3rift $urrent
!f an electron is sub=ected to an electric field in free space it will accelerate in a
straight line form the >ve terminal to the " ve terminal of the applied voltage.
However in the case of conductor or semiconductor at room temperature, a free
electrons under the influence of electric field will move towards the "ve terminal
of the applied voltage but will continuously collide with atoms all the ways as
shown in figure $.<.
Electron drift due to field
conduction
when electric
field is
present
"
#onduction
Applied voltage when no electric
field is applied
Figure $.<
Each time, when the electron stries an atom, it rebounds in a random direction
but the presence of electric field doesnot stop the collisions and random motion.
As a result the electrons drift in a direction of the applied electric field.
&he current produced in this way is called as ;rift current and it is the usual ind
of current flow that occurs in a conductor.
3iffusion $urrent
The directional movement of charge carriers due to their concentration
gradient produces a component of current known as iffusion current.
&he mechanism of transport of charges in a semiconductor when no electric field
is applied called diffusion. !t is encountered only in semiconductors and is
normally absent in conductors.
$(
semiconductor
heavy concentration of less concentration
electrons electrons
;iffusion current
Even distribution
%et diffusion current is zero
.ith no applied voltage if the number of charge carriers 3either holes or
electrons4 in one region of a semiconductor is less compared to the rest of the
region then there e)ist a concentration gradient.
6ince the charge carriers are either all electrons or all holes they sine polarity of
charge and thus there is a force of repulsion between them.
As a result, the carriers tend to move gradually or diffuse from the region of
higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. &his process is called
diffusion and electric current produced due to this process is called diffusion
current.
&his process continues until all the carriers are evenly distributed through the
material. Hence when there is no applied voltage, the net diffusion current will be
zero.
$,
9er*i-le7el
!ermi level indicates the level of energy in the forbidden gap.
&. 9er*i-le7el for an Intrinsi$ se*i$ondu$tor
Energy level
E
#
E
f
Forbidden gap
E
2
E
#
#onduction band energy level
E
2
2alence band energy level
E
f
fermi level
.e now that the !ntrinsic semiconductor acts as an insulator at absolute zero
temperature because there are free electrons and holes available but as the
temperature increases electron hole pairs are generated and hence number of
electrons will be e'ual to number of holes.
&herefore, the possibility of obtaining an electron in the conduction band will be
e'ual to the probability of obtaining a hole in the valence band.
!f Ec is the lowest energy level of #onduction band and Ev is the highest energy
level of the valence band then the fermi level E
f
is e)actly at the center of these
two levels as shown above.
$/
#onduction band
Fermilevel
2alence band
). 9er*i-le7el in a se*i$ondu$tors ha7ing i*-urities <E1trinsi$:
a: 9er*i-le7el for n-ty-e Se*i$ondu$tor
?et a donar impurity be added to an !ntrinsic semiconductor then the donar
energy level 3E
;
4 shown by the dotted lines is very close to conduction
band energy level 3E
c
4.
&herefore the unbonded valence electrons of the impurity atoms can very
easily =ump into the conduction band and become free electros thus, at
room temperature almost all the e)tra electrons of pentavalent impurity
will =ump to the conduction band.
&he donar energy level 3E
;
4 is =ust below conduction band level 3Ec4 as
shown in figure$.$03a4. ;ue to a large number of free electrons, the
probability of electrons occupying the energy level towards the conduction
band will be more hence, fermi level shifts towards the conduction band.
E
#

E
;
moves E
f
upward
E
2
E
;
Energy level of donar impurity
Figure $.$0 3a4 Energy level diagram for n0type semiconductor
$5
#onduction band
Fermi level
2alence band
b: 9er*i-le7el for P-ty-e se*i$ondu$tor
?et an acceptor impurity be added to an !ntrinsic semiconductor then the acceptor
energy level 3Ea4 shown by dotted lines is very close to the valence band shown
by dotted lines is very close to the valence band energy level 3Ev4.
&herefore the valence band electrons of the impurity atom can very easily =ump
into the valence band thereby creating holes in the valence band.
E
#
E
f
E
A
E
2
E
A
Energy level of acceptor impurity
Figure $.$$ 3b4 Energy level diagram for -0type semiconductor
&he acceptor energy level 3E
A
4 is =ust above the valence band level as shown in
figure $.$$ 3b4.
;ue to large number of holes the probability of holes occupying the energy level
towards the valence band will be more and hence, the fermi level gets shifted
towards the valence band.
$1
#onduction band
Fermi level
2alence band
,A E99EC!
!f a piece of metal or semiconductor carrying a current ! is placed in a transverse
magnetic field 5 then an electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both !
and 5. &his phenomenon is nown as Hall effect.
@3"ve4
6urface0(
" " " " " " " "
d
! 2
H
w
A 3"ve4
5
6urface 0$
B 3"ve4
Hall effect is normally used to determine whether a semi0conductor is n0type or p0type.
!o find .hether the se*i$ondu$tor is n-ty-e or --ty-e
i4 !n the figure. above, !f ! is in the "ve A direction and 5 is in the "ve B
direction, then a force will be e)erted on the charge carriers 3holes and
electrons4 in the >ve @ direction.
ii4 &his force is independent of whether the charge carriers are electrons or holes.
;ue to this force the charge carriers 3 holes and electrons4 will be forced
downward towards surface >$ as shown.
iii4 !f the semiconductor is %0type, then electrons will be the charge carriers and
these electrons will accumulate on surface >$ maing that surface >vely
charged with respect to surface >(. Hence a potential called Hall voltage
appears between the surfaces $ and (.
iv4 6imilarly when surface >$ is positively charged with respect to surface >(,
then the semiconductor is of -0type. !n this way, by seeing the polarity of Hall
voltage we can determine whether the semiconductor is of -0type or %0type.
$:
A--li$ations of ,all effe$t
Hall effect is used to determine,
carrier concentration, conductivity and mobility.
&he sign of the current carrying charge.
#harge density.
!t is used as magnetic field meter.
Carrier lifeti*e <=4
!n a pure semiconductor, we now that number of holes are e'ual to the number of
electrons. &hermal agitation however, continues to produce new hole electron pairs while
other hole0electron pair disappear as a result of recombination.
Cn an average, a hole will e)ist for =
p
second and an electron will e)ist for =
n
second
before recombination. &his time is called the carrier lifetime or Dean lifetime.
&he average time an electron or hole can e)ist in the free state is called carrier lifetime.

$+
C,AP!ER )
SEMIC"N34C!"R 3I"3E
.hen a p0type semiconductor material is suitably =oined to n0type semiconductor the
contact surface is called a p0n =unction. &he p0n =unction is also called as semiconductor
diode.
p n
3b4

3a4 ;epletion region

9ig. )./ <a: --n #un$tion 9ig )./ <b: sy*boli$ re-resentation
&he left side material is a p0type semiconductor having >ve acceptor ions and
"vely charged holes. &he right side material is n0type semiconductor having "ve
donor ions and free electrons.
6uppose the two pieces are suitably treated to form pn =unction, then there is a
tendency for the free electrons from n0type to diffuse over to the p0side and holes
from p0type to the n0side . &his process is called diffusion.
As the free electrons move across the =unction from n0type to p0type, "ve donor
ions are uncovered. Hence a "ve charge is built on the n0side of the =unction. At
the same time, the free electrons cross the =unction and uncover the >ve acceptor
ions by filling in the holes. &herefore a net >ve charge is established on p0side of
the =unction.
.hen a sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions is uncovered further
diffusion is prevented.
&hus a barrier is set up against further movement of charge carriers. &his is called
potential barrier or =unction barrier 2o. &he potential barrier is of the order of 0.$
to 0.,2.
Note% outside this barrier on each side of the =unction, the material is still neutral. Cnly
inside the barrier, there is a "ve charge on n0side and >ve charge on p0side. &his region is
called depletion layer.
).& Biasing% #onnecting a p0n =unction to an e)ternal d.c. voltage source is called
$<
" "
biasing.
$. Forward biasing
(. 9everse biasing
&. 9or.ard biasing
.hen e)ternal voltage applied to the =unction is in such a direction that it cancels
the potential barrier, thus permitting current flow is called forward biasing.
&o apply forward bias, connect "ve terminal of the battery to p0type and >ve
terminal to n0type as shown in fig.(.$ below.
&he applied forward potential establishes the electric field which acts against the
field due to potential barrier. &herefore the resultant field is weaened and the
barier height is reduced at the =unction as shown in fig. (.$.
6ince the potential barrier voltage is very small, a small forward voltage is
sufficient to completely eliminate the barrier. Cnce the potential barrier is
eliminated by the forward voltage, =unction resistance becomes almost zero and a
low resistance path is established for the entire circuit. &herefore current flows in
the circuit. &his is called forward current.
p n
no e)ternal field

E)ternal field
9ig.).& for.ard biasing of --n #un$tion
(0
). Re7erse biasing
.hen the e)ternal voltage applied to the =unction is in such a direction the
potential barrier is increased it is called reverse biasing.
&o apply reverse bias, connect >ve terminal of the battery to p0type and "ve
terminal to n0type as shown in figure below.
&he applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same
direction as the field due to potential barrier. &herefore the resultant field at the
=unction is strengthened and the barrier height is increased as shown in fig.(.(.
&he increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the
=unction. &hus a high resistance path is established for the entire circuit and hence
current does not flow.
p n
e)ternal field

no e)ternal field
Fig.(.( 9everse biasing of p0n =unction
($
).) 8olt- A*-ere $hara$teristi$s<8-I:
9
A
diode
2 2
<i:
!
F
3mA4
5rea over
2oltage
2
9
Enee voltage 2
F
!
9
3FA4
<ii:
9ig. ).2 8-I $hara$teristi$s of --n #un$tion diode.
<i: Cir$uit diagra*
<ii: Chara$teristi$s
&he 20! characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be obtained with the help of
the circuit shown in fig. (., 3i4
&he supply voltage 2 is a regulated power supply, the diode is forward biased in
the circuit shown. &he resistor 9 is a current limiting resistor. &he voltage across
the diode is measured with the help of voltmeter and the current is recorded using
an ammeter.
5y varying the supply voltage different sets of voltage and currents are obtained.
5y plotting these values on a graph, the forward characteristics can be obtained.
!t can be noted from the graph the current remains zero till the diode voltage
attains the barrier potential.
For silicon diode, the barrier potential is 0.: 2 and for 7ermanium diode, it is 0.,
2. &he barrier potential is also called as nee voltage or cur0in voltage.
((
&he reverse characteristics can be obtained by reverse biasing the diode. !t can be
noted that at a particular reverse voltage, the reverse current increases rapidly.
&his voltage is called breadown voltage.
).2 3iode $urrent e>uation
&he current in a diode is given by the diode current e'uation
! * !
0
3 e
2GH2
&
>$4
.here, !000000 diode current
!
0
000000 reverse saturation current
2000000 diode voltage
H0000000 semiconductor constant
*$ for 7e, ( for 6i.
2
&
000000 2oltage e'uivalent of temperature* &G$$,100 3&emperature & is in Eelvin4
%ote00000 !f the temperature is given in
0
# then it can be converted to Eelvin by the help
of following relation,
0
#"(:, * E
).0 3iode e>ui7alent $ir$uit
!t is generally profitable to replace a device or system by its e'uivalent circuit. Cnce the
device is replaced by its e'uivalent circuit, the resulting networ can be solved by
traditional circuit analysis techni'ue.
switch r
f
!
f
2
F
2o
2
F

3i4 3ii 4
9ig.).0 3iode e>ui7alent $ir$uit. <i: sy*bol <ii: e>ui7alent $ir$uit
&he forward current !
f
flowing through the diode causes a voltage drop in its internal
resistance r
f
. &herefore the forward voltage 2
F
applied across the actual diode has to
overcome
$. potential barrier 2o
(. internal drop !
f
r
f
8
f
5 8o 6 I
f
r
f
For silicon diode 2o*0.:2 whereas for 7ermanium diode 2o * 0., 2.
For ideal diode r
f
*0.
(,
)0.& Basi$ 3efinitions
&.Knee 7oltage or Cut-in 8oltage.
!t is the forward voltage at which the diode starts conducting.
). Brea+do.n 7oltage
!t is the reverse voltage at which the diode 3p0n =unction4 breas down with sudden rise
in reverse current.
2. Pea+-in7erse 7oltage <PI8:
!t is the ma). reverse voltage that can be applied to a p0n =unction without causing
damage to the =unction.
!f the reverse voltage across the =unction e)ceeds its pea0inverse voltage, then the
=unction e)ceeds its -ea0inverse voltage, then the =unction gets destroyed because of
e)cessive heat. !n rectification, one thing to be ept in mind is that care should be taen
that reverse voltage across the diode during >ve half cycle of a.c. doesnot e)ceed the
pea0inverse voltage of the diode.
0. Ma1i*u* 9or.ard $urrent
!t is the Da). instantaneous forward current that a p0n =unction can conduct without
damaging the =unction. !f the forward current is more than the specified rating then the
=unction gets destroyed due to over heating.
'.Ma1i*u* Po.er rating
!t is the ma)imum power that can be dissipated at the =unction without damaging it. &he
power dissipated across the =unction is e'ual to the product of =unction current and the
voltage across the =unction.
(/
).' REC!I9IERS
?Re$tifiers are the $ir$uit .hi$h $on7erts a$ to d$@
9ectifiers are grouped into tow categories depending on the period of conductions.
$. Half0wave rectifier
(. Full0 wave rectifier.
).'.& ,alf-.a7e re$tifier
&he circuit diagram of a half0wave rectifier is shown in fig. (.5 below along with the !G-
and CG- waveforms.
3i4
2
i
t
2
o
I (I t
3ii4
Fig. (.5 Half wave rectifier 3i4 #ircuit diagram 3ii4 waveforms
&he transformer is employed in order to step0down the supply voltage and also to
prevent from shocs.
&he diode is used to rectify the a.c. signal while , the pulsating d.c. is taen across
the load resistor 9
?.
(5
;uring the "ve half cycle, the end A of the secondary is "ve and end @ is 0ve .
&hus , forward biasing the diode. As the diode is forward biased, the current flows
through the load 9
?
and a voltage is developed across it.
;uring the >ve half0cycle the end @ is "ve and end A is >ve thus, reverse biasing
the diode. As the diode is reverse biased there is no flow of current through 9
?
thereby the output voltage is zero.
).'.) Effi$ien$y of a re$tifier
&he ratio of d.c. power to the applied imp ac power is nown as rectifier efficiency.
Re$tifier effi$ien$y A 5
power c a input
output power c d
. . .
. . .
).'.23eri7ation of re$tifier effi$ien$y of ,alf .a7e re$tifier
?et 2 * 2
m
sinJ be the voltage across the secondary winding
r
f

* diode resistance
9
?
* load resistance
d.$. -o.er

av I * dc I *

0
.
(
$
d i
*

d
R r
VmSin
L L

+
0
(
$
*

d Sin
R r
Vm
L f

+
0
4 3 (
*
4 3 (
(
L f R r
Vm
+
*

!m
d.c. power -
dc
* !
(
dc
K 9
?

* L R
,
_

(
!m

000000000000000000000000000000 3$4
(1
a.$. -o.er in-ut
&he a.c. power input is given by -
ac
* !
(
rms
3 r
f
" 9
?
4

d i I
rms

(
0
(
(
$
6'uaring both sides we get

d i I
rms

(
0
( (
(
$
5ut i * !m 6inJ
3 current flows through diode only for duration 0 to L 4
/
(
( m
rms
I
I
(
m
rms
I
I
( )
L f
m
ac
R r
I
P +
,
_


(
(
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003(4
( )
L f
L
m
m
ac
dc
R r
R
I
I
P
P
+

,
_

,
_

K
(
(
(

H *
L
f
R
r
+ $
/01 . 0
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003,4
&he efficiency is ma)imum if r
f
is negligible as compared to 9
?
!herefore *a1i*u* re$tifier effi$ien$y 5 0/.B C
(:

0
( (
4 3!m
(
$
d Sin I
rms
).'.0 9ull-.a7e re$tifier
Full0wave rectifier are of two types
$. #entre tapped full0wave rectifier
(. 5ridge rectifier
).'.0.&Centre ta--ed full D.a7e re$tifier
3i4
2in
2out
I (I
3ii4
Fig. (.1 #entre tapped Full wave rectifier 3i4 #ircuit diagram 3ii4 waveforms
&he circuit diagram of a center tapped full wave rectifier is shown in fig. (.1
above. !t employs two diodes and a center tap transformer. &he a.c. signal to be
rectified is applied to the primary of the transformer and the d.c. output is taen
across the load 9
?.
;uring the "ve half0cycle end A is "ve and end @ is >ve this maes diode ;
$
forward biased and thus a current i
$
flows through it and load resistor 9
?.
;iode
;
(
is reverse biased and the current i
(
is zero.
(+
;uring the >ve half0cycle end @ is "2e and end A is >2e. %ow diode ;
(
is
forward biased and thus a current i
(
flows through it and load resistor 9
?
. ;iode
;
$
is reversed and the current i
$
* 0.
3isad7antages
6ince, each diode uses only one0half of the transformer secondary voltage the d.c.
output is comparatively small.
!t is difficult to locate the center0tap on secondary winding of the transformer.
&he diodes used must have high -ea0inverse voltage.
).'.0.) Bridge re$tifier
3i4
2out
;$;, ;(;/ ;$;/
t
3ii4
9ig. ).E 9ull .a7e bridge .a7e re$tifier <i: Cir$uit diagra* <ii: .a7efor*s.
&he circuit diagram of a bridge rectifer is shown above. !t uses four diodes and a
transformer.
;uring the "ve half0cycle, end A is "ve and end 5 is >ve thus diodes ;
$
and ;
,
are forward bias while diodes ;
(
and ;
/
are reverse biased thus a current flows
through diode ;
$,
load 9
?
3 # to ;4 and diode ;
,
.
(<
;uring the >ve half0cycle, end 5 is "ve and end A is >ve thus diodes ;
(
and ;
/
are forward biased while the diodes ;
$
and ;
,
are reverse biased. %ow the flow of
current is through diode ;
/
load 9
?
3 ; to #4 and diode ;
(
. &hus, the waveform is
same as in the case of center0tapped full wave rectifier.
Ad7antages
&he need for center0taped transformer is eliminated.
&he output is twice when compared to center0tapped full wave rectifier.
for the same secondary voltage.
&he pea inverse voltage is one0half3$G(4 compared to center0tapped full wave
rectifier.
#an be used where large amount of power is re'uired.
3isad7antages
!t re'uires four diodes.
&he use of two e)tra diodes cause an additional voltage drop thereby reducing the
output voltage.
).'.B Effi$ien$y of 9ull-.a7e re$tifier
?et 2 * 2
m
sinJ be the voltage across the secondary winding
! * !msinJ be the current flowing in secondary circuit
r
f

* diode resistance
9
?
* load resistance
d$ -o.er out-ut
L dc
R I Pdc
(
000000000000000000000000000003$4

0
.
(
$
( d i I I
av dc

0
. !m
(
$
( d Sin I
av

m
av
I
I
(

00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
3(4
L
m
dc
R
I
P
(
(

,
_

000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
3,4
,0
in-ut a$ -o.er
( )
L f rms ac
R r I P +
(
----------------------------------------
3/4

d i I
rms

0
(
(
$
(
6'uaring both sides we get

d i I
rms

0
( (
$
(
(
( m
rms
I
I
(
m
rms
I
I
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 354
( )
L f
m
ac
R r
I
P +
,
_


(
(
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000314
( )
L f
L
m
m
ac
dc
R r
R
I
I
P
P
+

,
_

,
_

K
(
(
(
(

H *
L
f
R
r
+ $
+$( . 0
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003:4
&he efficiency will be ma)imum if r
f
is negligible as compared to 9
?
.
Ma1i*u* effi$ien$y 5 F&.) C
&his is the double the efficiency due to half wave rectifier. &herefore a Full0wave
rectifier is twice as effective as a half0wave rectifier.
,$

0
( (
4 3!m
$
d Sin I
rms
).B Co*-arision of Re$tifiers
-articulars Half wave rectifier #entre0tapped Full
wave rectifier
5ridge rectifier
$. %o. of diodes
(. !
dc
,. 2
dc
/.!
rms
5.Efficiency
1.-!2
:.9ipple factor
$
!
m
G L
2
m
G L
!
m
G (
/0.1 M
2
m
$.($
(
(!
m
GL
(2
m
G L
!
m
GN (
+$.( M
(2
m
0./+
/
(!
m
GL
(2
m
G L
!
m
GN (
+$.( M
2
m
0./+
Note%
&he relation between turns ratio and voltages of primary and secondary of the
transformer is given by
o %
$
G %
(
* 2
p
G 2
s
9D6 value of voltage and Da). value of voltage is related by the e'uation.
2
rms
* 2
m
G N( 3 for full0cycle of ac4
!f the type of diode is not specified then assume the diode to be of silicon type.
For an ideal diode, forward resistance r
f
* 0 and cut0in voltage , 2
O
* 0.
,(
).E Ri--le fa$tor
&he pulsating output of a rectifier consists of d.c. component and a.c. component 3 also
nown as ripple4. &he a.c. component is undesirable and account for the pulsations in the
rectifier output. &he effectiveness of a rectifier depends upon the magnitude of a.c.
component in the output 8 the smaller this component, the more effective is the rectifier.
" The ratio of rms value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the rectifier output
is known as ripple factor#
r *
Idc
Iac
).E.& Ri--le fa$tor for ,alf-.a7e re$tifi$ation
5y definition the effective 3ie rms4 value of total load current is given by
C9
( (
dc rms ac
I I I
.here !
dc
* value of dc component

!
ac
* rms value of ac component
;ivide both 9.H.6 and ?.H.6. by !
dc
we get
( (
$
dc rms
dc dc
ac
I I
I I
I

r * $
(

,
_

dc
rms
I
I
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003$4
for half0wave rectification, we have !
(
m
rms
I
I

m
dc
I
I
6ubstituting above values in e'uation 3$4 we get,
ri--le fa$tor r 5 &.)&
!t is clear that a.c. component e)ceeds dc component in the output of a half0wave
rectifier.
,,
( (
dc ac rms
I I I +
).E.) Ri--le fa$tor for full-.a7e re$tifi$ation
For full wave rectification we have !
rms
*
(
m
I
!
dc
*

m
I (
6ubstituting above values in e'uation 3$4 we get ,

ri--le fa$tor r 5 /.0F
&his shows that in the output of Full0wave rectifier, the d.c. component is more than the
a.c. component
).F 9I!ERS
.e now that the output of the rectifier is pulsating d.c. ie the output obtained by the
rectifier is not pure d.c. but it contains some ac components along with the dc oGp. &hese
ac components are called as 9ipples, which are undesirable or unwanted. &o minimize
the ripples in the rectifier output filter circuits are used. &hese circuits are normally
connected between the rectifier and load as shown below.
2i
2o pure dc oGp
-ulsating d.c. output
Filter is a circuit which converts pulsating dc output from a rectifier to a steady dc output.
!n otherwords, filters are used to reduce the amplitudes of the unwanted ac components in
the rectifier.
Note% A capacitor passes ac signal readily but blocs dc.
,/
9ectifier Filter
).F.& !y-es of 9ilters
$. #apacitor Filter 3#0Filter4
(. !nductor Filter
,. #hoe !nput Filter 3?#0filter4
/. #apacitor !nput Filter 3L0filter4
).F.) Ca-a$itor 9ilter< C-filter:
3i4
2in
a f
e
t
b d
c
2
$
oGp without
filter
t
2o
oGp
with filter a
e
t
9ig.).F Ca-a$itor filter < C-filter: <i: Cir$uit diagra* <ii: .a7efor*s
,5
.hen the !nput signal rises from o to a the diode is forward biased therefore it
starts conducting since the capacitor acts as a short circuit for ac signal it gets
charged up to the pea of the input signal and the dc component flows through the
load 9
?.
.hen the input signal fall from a to b the diode gets reverse biased . &his is
mainly because of the voltage across the capacitor obtained during the period o to
a is more when comapared to 2
i
. &herefore there is no conduction of current
through the diode.
%ow the charged capacitor acts as a battery and it starts discharging through the
load 9
?
. Dean while the input signal passes through b,c,d section. .hen the
signal reaches the point d the diode is still reverse biased since the capacitor
voltage is more than the input voltage.
.hen the signal reaches point e, the input voltage can be e)pected to be more
than the capacitor voltage. .hen the input signal moves from e to f the capacitor
gets charged to its pea value again. &he diode gets reverse biased and the
capacitor starts discharging. &he final output across 9
?
is shown in Fig. (.+
&he ripple factor for a Half0wave rectifier with #0filer is given by

r* $G(N,f
#
9
?
f00000the line fre'uency 3 Hz4
#00000capacitance 3 F4
9
?0000000
?oad resistance 3P4
9ipple factor for full0wave rectifier with #0filter is given by r * $G / N, f
#
9
?
).F.2 Ad7antages of C-9ilter
low cost, small size and good characteristics.
!t is preferred for small load currents 3 upto 50 mA4
!t is commonly used in transistor radio, batteries eliminator etc.
,1
).G Hener 3iode
&he reverse voltage characteristics of a semiconductor diode including the breadown
region is shown below.
2 2
z
0
!
9ig. ).G Hener diode $hara$teristi$s
Bener diodes are the diodes which are designed to operate in the breadown region. &hey
are also called as 5readown diode or Avalanche diodes.
&he symbol of Bener diode is shown below
- %
Fig. (.$0 6ymbol of Bener diode
&he breadown in the Bener diode at the voltage 2
z
may be due to any of the
following mechanisms.
&. A7alan$he brea+do.n

;epletion region charge carriers striing the atoms
3 4 3 4
0ve terminal "ve terminal
minority charge carriers
Fig. (.$$ Avalanche breadown in Bener diode
.e now that when the diode is reverse biased a small reverse saturation current
!
0
flows across the =unction because of the minority cariers in the depletion region.
,:
% -
&he velocity of the minority charge carriers is directly proportional to the applied
voltage. Hence when the reverse bias voltage is increased, the velocity of minority
charge carriers will also increase and conse'uently their energy content will also
increase.
.hen these high energy charge carriers stries the atom within the depletion
region they cause other charge carriers to brea away from their atoms and =oin
the flow of current across the =unction as shown above. &he additional charge
carriers generated in this way stries other atoms and generate new carriers by
maing them to brea away from their atoms.
&his cumulative process is referred to as avalanche multiplication which results in
the flow of large reverse current and this breadown of the diode is called
avalanche breadown.
).Hener brea+do.n
.e have electric field strength * 9everse voltageG ;epletion region

;epletion region
3 4 3 4
0ve terminal "ve terminal
electrons pulled out of their covalent
bonds because of high intensity electric field
9ig.).&) Hener brea+do.n in Hener diode
From the above relation we see that the reverse voltage is directly proportional to the
electric field hence, a small increase in reverse voltage produces a very high intensity
electric field with ina narrow ;epletion region.
&herefore when the reverse voltage to a diode is increased, under the influence of high
intensity electric filed large numbr of electrons within the depletion region brea the
covalent bonds with their atoms as shown above and thus a large reverse current flows
through the diode. &his breadown is referred to as Bener breadown.
,+
% -
).G.& Hener 7oltage regulator
&he circuit diagram of Bener voltage regulator is shown below
9
s
! !
B
!
?
2in 2
B
9
?
2
o
Fig. (.$, Bener voltage regulator
.
A zener diode of breadown voltage 2
B
is connected in reverse biased condition across
the load 9
?
such that it operates in breadown region. Any fluctuations in the current are
absorbed by the series resistance 9
s
. &he Bener will maintain a constant voltage 2
B

3 e'ual to 2
o
4 across the load unless the input voltage does not fall below the zener
breadown voltage 2
B
.
Case<i: ;hen in-ut 7oltage 8
in
7aries and R

is $onstant
9
s
! !
B
!
?
2in 2
B
9
?
2
o
!f the input voltage increases, the Bener diode which is in the breadown region is
e'uivalent to a battery 2
B
as shown in figure. &he output voltage remains constant at 2
B
3e'ual to 2o4 and the e)cess voltage is dropped across the series resistance 9
6
. .e now
that for a zener diode under breadown region large change in current produces very
small change in voltage, thereby the output voltage remains constant.
Case <ii: ;hen 8
in
is $onstant and R

7aries.
9
s
! !
B
!
?
2in 2
B
9
?
2
o
,<
!f there is a decrease in the load resistance 9
?
and the input voltage remains constant then
there is a increase in load current.
6ince 2
in
is constant the current cannot come from the source. &his addition load current
is driven from the battery 2
B
and we now that even for a large decrease in current the
Bener output voltage 2
z
remains same. Hence the output voltage across the load is also
constant..
/0
C,AP!ER 2
!RANSIS!"RS
A transistor is a sandwich of one type of semiconductor (P-type or n-type) between two
ayers of other types.
&ransistors are classified into two typesQ
&. -n- transistor
pnp transistor is obtained when a n0type layer of silicon is sandwiched
between two p0type silicon material.
). n-n transisitor
npn transistor is obtained when a p0type layer of silicon is sandwiched
between two n0type silicon materials.
Figure,.$ below shows the schematic representations of a transistor which is
e'uivalent of two diodes connected bac to bac.
RE R# RE R#
E # E #
5 5
9ig 2.&% Sy*boli$ re-resentation
pnp npn
9ig 2.)% S$he*ati$ re-resentation
&he three portions of transistors are named as emitter, base and collector. &he
=unction between emitter and base is called emitter0base =unction while the =unction
between the collector and base is called collector0base =unction.
&he base is thin and tightly doped, the emitter is heavily doped and it is wider when
compared to base, the width of the collector is more when compared to both base and
emitter.
/$
n n p p p
n
!n order to distinguish the emitter and collector an arrow is included in the emitter.
&he direction of the arrow depends on the conventional flow of current when emitter
base =unction is forward biased.
!n a pnp transistor when the emitter =unction is forward biased the flow of current is
from emitter to base hence, the arrow in the emitter of pnp points towards the base.
2.& "-erating regions of a transistor
A transistor can be operated in three different regions as
a4 active region
b4 saturation region
c4 cut0off region
A$ti7e region
E RE 5 R# #
2
E5
2
#5
9ig 2.2% -n- transistor o-erated in a$ti7e region
&he transistor is said to be operated in active region when the emitter0base =unction is
forward biased and collector >base =unction is reverse biased. &he collector current is said
to have two current components one is due to the forward biasing of E5 =unction and the
other is due to reverse biasing of #5 =unction. &he collector current component due to the
reverse biasing of the collector =unction is called reverse saturation current 3!
#C
or !
#5C
4
and it is very small in magnitude.
Saturation region
E RE 5 R# #
2
E5
2
#5
9ig 2.0% -n- transistor o-erated in Saturation region
/(
p p
n
p p
n
&ransistor is said to be operated in saturation region when both E5 =unction and #5
=unction are forward biased as shown. .hen transistor is operated in saturation region !
#
increases rapidly for a very small change in 2
#.
Cut-off region
E RE 5 R# #
2
E5
2
#5
9ig 2.'% -n- transistor o-erated in Cut-off region
.hen both E5 =unction and #5 =unction are reverse biased, the transistor is said to be
operated in cut0off region. !n this region, the current in the transistor is very small and
thus when a transistor in this region it is assumed to be in off state.
2.) ;or+ing of a transistor <-n-:
E RE 5 R# #
!
E
!
#
!
5
2
E5
2
#5
9ig 2.B !ransistor in a$ti7e region
#onsider a pnp transistor operated in active region as shown in Figure ,.1
6ince the E5 =unction is forward biased large number of holes present in the
emitter as ma=ority carriers are repelled by the "ve potential of the supply
voltage 2
E5
and they move towards the base region causing emitter current !
E
.
6ince the base is thin and lightly doped very few of the holes coming from the
emitter recombine with the electrons causing base current !
5
and all the
remaining holes move towards the collector. 6ince the #5 =unction is reverse
/,
p p
n
!
E
!
#
p p
n
biased all the holes are immediately attracted by the >ve potential of the
supply 2
#5
. &hereby giving rise to collector current !
#
.
&hus we see that !
E
* !
5
" !
#
000000000000000003$4 35y E2?4
6ince the #5 =unction is reverse biased a small minority carrier current !
#C
flows from base to collector.
2.2 Current $o*-onents of a transistor
R
E
R
#
!
E
!
#
!
5
2
E5
2
#5
9ig 2.E%Current $o*-onents of a transistor
Fig ,.: above shows a transistor operated in active region. !t can be noted from the
diagram the battery 2
E5
forward biases the E5 =unction while the battery 2
#5
reverse
biases the #5 =unction.
As the E5 =unction is forward biased the holes from emitter region flow towards the base
causing a hole current !
-E
. At the same time, the electrons from base region flow towards
the emitter causing an electron current !
%E
. 6um of these two currents constitute an
emitter current !
E
* !
-E
"!
%E.
&he ratio of hole current !
-E
to electron current !
%E
is directly proportional to the ratio of
the conductivity of the p0type material to that of n0type material. 6ince, emitter is highly
doped when compared to baseQ the emitter current consists almost entirely of holes.
%ot all the holes, crossing E5 =unction reach the #5 =unction because some of the them
combine with the electrons in the n0type base. !f !
-#
is the hole current at 3Rc4 #5
=unction. &here will be a recombination current !
-E
0 !
-#
leaving the base as shown in
figure ,.:.
!f emitter is open circuited, no charge carriers are in=ected from emitter into the base and
hence emitter current !
E
*o. Snder this condition #5 =unction acts a a reverse biased
//
!
-E
!
-#
3hole current4 3hole current4
!
%E
3e
0
current4

!
#C
!-5
diode and therefore the collector current 3 !
#
* !
#C
4 will be e'ual to te reverse saturation
current. &herefore when E5 =unction is forward biased and collector base =unction is
reverse biased the total collector current !
#
* !
-#
"!
#C.
2.0 !ransistor $onfiguration
.e now that, transistor can be used as an amplifier. For an amplifier, two terminals are
re'uired to supply the wea signal and two terminals to collect the amplified signal. &hus
four terminals are re'uired but a transistor is said to have only three terminals &herefore,
one terminal is used common for both input and output.
&his gives rise to three different combinations.
$. #ommon base configuration 3#54
(. #ommon emitter configuration 3#E4
,. #ommon collector configuration 3##4
&. CB $onfiguration
A simple circuit arrangement of #5 configuration for pnp transistor is shown below.
!
E
!
#
2
i
!
5
9
?
2
out
2
E5
2
#5
9ig 2.F%CB $onfiguration
!n this configuration, base is used as common to both input and output. !t can be noted
that the iGp section has an a.c. source 2
i
along with the d.c. source 2
E5
. &he purpose of
including 2
E5
is to eep E5 =unction always forward biased 3because if there is no 2
E5
then the E5 =unction is forward biased only during the "ve half0cycle of the iGp and
reverse biased during the >ve half cycle4. !n #5 configuration, !
E
>iGp current, !
#
>oGp
current.
Current relations
&.$urrent a*-lifi$ation fa$tor <I:
!t is defined as the ratio of d.c. collector current to d.c. emitter current
I 5
!
"
I
I

). !otal o(- $urrent
.e now that #5 =unction is reverse biased and because of minority charge carriers a
small reverse saturation current !
#C
flows from base to collector.
/5
!
#
* !
E
" !
#C
6ince a portion of emitter current !
E
flows through the base ,let remaining emitter current
be II
E
.
I
C
5 II
E
6 I
C
o
Chara$teristi$s
&. In-ut $hara$teristi$s
!
E
2
#5
*$02 2
#5
*52
8
EB
9ig 2.G% In-ut $hara$teristi$s
!Gp characteristics is a curve between !
E
and emitter base voltage 2
E5
eeping 2
#5
constant. !
E
is taen along y0a)is and 2
E5
is taen along )0a)is. From the graph following
points can be noted.
$. For small changes of 2
E5
there will be a large change in !
E.
&herefore input
resistance is very small.
(. !
E
is almost independent of 2
#5
,. !G- resistance , 9
i
* T2
E5
G T !
E
2
#5
*constant
). "ut-ut $hara$teristi$s
!
#
Active region
!
E
*, mA
!
E
*( mA
6aturation !
E
* $ mA
region !
E
* 0
#ut0off region 2
#5
9ig 2.&/%"ut-ut $hara$teristi$s
oGp characteristics is the curve between !
#
and 2
#5
at constant !
E
. &he collector current !
#
is taen along y0a)is and 2
#5
is taen along )0a)is. !t is clear from the graph that the oGp
current !
#
remains almost constant even when the voltage 2
#5
is increased.
/1
i.e. , a very large change in 2
#5
produces a small change in !
#
. &herefore, output
resistance is very high.
CGp resistance 9
o
* T2
E5
G T !
#
!
E
* constant
9egion below the curve !
E
*0 is nown as cut0off region where !
#
is nearly zero. &he
region to the left of 2
#5
*0 is nown as saturation region and to the right of 2
#5
*0 is
nown as active region.
). CE $onfiguration
!
#
9
?
2
out
!
5
2
i
!
E
2
E5
2
#E
9ig 2.&&%CE $onfiguration
!n this configuration the input is connected between the base and emitter while the output
is taen between collector and emitter. For this configuration !
5
is input current and !
#
is
the output current.
&. Current a*-lifi$ation fa$tor <J:
!t is the ratio of d.c. collector current to d.c. base current.
i.e., J 5 I
C
( I
B
). Relationshi- bet.een I and J
.e now that U *
!
#
I
I
U *
# $
#
I I
I
+
divide both numerator and denominator of 9H6 by !
#,
we get

$
$
+

#
$
I
I

/:
$
$
$
+

3 !
#
G !
5
* V 4

$
Also we have



+
+
$
4 $ 3
4 $ 3
3eri7ation of !otal out-ut $urrent I
C
.e have
#$" ! #
I I I +

+
+ +

+
+

$
4 $ 3
$
#$" !
#
#$" ! #
I I
I
I I
$
I

!c *
#$" $
I I 4 $ 3 + +
!ransistor Chara$teristi$s
&. i(- $hara$teristi$s
!
5
2
#E
*$02 2
#E
*52
8
EB
9ig 2.&&% i(- $hara$teristi$s
/+
!nput characteristics is a curve between E5 voltage 32
E5
4 and base current 3!
5
4 at
constant 2
#E
. From the graph following can be noted.
$. &he input characteristic resembles the forward characteristics of a p0n =unction
diode.
(. For small changes of 2
E5
there will be a large change in base current !
5.
i.e., input
resistance is very small.
,. &he base current is almost independent of 2
#E
.
/. !nput resistance , 9
i
* T2
E5
G T !
5
2
#E
* constant
). "ut-ut $hara$teristi$s
!
#
3mA4
Active region
,0 FA
(0 FA
$0 FA
!
5 *
0FA
#ut0off region
2
#E
3volts4
9ig 2.&)% "ut-ut $hara$teristi$s
!t is the curve between 2
#E
and !
#
at constant !
5
. From the graph we can see that,
$. 2ery large changes of 2
#E
produces a small change in !
#
i.e output resistance is
very high.
(. output resistance 9
o
* T2
#E
G T!
#
W!
5
* constant
9egion between the curve !
5
*0 is called cut0off region where !
5
is nearly zero. 6imilarly
the active region and saturation region is shown on the graph.
2. CC $onfiguration
!
E
9
?
2
out
!
5
2
i
!
#
2
#5
2
#E
9ig 2.&2% CC $onfiguration
!n this configuration the input is connected between the base and collector while the
output is taen between emitter and collector.
Here !
5
is the input current and !
E
is the output current.
/<
Current relations
$. #urrent amplification factor 3O4
). Relationshi- bet.een I J and K
O *
$
!
I
I

O *
$
# $
I
I I +
divide both %umerator and denominator by !
5
$
$
$
#
I
I
+

+ $
3 V * !
#
G !
5
4

+
$
$

$
$
0000000000000000000000000000000000000
3eri7ation of total out-ut $urrent I
E
.e now that !
#
*
#$" !
I I +
!
E
* !
5
" !
#
!
E
* !
5
" U!
E
" !
#5C
!
E
3$0U 4 * !
5
" !
#5C
!
E
*

+
$ $
#$" $
I I
50
!
E
* O!
5
" O!
#5C
!
E
* O 3!
5
" !
#5C
4 00000000000000000000000000000
5$
2.' Co*-arison bet.een CB, CC and CE $onfiguration
#haracteristics #5 #E ##
$. !nput reistance 39
i4
(. Cutput resistance 39
o
4
,. #urrent amplification
factor
/. &otal output current
5. -hase relationship
between input and output
1. Applications
:. #urrent gain
+. 2oltage gain
low
high

$
#$" ! #
I I I +
!n0phase
For high fre'uency
applications
?ess than unity
2ery high
low
high

$
!c *
#$" $
I I 4 $ 3 + +
Cut0of phase
For audio fre'uency
applications
7reater than unity
7rater than unity
high
low

$
$
!
E
* O!
5
" O!
#5C
in0phase
For impedance
matching
2ery high
?ess than unity
5(
2.B !ransistor as an a*-lifier
!
#
9
?
2
out
!
5
2
i X
!
E
2
E5
2
#5
9ig 2.&2% !ransistor as an a*-lifier
#onsider a npn transistor in #E configuration as shown above along with its input
characteristics.
A transistor raises the strength of a wea input signal and thus acts as an amplifier. &he
wea signal to be amplified is applied between emitter and base and the output is taen
across the load resistor 9
#
connected in the collector circuit.
!n order to use a transistor as an amplifier it should be operated in active region i.e.
emitter =unction should be always F5 and collector =unction should be 95. &herefore in
addition to the a.c. input source 2
i
two d.c. voltages 2
E5
and 2
#E
are applied as shown.
&his d.c. voltage is called bias voltage.
As the input circuit has low resistance, a small change in te signal voltage 2
i
causes a
large change in the base current thereby causing the same change in collector current
3because !
#
* V!
5
4.
&he collector current flowing through a high load resistance 9
#
produces a large voltage
across it. &hus a wea signal applied at the input circuit appears in the amplified form at
the output. !n this way transistor acts as an amplifier.
E)ample8 ?et 9
#
* 5EP, 2
in
*$2, !
#
*$mA then output 2*!
#
9
#
*52
5,
2.E Bias stabiliLation
&he process of maing operating point independent of temperature changes or variation
in transistor parameters is called the stabilization.
.e now that for transistor to operate it should be properly biased so that we can have a
fi)ed operating point. &o avoid any distortions, the Y0point should be at the center of the
load line.
5ut in practice this Y0point may shift to any operating region 3saturation or cur0off
region4 maing the transistor unstable. &herefore in order to avoid this, biasing stability
should be maintained.
2.F Causes for Bias instability
5ias instability occurs mainly due to two reasons.
$. &emperature
(. #urrent gain
&. !e*-erature <!:
&he temperature at the =unctions of a transistor depends on the amount of current flowing
through it. ;ue to increase in temperature following parameters of a transistor will
change.
3a:base-e*itter 7oltage <8
BE
:
2
5E
increases at a rate of (./m2G
0
#. .ith increase in temperature the base current !
5
will
increase and since !
#
* V!
5
, !
#
is also increased hence, changing the Y0point.
<b: Re7erse saturation $urrent < I
CB"
:
.e now that !
#
* V!
5
" 3$"V4 !
#5C
where !
#5C
is the reverse saturation current. As the
temperature increases !
#5C
increases there by increase in !
#
and hence changing the Y0
point.
). Current gain <J:
!n the process of manufacturing the transistors different transistors of same type may
have different parameters 3 i.e. if we tae two transistor units of same type and use them
in the circuit there is a change in the V value in actual practice 4. &he biasing circuit will
be designed according to the re'uired V value but due to the change in V from unit to unit
the operating point may shift.
5/
2.G Cas$ading transistor a*-lifiers
.hen the amplification provided by a single stage amplifier is not suffiecient for a
particular purpose or when the input and output impedance is not of the correct
magnituded for the re'uired application then two or more amplifiers are connected in
cascade as shown below.

9ig 2.&0%Cas$ading transistor a*-lifiers
Here the output of amplifier $ is connected as the input of amplifier (.
E)ample8 &he gain of a single amplifier is not sufficient to amplify a signal from a wea
source such as microphone to a level which is suitablefor the operation of another circuit
as loud speaer. !n such cases, amplifiers are used.
.hen amplifiers are cascaded, individual amplifiers provides re'uired amplification and
input and output provide impedance matching.
3e$ibel <dB:
Dany a times it is convenient to represent the gain of an amplifier on a log scale instead
of a linear scale. &he unit of this log scale is called decibel.
-ower gain *log
e
3 -out G-in 4 bel
-ower gain in d5 *$0 log
$0
3 -out G-in 4 d5
2oltage gain *(0log
$0
3 2out G2in 4 d5
#urrent gain * (0log
$0
3!
out
G !
in
4 d5
Note% For a multistage amplifier if A
2$
, A
2(
, and A
2,
are the voltage gains of amplifier
$,(, and , respectively then the overall voltage gain A
2
* A
2$
) A
2(
) A
2,
.
!f it is e)pressed in d5 the A
2
3d54 * A
2$
3d54 " A
2(
3d54 "A
2,
3d54
6imilarly for four or more stages.
55
2.&/ Single stage RC $ou-led A*-lifier
2
##
2
o
9
$
9
#
#
#
2
o
t
9
6
9
(
9
E
9
?
2
i
9ig 2.&'%single stage RC-$ou-led a*-lifier
Figure above shows a practical circuit of a single stage 9# coupled amplifier.&he
different circuit components and their functions are as described below.
a. In-ut $a-a$itor<C
in
:- &his capacitor is used to couple the input signal to the base
of the transistor if it is not used, the signal source resistance 9
6
gets in parallel
with 9
(
thus changing the bias. &he capacitor #
in
blocs any d.c. component
present in the signal and passes only a.c. signal for amplification.
b. Biasing $ir$uit D&he resistances 9
$
, 9
(
and 9
E
forms the biasing and stabilization
circuit for the #E amplifier. !t sets the proper operating point for the amplifier.
c. E*itter by-ass $a-a$itor <C
E
:-&his capacitor is connected in parallel with the
emitter resistance 9
E
to provide low reactance path to the amplified a.c. signal. !f
it is not used, the amplified a.c. signal passing through 9
E
will cause voltage drop
across itthereby reducing the output voltage of the amplifier.
d. Cou-ling $a-a$itor<C$:- &his capacitor couples the output of the amplifier to the
load or to the ne)t stage of the amplifier. !f it is not used, the biasing conditions of
the ne)t stage will change due to the parallel effect of collector resistor 9
#
.
i.e. 9
#
will come in parallel with the resistance 9
$
of the biasing networ of the
ne)t stage thus changing the biasing conditions of the ne)t stage amplifier.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 51
2.&& !.o stage RC $ou-led a*-lifier
2
##
9
$
9
#
#
#
9$
$
9
#
$
#
#
$
9
6
9
(
9
E
#
E
9
(
$
#
E
$
9
?
2
i
9
E
$
6tage0$ 6tage0(
9ig 2.&B% !.o stage RC $ou-led A*-lifier

Figure above shows the circuit diagram of a two stage 9# coupled amplifier . &he
coupling capacitor #
#
connects the output of the first stage to the input of the second
stage. 6ince the coupling from one stage to the ne)t stage is achieved by coupling
capacitor along with a shunt resistor the amplifier is called 9# coupled amplifier.. &he
input signal is first applied to the transistor &
$
and output is taen at the collector of &
$
.
&he signal at the output will be $+0
0
out of phase when compared to the input. &he
output is taen across 9
#
with the help of a coupling capacitor. &his signal is fed as input
to the ne)t stage i.e transistor &
(
. &he signal is amplified further and the amplified output
is taen across 9
c
$
of &
(.
&he phase of the signal is reversed again. &he output is
amplified twice and its is amplified replica of the input signal.
2.&) 9re>uen$y res-onse in a*-lifer
Fre'uency response is the curve between the gain of the amplifier 3A * 2
o
G 2
i
4
verses the fre'uency of the input signal. &he fre'uency response of a typical 9#0
coupled amplifier is shown below.
Fre'uency response has , regions.
$. ?ow fre'uency range
(. Did fre'uency range
,. High fre'uency range
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 5:
Main in
dB ?F9 DF9 HF9
f
&
f
)
fre><,L:
9ig 2.&B% 9re>uen$y res-onse in a*-lifer
o. fre>uen$y range <N '/ ,L:
.e have
A
c
*
R# (
$
where A
#
00000 reactance of capacitor.Q
f00000fre'uency
6ince fre'uency is inversely proportional to the reactance, the reactance of the coupling
capacitor #
#
will be 'uite high at low fre'uencies.
Hence very small amount of signal will pass through one stage to the ne)t stage.
Doreover #
E
cannot shunt the emitter resistance 9
E
effectively because of its large
reactance at low fre'uency. &hese two factors causes the fall of voltage gain at low
fre'uencies.
Mid fre>uen$y range <'/,L D)/K,L:
!n this range of fre'uencies, voltage gain of the amplifier is constant. &he effect of
coupling capacitor in this range is as such to maintain a uniform voltage gain.
,igh fre>uen$y range <O )/ K,L:
!n this range of fre'uency, the reactance of the coupling capacitor #
#
is very small and it
behaves as a short circuit. &his increases the loading effect of ne)t stage 3 9
#
will comes
in parallel with 9
$
4 and reduces the voltage gain. &his reduces the current amplification
there by the voltage drops at high fre'uencies.
Ad7antages of RC $ou-led a*-lifer
&. o. $ost-5ecause only resistors and capacitors are used for biasing and coupling
which are cheap.
). Co*-a$t-5ecause modern resistor and capacitors are small and light
2. Mood fre>uen$y res-onse- &he gain is constant over the audio fre'uency range
and hence suitable for audio fre'uency amplification.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 5+
2.&2 3C oad ine and "-erating -oint sele$tion
!
#
9
5
9
#

2
#E
!
5

2
55
2
##
9ig 2.&E%n-n transistor in CE $onfiguration
!
#
3mA4 Y0point
A
,0 FA
(0 FA
$0 FA
!
5 *
0FA
5 2
#E
3volts
9ig.2.&F% out-ut $hara$teristi$s
#onsisder a #E amplifier along with the output characteristics as shown in figure ,.$+
above. A straight line drawn on the output characteristic of a transistor which gives the
various zero signal values 3ie. .hen no signal applied4 of 2
#E
and !
#
is called ;# load
line.
Constru$tion of 3C load line
Applying E2? to the collector circuit we get,
2
##
>!
#
9
#
>2
#E
*00000000000000000000$
2
#E
* 2
##
>!
#
9
#
0000000000000000000000(
&he above e'uation is the first degree e'uation and can be represented by a
straight line. &his straight line is ;# load line.
&o draw the load line we re'uire two end points which can be found as follows.
$. !f !
#
*0, e'un ( becomes 2
#E
* 2
##
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 5<
(. if 2
#E
* 0, e'un ( becomes 2
##
* !
#
9
#
ie. !
#
* 2
##
G9
#
2.&0 "-erating -oint <P:
A point on the d.c. load line which represent the zero signal values of 2
#E
and !
#
in a
transistor is called as operating point or silent point or 'uiescent point or Y0point.
&he Y0point is selected where the ;# load line intersects the curve of output
characteristics for particular value of zero signal current.

i.e. P--oint 5 <8
CE
,I
C
:
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 10
C,AP!ER 0
"PERA!I"NA AMPI9EIR
IN!R"34C!I"N
Cp0Amp 3operational amplifier4 is basically an amplifier available in the !# form. &he
word Zoperational[ is used because the amplifier can be used to perform a variety of
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation etc.
Figure $ below shows the symbol of an Cp0Amp.
"2
##
2
$
!nverting input
2
(
%oninverting input
02
EE
9ig.& Sy*bol of "--A*-
!t has two inputs and one output. &he input mared Z0Z is nown as !nverting input and
the input mared Z"[ is nown as %on0inverting input.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 1$
!f a voltage 2
i
is applied at the inverting input 3 eeping the non0inverting input at
ground4 as shown below.
2
i
2
C
t
t
2
i
2
C
9ig.) "--a*- in in7erting *ode
&he output voltage 2
o
* 0A2
i
is amplified but is out of phase with respect to the input
signal by $+0
0
.
!f a voltage 2
i
is fed at the non0inverting input 3 Eeeping the inverting input at
ground4 as shown below.
2
o
2
C
t
2
i
t
9ig.2 "--A*- in Non-in7erting *ode
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 1(
&he output voltage 2
o
* A2
i
is amplified and in0phase with the input signal.
!f two different voltages 2
$
and 2
(
are applied to an ideal Cp0Amp as shown
below.
2
$
2
C
2
(
9ig.0 Ideal "--A*-
&he output voltage will be 2
o
* A32
$
> 2
(
4
i.e the difference of the tow volatages is amplified. Hence an Cp0Amp is also called as a
High gain differential amplifier.
%ote8 Cp0Amp is + pin !# 3 named as FA :/$4 with pin details as shown.
CFF6E& %S?? %C #C%%E#&!C%
"2
##
!%2E9&!%7 !G-
CS&-S&
%C% >!%2E9&!%7 !G-
02EE CFF6E& %S??
9ig. ' Pin details of "--A*-
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 1,
$ +
( :
FA :/$

, 1
/ 5
Blo$+ 3iagra* of an "--AMP
An Cp0Amp consists of four blocs cascaded as shown above
9ig. B Blo$+ diagra* of an "--A*-
In-ut stage% !t consists of a dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. !ts
function is to amplify the difference between the two input signals. !t provides high
differential gain, high input impedance and low output impedance.
Inter*ediate stage% &he overall gain re'uirement of an Cp0Amp is very high. 6ince the
input stage alone cannot provide such a high gain. !ntermediate stage is used to provide
the re'uired additional voltage gain.
!t consists of another differential amplifier with dual input, and unbalanced 3 single
ended4 output
Buffer and e7el shifting stage
As the Cp0Amp amplifies ;.# signals also, the small ;.#. 'uiescent voltage level of
previous stages may get amplified and get applied as the input to the ne)t stage causing
distortion the final output.
Hence the level shifting stage is used to bring down the ;.#. level to ground potential,
when no signal is applied at the input terminals. 5uffer is usually an emitter follower
used for impedance matching.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 1/




"ut-ut stage- !t consists of a push0pull complementary amplifier which provides large
A.#. output voltage swing and high current sourcing and sining along with low output
impedance.
Con$e-t of 8irtual ground
.e now that , an ideal Cp0Amp has perfect balance 3ie output will be zero when input
voltages are e'ual4.
Hence when output voltage 2
o
* 0, we can say that both the input voltages are e'ual ie 2
$
* 2
(
.
2$
2o
9i
2(
9ig. E<a: Con$e-t of 8irtual ground
6ince the input impedances of an ideal Cp0Amp is infinite 3 9
i
* 4. &here is no current
flow between the two terminals.
Hence when one terminal 3 say 2
(
4 is connected to ground 3ie 2
(
* 04 as shown.
2##
2$ *2( *0
9i 2C
2(*0
2EE
Fig. :3b : Con$e-t of 8irtual ground
&hen because of virtual ground 2
$
will also be zero.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 15
A--li$ations of "--A*-
An Cp0Amp can be used as
$. !nverting Amplifer
(. %on0!verting Amplifer
,. 2oltage follower
/. Adder 3 6ummer4
5. !ntegrator
1. ;ifferentiator
3efinitions
&. Sle.rate<S:% !t is defined as Z &he rate of change of output voltage per unit time[
sec G vots
dt
dV
s
"

!deally slew rate should be as high as possible.5ut its typical value is s*0.5 2GF0sec.
). Co**on Mode Re#e$tion Ratio<CMRR:% !t is defined as Z &he ratio of
differential voltage gain to common0mode voltage gain[.
#%
d
A
A
#%RR
!deally #D99 is infinite, but its typical value is #D99 * <0 d5
2. "-en oo- 8oltage Main <A
8
:% !t is the ration of output voltage to input voltage
in the absence of feed bac.
!ts typical value is A
2
* ()$0
5
0. In-ut I*-edan$e <R
i
:%!t is defined as Z &he impedance seen by the input3source4
applied to one input terminal when the other input terminal is connected to
ground.
9i \ (DP
'. "ut-ut I*-edan$e <R
"
:% !t is defined as Z &he impedance given by the output
3load4 for a particular applied input[.
9o \ :5P
Note% !y-i$al 7alues gi7en abo7e are for "--A*- IC5QAE0&
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 11
Chara$teristi$s of an Ideal "--A*-
An ideal Cp0Amp has the following characteristics.
$. !nfinite voltage gain 3 ie A
2
*]4
(. !nfinite input impedance 39
i *
]4
,. Bero output impedance39
o
*04
/. !nfinite 5andwidth 35... * #
5. !nfinite #ommon mode re=ection ratio 3ie #D99 *]4
1. !nfinite slew rate 3ie 6*]4
:. Bero power supply re=ection ratio 3 -699 *04ie output voltage is zero when
power supply 2
##
*0
+. Bero offset voltage3ie when the input voltages are zero, the output voltage will
also be zero4
<. -erfect balance 3ie the output voltage is zero when the input voltages at the two
input terminals are e'ual4
$0. &he characteristics are temperature independent.
In7erting A*-lifier
An inverting amplifier is one whose output is amplified and is out of phase by $+0
0
with respect to the input
9f
i(
9$
2$ i$ 7*0
2C
9ig.F In7erting A*-lifier
&he point Z7[ is called virtual ground and is e'ual to zero.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 1:
5y E#? we have
( $
i i
f
o i
R
V
R
V

0 0
$
f
o i
R
V
R
V

$
i
f
"
V
R
R
V

,
_


$
;here
$
R
R
f
is the gain of the amplifier and negative sign indicates that the output is
inverted with respect to the input.
2C
2i
t t
9ig. G ;a7efor*s of In7erting A*-lifers
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 1+
). Non- In7erting A*-lifier
A non0inverting amplifier is one whose output is amplified and is in0phase with the
input.
9f
i(
9$
2$ i$ 7*2i
2C
2i
9ig.&/ Non In7erting A*-lifiers
5y E#? we have

( $
i i

f
" i i
R
V V
R
V

$
0
$
0
$
R
R
V
Vi V
R
V V
R
V
f
i
f
i " i


$
$
R
R
V
V
f
i
"


i
f
i
"
R
R
V
V
+ $
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar 1<
i
f
V
R
R
V

,
_

+
$
0
$
.here

,
_

+
$
$
R
R
f
is the gain of the amplifier and " sign indicates that the output
is in0phase with the input.
2. 8oltage follo.er
2C
2i 2C
2i
t t
9ig. && 8oltage follo.er
2oltage follower is one whose output is e'ual to the input.
&he voltage follower configuration shown above is obtained by short circuiting Z9
f
[ and
open circuiting Z9
$
[ connected in the usual non0inverting amplifier.
&hus all the output is fed bac to the inverting input of the op0Amp.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar :0
#onsider the e'uation for the output of non0inverting amplifer
i
f
V
R
R
V

,
_

+
$
0
$
.hen 9
f
* 0 short circuiting
9
$
* ] open circuiting
i
V
,
_

+
0
$ 2
C
i "
V V
&herefore the output voltage will be e'ual and in0phase with the input voltage. &hus
voltage follower is nothing but a non0inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of unity.
0. In7erting Adder
!nverting adder is one whose output is the inverted sum of the constituent inputs
9$
9f
2$ i$
!f
9(
2( i( 7*0
2C
2, 9, i,
9ig.&). In7erting Adder
5y E#? we have
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar :$
, ( $
i i i i
f
+ +
,
,
(
(
$
$
0 0 0 0
R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
f
"

+

,
,
(
(
$
$
9
2
R
V
R
V
R
V
f
"
+ +
1
]
1

+ +
,
,
(
(
$
$
9
2
R
V
R
V
R V
f "
!f 9
$
* 9
(
* 9
,
*9 then
[ ]
, ( $
V V V
R
R
V
f
"
+ +
!f 9
f
* 9 then
2
C
* 0^ 2
$
" 2
(
" 2
,
_
Hence it can be observed that the output is e'ual to the inverted sum of the inputs.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar :(
'. Integrator
#
i(
9$
2$ i$ 7*0
2C
Fig, $, !ntegrator
An integrator is one whose output is the integration of the input.,
5y E#? we have,
$
( $
i i
i
"
" i
"
"
"
"
i i
V
R# dt
dV
dt
dV
#
R
V
have we in and & substituin
dt
dV
# i e i
i
# dt
dV
dt i
#
V
dt i
#
V
have we simiary and
R
V
R
V
i
have we fi&ure above the 'rom
$
$ , (
, . .
$
$
$
0
(
0
(
(
(
(
$






dt V
R#
V
i "


$
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar :,
3ifferentiator
A differentiator is one whose output is the differentiation of the input
9
i(
2$ i$ 7*0
2C
5y E#? we have
R
V
dt
dV
#
have we in and n& substituti
R
V
R
V
i
have we simiary and
dt
dV
# i
i
# dt
dV
dt i
#
V
have we fi&ure above the 'rom
i i
" i
" "
i
i
i

$ , (
,
0
( .
$
$
$
(
$
$
$
( $
dt
dV
R# V
"

%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar :/
Proble*s
&. 9or an in7erting a*-lifer R
i
5&//KR and R
f
5B//KR. ;hat is the out-ut 7oltage
for an in-ut of -28S
Soln%
7iven8 9
$
*$00EP
9
f
*100EP
2
i
*0,2
2
C
*`
.e have,

V V
V
R
R
V
"
i
f
"
$+
,
$0 $00
$0 100
,
,
$


1
]
1


$. esign an inverting amplifer for output voltage of %&'V and an input voltage of &V.
Soln%
7iven8 2i

*$ 2
2
C
* 0$02
.e Have,
i
f
"
V
R
R
V

,
_


$
$ $0
$

,
_


R
R
f
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar :5
have we ( R & Assu
R R or
R
R
f
f


$ min
$0 $0
$
$
$
( R
f
$0
9f
i(
9$
2$ i$
2C
2. 9or an in7erting a*-lifier R
&
5&/KR and 8
i
5&8. Cal$ulate i
&
and 8
".
Soln%
7iven8 9
$
* $0EP, 9
f
*$00EP 2
i
*$ 2
.e have,
9f
i(
9$
2$ i$
2C
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar :1
V V
R
R
V
mA
R
V
i
i
f
"
i
$0 $
$0 $0
$0 $00
$ . 0
$0 $0
$ 0
,
,
$
,
$
$

1
]
1

,
_

0. 3esing an a*-lifier .ith a gain of 6G and R


f
5&) KR using an o--A*-
Soln%
6ince the gain is positive8
#hoose a non0inverting amplifier
&hen we have,
i
f
"
V
R
R
V
1
]
1

+
$
$
7ain is,

+
( R
R
R
R
R
R
R
f
f
f
5 . $
+
$0 $(
+
+
< $
$
,
$
$
$
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar ::
B. In the figure sho.n if 8
&
56&8, 8
)
5628 and 8
2
56)8 .ith R
&
5R
)
5R
2
5)KR.
3eter*ine the out-ut 7oltage.
9$
9f
2$ i$
!f
9(
2( i( 7*0
2C
2, 9, i,
Soln% .e have ,
[ ]
[ ]
V V
V
V V V
R
R
V
"
"
f
"
<
( , $
$0 (
$0 ,
,
,
, ( $

+ +


+ +
E. 3esing an Adder using "--A*- to gi7e the out-ut 7oltage 8
"
5 -T)8
&
628
)
6'8
2
U
Soln%
7iven
[ ] $ 5 , (
, ( $
+ + V V V V
"
.e Have,
(
,
,
(
(
$
$
,
,
(
(
$
$

1
]
1

+ +
1
]
1

+ +
V
R
R
V
R
R
V
R
R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
R V
f f f
"
f "
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar :+
E'uating e'n $ and ( we get,
5 Q , Q (
, ( $

R
R
R
R
R
R
f f f
Assuming 9
f
*$00EP, .e get,



( R
R
R
( R
R
( R
R
R
f
f
f
(0
5
,, . ,,
,
9
50
(
, ,
( (
$ $
Note% If desing is as+ed after finding the 7alues of R
f
and R
&
$ir$uit diagra* should
be .ritten.
F.3esign a su**ing a*-lifier to add three in-ut 7oltages. !he out-ut of the
a*-lifier should be t.i$e the negati7e su* of the in-uts.
Soln
( )
( )


+ +
+ +
( R then ( R Let
R R
R
R
&et we !)uatin&
V V V
R
R
V have we
V V V V
f
f
f
f
"
"
(0 $0
( (
,
(
, ( $
, ( $
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar :<
G. A ' *8 -ea+ 7oltage, & K,L signal is a--lied to the in-ut of an "--A*-
integrator for .hi$h R5&//KR and C5&Q9. 9ind the out-ut 7oltage.
6oln8 7iven 9*$00EP
#*$FF
2
m
*5m2
F*$EHz
2
0
*`
.e have 2
i
* 2
m
6inwt * 2
m
6in(aft
2
i
*5sin(00at m2
For an integrator,
mV t V
sovin& on
dt V
R#
V
"
i "

(00 cos
/0
$
,
$

&/.!he in-ut to a differentiator is a sindusoidal 7oltage of -ea+ 7alue '*8 and


fre>uen$y )K,L . 9ind the out-ut if R 5 &//KR and C5&Q9.
7iven8
mV t V sovin& on
dt
dV
R# V ator differenti for
mV t V
"
i
"
i

/000 cos (000


/00 sin 5

%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar +0


C,AP!ER '
!,E"RV "9 SIN4S"I3A "SCIA!"RS
Z An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired fre'uency is
nown as sinusoidal oscillator[
!y-es of Sinusoidal "s$illations
$. ;amped Cscillations
(. Sndamped Cscillations
&. 3a*-ed "s$illations-&he electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on
decreasing with time are called damped oscillations.
). 4nda*-ed "s$illations- &he electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains
constant with time are called undamped oscillations.
e e
t t
fig. 3a*-ed os$illations fig. 4nda*-ed os$illations
"s$illatory $ir$uit
A circuit, which produces electrical oscillations of any desired fre(uency, is known as
an oscillatory circuit or tank circuit.
A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor # and inductance coil ? in parallel as
shown in figure below. &his electrical system can produce electrical oscillations of
fre'uency determined by the values of ? and #.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar +$
S
66 66
C W W W W
9ig.& 9ig. )
W W
6 6
9ig. 2 9ig. 0
Cir$uit o-erations- Assume capacitor is charged from a d. c. source with a polarity as
shown in figure $.
.hen switch 6 is closed as shown in fig.ii, the capacitor will discharge through
inductance and the electron flow will be in the direction indicated by the arrow.
&his current flow sets up magnetic field around the coil. ;ue to the inductive
effect, the current builds up slowly towards a ma)imum value. &he circuit current
will be ma)imum when the capacitor is fully discharged. Hence the electrostatic
energy across the capacitor is completely converted into magnetic field energy
around the coil.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar +(
Cnce the capacitor is discharged, the magnetic field will begin to collapse and
produce a counter emf. According to ?enzbs law the counter emf will eep the
current flowing in the same direction. &he result is that the capacitor is now
charged with opposite polarity maing upper plate of capacitor >ve and lower
plate "ve as shown in fig. ,.
After the collapsing field has recharged the capacitor, the capacitor now begins to
discharge and current now flows in the opposite direction as shown in fig. iv.
&he se'uence of charge and discharge results in alternating motion of electrons or
an oscillating current. &he energy is alternately stored in the lectric field of the
capacitor # and the magnetic field of the inductance coil ? . &his interchange of
energy between ? and # is repeated over and again resulting in the production of
Cscillations.
;a7efor*- !n practical tan circuit there are resistive and radiation losses in the coil and
dielectric losses in the capacitor. ;uring each cycle a small part of the originally imparted
energy is used up to overcome these losses. &he result is that the amplitude of oscillating
current decreases gradually and eventually it become zero. &herefore tan circuit
produces damped oscillations.
9re>uen$y of os$illations- &he e)pression for fre'uency of oscillation is given by,
L#
f
r
(
$

00000000000000000000000000000003$4
4nda*-ed "s$illations fro* !an+ Cir$uit
A tan circuit produces damped oscillations. !n practice we need continuous undamped
oscillations for the successful operation of electronics e'uipment. !n order to mae the
oscillations in the tan circuit undamped it is necessary to supply correct amount of
energy to the tan circuit at the proper time intervals to meet the losses.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar +,
&he following conditions must be fulfilledQ
$. &he amount of energy supplied be such so as to meet the losses in the tan and the
a.c. energy removed from the circuit by the load. For e)ample if losses in ?#
circuit amount ot 5 m. and a.c. output being taen is $00 m., then power of
$05m. should be continuously supplied to the circuit.
(. &he applied energy should have the same fre'uency as the of the oscillations in
the tan circuit.
,. &he applied energy should be in phase with the oscillations set up in the tan
circuit.
Positi7e feedba$+ A*-lifier-"s$illator
$. A transistor amplifier with proper "ve feedbac can act as an oscillator.
S
2
out
2
in
2
f
t t t
(. &he circuit needs only a 'uic trigger signal to start the oscillations. Cnce the
oscillations have started, no e)ternal signal source is necessary.
,. !n order to get continuous undamped output from the circuit, the following
condition must be metQ
m
v
A
2
*$
where A
2
* voltage gain of amplifier without feedbac.
m
v
* feedbac fraction.
&his relation is also called 5arhausen criterion
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar +/
Amplifier
Feedbac
networ
Essentials of !ransistor "s$illator
Fig. below shows the bloc diagram of an oscillator. !ts essential components are8
$. &an #ircuit8 !t consists of inductance coil3?4 connected in parallel with
capacitor3# 4. &he fre'uency of oscillations in the circuit depends upon the values
of inductance of the coil and capacitance of the capacitor.
(. &ransistor Amplifier8 &he transistor amplifier receives d.c. power from the battery
and changes it into a.c. power for supplying to the tan circuit. &he oscillations
occurring in the tan circuit are applied to the input the transistor amplifer. &he
output of the transistor can be supplied to the tan circuit to meet the losses.
,. Feedbac circuit8 &he feedbac circuit supplies a part of collector energy to the
tan circuit in correct phase to aid the oscillations. ie. provides positive feedbac.
9ig. Blo$+ diagra* of !ransistor "s$illator
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar +5
&ransistor
Amplifier
Feedbac
circuit
!y-es of !ransistor "s$illators
$. Hartley Cscillator
(. #olpittbs Cscillator
,. -hase 6hift Cscillator
/. &uned #ollector Cscillator
5. .ein 5ridge Cscillator
1. #rystal Cscillator
&. ,artley "s$illator
&he circuit diagram of Hartley Cscillator is as shown in figure below. !t uses
two inductors placed across common capacitor # and the center of two inductors ins
tapped. &he tan circuit is made up of ?
$
, ?
(
and # and is given by.
# L
f
*
(
$

00000000000000000000000000000003(4
where ?
&
* ?
$
" ?
(
" (D

D* Dutual inductance between ?
$
and ?
(
9igure% Cir$uit diagra* of ,artley "s$illator
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar +1
.hen the circuit is turned C%, the capacitor is charged. .hen this capacitor is
fully charged, it discharges through coils ?
$
and ?
(
setting up oscillations of
fre'uency determined by e)pression $. &he output voltage of the amplifier
appears across ?
(
and feedbac voltage across ?
$
. &he voltage across ?
$
is $+0
0
out of phase with the voltage developed across ?
(
.
A phase shift of $+0
0
is produced by the transistor and a further phase shift of
$+0
0
is produced by ?
$
0?
(
voltage divider circuit. !n this way feedbac is properly
phased to produce continuous undamped oscillations.
9eedba$+ fra$tion- !n Hartley oscillator the feedbac voltage is across ?
$
and output
voltage is across ?
(.
&herefore feedbac fraction
(
$
(
$
L
L
+
+
v
v
m
L
L
out
f
v

0000000000000000000003,4
). Col-ittXs "s$illator
9igure% Cir$uit diagra* of Col-ittXs "s$illator
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar +:
&he tan circuit is made up of #
$
, #
(
and ?. &he fre'uency of oscillations is
determined by8
( $
( $
(
$
# #
# #
# where
L#
f
*
*
+

0000000000000000000000003/4
.hen the circuit is turned C%, the capacitor #
$
and #
(
are charged. &he capacitors
discharge through ? setting up oscillations of fre'uency determined by
e)pression. $. &he output voltage appears across #
(
and feedbac voltage is
developed across #
$
. &he voltage across #
$
is $+0
0
out of phase with the voltage
developed across #
(
32
out
4. A phase shift of $+0
0
is produced by the transistor and
a further phase shift of $+0
0
is produced by #
$
0#
(
voltage divider. !n this way
feedbac is properly phased to produce continuous undamped oscillations.
9eedba$+ fa$tor
Feedbac factor
$
(
(
$
#
#
+
+
V
V
m
#
#
out
f
v

0000000000000000000000000000354
3e*erits of "s$illator using !an+ Cir$uit
$. &hey suffer for fre'uency instability and poor waveform
(. &hey cannot be used to generate low fre'uencies, since they become too0much
buly and e)pensive too.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar ++
2. RC Phase Shift "s$illator
9igure% Cir$uit diagra* of RC -hase shift "s$illator
!t consists of a conventional single transistor amplifier and a 9# phase shift
circuit. &he 9# phase shift circuit consists of three sections 9
$
#
$,
9
(
#
(
, and
9
,
#
,
.At some particular fre'uency f
0
the phase shift in each 9# section is 10
0
so
that the total phase shift produced by the 9# networ is $+0
0
. &he fre'uency of
oscillation is given by
1 (
$
R#
f
o

000000000000000000000000000314
.hen the circuit is switched C% it produces oscillations of fre'uency determined
by e'uation $. &he output E
C
of the amplifier is feedbac to 9# feedbac
networ. &his networ produces a phase shift of $+0
0
and the transistor gives
another $+0
0
shift. &hereby total phase shift of the output signal when fed bac is
,10
0
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar +<
Merits-
$. &hey do not re'uire any transformer or inductor thereby reduce the cost.
(. &hey are 'uite useful in the low fre'uency range where tan circuit
oscillators cannot be used.
,. &hey provide constant output and good fre'uency stability.
3e*erits D
$. !t is difficult to start oscillations.
(. &he circuit re'uires a large number of components.
,. &hey cannot generate high fre'uencies and are unstable as variable fre'uency
generators.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar <0
!ransistor Crystal "s$illator
9igure% Cir$uit diagra* of !ransistor $rystal os$illator
Figure shows the transistor crystal oscillator. &he crystal will act as parallel >
tuned circuit. At parallel resonance, the impedance of the crystal is ma)imum.
&his means that there is a ma)imum voltage drop across #
(
. &his in turn will
allow the ma)imum energy transfer through the feedbac networ.
&he feedbac is "ve. A phase shift of $+0
0
is produced by the transistor. A further
phase shift of $+0
0
is produced by the capacitor voltage divider. &his oscillator
will oscillate only at f
p
.
.here f
p
* parallel resonant fre'uency ie the fre'uency at which the vibrating
crystal behaves as a parallel resonant circuit.
m
m
*
*
p
# #
##
# where
L#
f
+

(
$
0000000000000000000000000000000000000003:4
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar <$
Ad7antages
$. Higher order of fre'uency stability
(. &he Y0factor of the crystal is very high.
3isad7antages
$. #an be used in low power circuits.
(. &he fre'uency of oscillations cannot be changed appreciably.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar <(
C,AP!ER B
C"MM4NICA!I"N SVS!EMS
Radio Broad$asting, !rans*ission and Re$e-tion
9adio communication means the radiation of radio waves by the transmitting station, the
propagation of these waves through space and their reception by the radio receiver.
Fig. below shows the general principle of radio broadcasting, transmission and reception.
!t essentially consists of transmitter, transmission of radio waves and radio receiver.
9)g antenna
&ransmitting
Antenna
9igure% Blo$+ diagra* of Co**uni$ation syste*
!rans*itter0
!t essentially consists of microphone, audio amplifiers, oscillator and modulator.
A microphone is a device which converts sound waves into electrical waves. &he output
of microphone is fed to multistage audio amplifier for raising the strength of wea signal.
&he =ob of amplification is performed by cascaded audio amplifiers. &he amplified output
from the last audio amplifier is fed to the modulator for rendering the process of
modulation.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar <,
Audio
Amplifiers
Cscillator
Dodulator
9adio
receiver
&he function of the oscillation is to produce a high fre'uency signal called a carrier wave.
Ssually crystal oscillator is used for the purpose.
&he amplified audio signal and carrier waves are fed to the modulator. Here the audio
signal is superimposed on the carrier wave in suitable manner. &he resultant waves are
called modulated waves, and the process is called modulation. &he process of modulation
permits the transmission of audio signal at the carrier signal 3fre'uency4. As the carrier
fre'uency is very high, therefore the audio signal can be transmitted to large distances.
&he radio waves from the transmitter are fed to the transmitting antenna or aerial from
where these are radiated into space.
&he transmitting antenna radiates the radio waves in space in all directions. &hese radio
waves travel with the velocity of light ,)$0
+
mGsec. &he radio waves are electromagnetic
waves and possess the same general properties.
Re$ei7er-
Cn reaching the receiving antenna, the radio waves induce tiny emf in it. &his small
voltage is fed to the radio receiver. Here the radio waves are first amplified and then
signal is e)tracted from them by the process of demodulation. &he signal is amplified by
audio amplifiers and then fed to the speaer for reproduction into sound waves.
Need for *odulation
&. Pra$ti$al Antenna length-theory shows that in order to transmit a wave effectively
the length of the transmitting antenna should be appro)imately e'ual to the
wavelength of the wave.
metres
,- fre)uency fre)uency
Veocity
waveen&th
4 3
$0 ,
+


As the audio fre'uencies range from (0 Hz to (0Ehz, if they are transmitted directly into
space, the length of the transmitting antenna re'uired would be e)tremely large. For
e)ample to radiate a fre'uency of (0 EHz directly into space we would need an antenna
length of ,)$0
+
G(0)$0
,
\ $5,000 meters. &his is too long to be constructed practically.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar </
). "-erating Range- &he energy of a wave depends upon its fre'uency. &he greater
the fre'uency of the wave, the greater the energy possessed by it. As the audio signal
fre'uencies are small, therefore these cannot be transmitted over large distances if
radiated directly into space.
2. ;ireless $o**uni$ation- 9adio transmission should be carried out without wires.
Modulation- &he process of changing some characteristics 3e)ample amplitude,
fre'uency or phase4 of a carrier wave in accordance with the intensity of the signal is
nown as modulation.
!y-es of *odulation-
$. Amplitude modulation
(. Fre'uency modulation
,. -hase modulation
&. A*-litude *odulation
.hen the amplitude of high fre'uency carrier wave is changed in accordance with the
intensity of the signal, it is called amplitude modulation.
&he following points are to be noted in amplitude modulation .
$. &he amplitude of the carrier wave changes according to the intensity of the signal.
(. &he amplitude variations of the carrier wave is at the signal fre'uency f
6
.
,. &he fre'uency of the amplitude modulated wave remains the same ie.carrier
fre'uency f
#
.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar <5
es
t
e
c
t
e
t
Figure8 AD waveforms
Modulation fa$tor
&he ratio of change of amplitude of carrier wave to the amplitude of normal carrier wave
is called modulation factor.
m*3amplitude change of carrier wave4 G normal carrier wave3unchanged4
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar <1
A
" %o 6ignal *
carrier m*0GA * 0M
(A
" *
carrier signal
m*3(A0A4GA *$
Dodulation factor is very important since it determines the strength and 'uality of the
transmitted signal. &he greater the degree of modulation, the stronger and clearer will be
the audio signal. !t should be noted that if the carrier is overmodulated 3ie mc$4 distortion
will occur at reception.
Analysis of a*-litude *odulated .a7e
signal
mE
c

E
#
E
c
#arrier
AD .ave
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar <:
A carrier wave is represented by e
c
* E
c
cosw
c
t00000000000000000003$4
.here e
c 000000
instantaneous voltage of carrier.
E
c
00000amplitude of carrier.
!n amplitude modulation, the amplitude E
#
of the carrier wave is varied in
accordance with intensity of the signal as shown in figure.
6uppose m*modulation inde), then change in carrier amplitude *mE
c
.
Amplitude or E
ma)
of the signal * mE
c
.
e
s *
mE
c
cosw
s
t0000000000000000000000000000000003(4
where mE
c
is the amplitude of the signal.
e
s 000000000
instantaneous voltage of the signal.
&he amplitude of the carrier varies at signal fre'uency fs. &herefore the amplitude of AD
wave is given by,
E
c
"mE
c
cosw
s
t * E
c
3$"mcosw
s
t4
&he instantaneous voltage of AD wave is,
e * Amplitude ) cosw
c
t
4 , 3 4 cos3
(
4 cos3
(
cos
_ 4 cos3 4 ^cos3
(
cos
_ cos cos ( ^
(
cos
cos cos cos
cos 4 cos $ 3
+ + +
+ + +
+
+
+
t w w
m!
t w w
m!
t w ! e
t w w t w w
m!
t w !
t w t w
m!
t w !
t w t w m! t w !
t w t w m ! e
s c
c
s c
c
c #
s c s c
c
c #
c s
#
c #
c s # c #
c s #
&he AD wave is e'uivalent ot thesummatoin of theree sinusoidal waves8 aone
having amplitude E
#
and fre'uency f
c
, the second having amplitde mE
c
G( and
fre'uency 3f
c
" f
s
4 and the third having amplitude mE
c
G( and fre'uency f
c
> f
s.
.
&he AD wave consists three fre'uencies viz, f
c
, f
c
"f
s
. &he first fre'uency is the
carrier fre'uency. &hus the process of modulation doesnot change the original
carrier fre'uency but produces two new fre'uencies f
c
"f
s
and f
c
> f
s.
which are
called sideband fre'uencies.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar <+
!n amplitude modulation the bandwidth is from f
c
> f
s.
to f
c
"f
s
ie (f
s
ie twice the
signal fre'uency.
Fre'uency spectrum of an amplitude modulated wave is shown in figure below.
E
#
mE
#
G(
f
#
0f
6
f
#
f
#
"f
6
fre'uency
9igure% 9re>uen$y S-e$tru* of AM .a7e
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar <<
!ransistor AM *odulator
9igure% !ransistor AM *odulator
A circuit which does amplitude modulation is called AD modulator.
Fig. above shows the circuit of a simple AD modulator. !t is essentially a #E
amplifier having a voltage gain of A. &he carrier signal is the input to the
amplifier. &he modulating signal is applied in the emitter resistance circuit.
&he amplifier circuit amplifies the carrier by a factor ZA[ so that the output is Ae
c.
6ince the modulating signal is part of the biasing circuit it produces low0
fre'uency variations in the circuit. &his in turn causes variations in ZA[. &he
result is that the amplitude of the carrier varies in accordance with the strength of
the signal. &he amplitude modulated output is obtained across 9
?
.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $00
Po.er in AM .a7e
4 : 3
( 4 1 3
4 5 3
,
4 1 3
(
(
(
(
$
( / (
4 5 3
/
( ( ( (
4 / 3
(
(
4, , 3
(
(
( (
( ( ( ( (
( (
( (
(
(

+


1
]
1

1
]
1

+ +
+

,
_

,
_

,
_

m
m
e)un
e)un
P
P
sidebands by carried power tota of fraction Aso
m
R
!
m
R
!
R
! m
R
!
P P P wave A% of power *ota
R
! m
R
m!
R
m!
P sidebands of power *ota
R
!
R
!
P power carrier
e)uation from
*
S
#
# # #
S # *
#
# #
S
#
c
#
i*itations of A*-litude Modulation
&. Noisy Re$e-tion- !n an AD wave, the signal is in the amplitude variations of the
carrier. -ractically all the natural and man made noises consist of electrical
amplitude disturbances. As a radio receiver cannot distinguish between amplitude
variations that represent noise and those that contain the desired signal. &herefore
reception is very noisy.
). o. effi$ien$y- !n AD useful power is in the sidebands as they contain the
signal. An AD wave has low sideband power.
For e)ample even if modulation is $00 M ie m*$.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $0$
,, . 0
$ (
$
(
(
(

m
m
p
P
*
S
-
6
*,,M of -
&
6ideband power is only one0third of the total power of AD wave. Hence efficiency of
this type of modulation is low.
2. a$+ of audio >uality- !n order to attain high fidelity reception, all audio
fre'uencies upto $5 Ehz must be reproduced. &his necessitates a bandwidth of ,0
EHz since both sidebands must be reproduced 3(f
s
4. 5ut AD broadcasting
stations are assigned with bandwidth of only $0 EHz to minimize the interference
from ad=acent broadcasting stations. &his means that the highest modulating
fre'uency can be 5 Ehz which is hardly sufficient to reproduce the music
properly.
9re>uen$y *odulation
? .hen the fre'uency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the
signal, it is called fre'uency modulation[.
Here the amplitude of the modulated wave remains the same ie carrier wave
amplitude.
&he fre'uency variations of carrier wave depend upon the instantaneous
amplitude of the signal.
.hen the signal approaches positive peas as the 5 and F, the carrier fre'uency is
increased to ma)imum and during negative pea, the carrier fre'uency is reduced
to minimum as shown by widely spaced cycles.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $0(
signal
b f
a c e g t
d
t
#arrier
t
FD wave
Ad7antages of 9M
$. !t gives noiseless reception.
(. &he operating range is 'uite large.
,. &he efficiency of transmission is very high.
3e*odulation

&he process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is nown as
demodulation or detection.
At the broadcasting station, modulation is done to transmit the audio signal over
larger distances. .hen the modulated wave is piced up the receiver, it is necessary
to recover the audio signal from it. &his process is accomplished in the radio receiver
and is called demodulation.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $0,
AM diode dete$tor
Fig. below shows a simple diode detector employing a diode and a filter circuit. A
detector circuit performs the following two functions.
$. !t rectifies the modulated wave.
(. !t separates the audio signal from the carrier.
6peaer
Audio output
9ectified
.ave
AD .ave
9igure% AM 3iode dete$tor
&he modulated wave of desired fre'uency is selected by the parallel tuned circuit
?
$
#
$
and is applied to the diode. ;uring positive half cycles of the modulated
wave the diode conducts, while during negative half cycles it doesnot. &he result
is the output of diode consists of positive half cycle of modulated wave as shown
in figure.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $0/
&he rectified output consists of r.f. component and the audio signal which cannot
be fed to the speaer for sound reproduction. &he r.f. component is filtered by the
capacitor d#b shunted across the speaer. &he value of d#b is large enough to
present low reactance to the r.f. component . f
c
"f
s
&herefore signal is passed to
the speaer.
AM Radio Re$ei7er
!n order to reproduce the AD wave into sound waves, every radio receiver must perform
the following functions.
$. &he receiving aerial must intercept a portion of the passing radio waves.
(. &he radio receiver must select the desired radio from a number of radio
waves intercepted by the receiving aerial. For this purpose tuned parallel
?# circuits must be used. &hese circuits will select only that radio
fre'uency which is resonant with them.
,. &he selected radio wave must be amplified by the tuned fre'uency
amplifiers.
/. &he audio signal must be recovered from the amplified radio wave.
5. &he audio signal must be amplified by suitable number of audio0
amplifiers.
1. &he amplified audio signal should be fed to the speaer for sound
reproduction.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $05
!y-es of AM radio re$ei7ers
$. 6traight 9adio receiver
(. 6uperhetrodyne radio receiver
&. Straight Radio Re$ei7er
9eceiving antenna
9F amplifier
Figure8 6traight 9adio 9eceiver
&he 9eceiving antenna is receiving radio waves from different broadcasting
stations. &he desired radio wave is selected by the tuned 9F amplifer which
employs tuned parallel circuit. &he selected radio wave is amplified by the rf
amplifier.
&he amplified radio wave is fed to the detector circuit. &his circuit e)tracts the
audio signal from the radio wave. &he output of the detector is the audio signal
which is amplified by one or more stages of audio0amplifications. &he amplified
audio signal is fed the speaer for sound reproduction.
i*itations-
$. !n straight radio receivers, tuned circuits are used. As it is necessary to change the
value of a variable capacitors 3gang capacitors4 for tuning to the desired station,
there is a considerable variation of Y between the closed and open positions of the
variable capacitors. &his changes the sensitivity and selectivity of the radio
receivers.
(. &here is too much interference of ad=acent stations.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $01
;etector AF
amplifier
#
,
?
,
c
(
Su-erhetrodyne Re$ei7er
Here the selected radio fre'uency is converted to a fi)ed lower value called intermediate
fre'uency 3!F4. &his is achieved by special electronic circuit called mi)er circuit. &he
production of fi)ed intermediate fre'uency 3/55 EHz4 is an important feature of
superhetrodyne circuit. At this fi)ed intermediate fre'uency, the amplifier circuit operates
with ma)imum stability, selectivity and sensitivity.
&he bloc diagram of superhetrodyne receiver is a shown in figure below.
9eceiving antenna
9F amplifier Di)er /55EHz
?(
6peaer
?ocal Cscillator
9igure% Su-erhetrodyne Re$ei7er
&. R9 a*-lifier stage- &he 9F amplifier stage uses a tuned parallel circuit ?
$
#
$
with
a variable capacitor #
$
. &he radio waves from various broadcasting stations are
intercepted by the receiving aerial and are coupled to this stage. &his stage selects
the desired radio wave and raises the strength of the wave to the desired level.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $0:
;etector
AF
amplifier
!F
Amplifier
). Mi1er stage- &he amplified output of 9F amplifier is fed to the mi)er stage
where it is combined with the output of a local oscillator. &he two fre'uencies
beat together and produce an intermediate fre'uency 3!F4.

I95 "s$illator fre>uen$y Dradio fre>uen$y
&he !F is always /55 EHz regardless of the fre'uency to which the receiver is tuned.
&he reason why the mi)er will always produce /55EHz fre'uency above the radio
fre'uency is that oscillator always produces a fre'uency /55EHz above the selected
fre'uency. !n practice, capacitance of #
,
is designed to tune the oscillator to a
fre'uency higher than radio fre'uency by /55EHz.
2. I9 a*-lifier stage- &he output of mi)er is always /55EHz and is fed to fi)ed
tuned !F amplifiers. &hese amplifiers are tuned to one fre'uency 3ie /55EHz4.
0. 3ete$tor stage- &he output from the last !F amplifier stage is coupled to the input
of the detector stage. Here the audio signal is e)tracted from the !F output.
Ssually diode detector circuit is used because of its low distortion and e)cellent
audio fidelity.
'. A9 a*-lifier stage- &he audio signal output of detector stage is fed to a
multistage audio amplifier. Here the signal is amplified until it is sufficiently
strong to drive the speaer. &he speaer converts the audio signal into sound
waves corresponding to the original sound at the broadcasting station.
Ad7antages of Su-erhetrodyne Cir$uit D
&. High 9F amplification
). !mproved selectivity0losses in the tuned circuits are lower at intermediate
fre'uency. &herefore the 'uality factor Y of the tuned circuits is increased. &his
maes amplifier circuits to operate with ma)imum selectivity.
2. ?ower cost.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $0+
C,AP!ER E
CA!,"3E RAV "SCI"SC"PE
&he cathode ray oscilloscope ^#9C_ is an electronic device, which is capable of giving a
visual indication of a signal waveform. !t is widely used for trouble shooting radio and
television receivers as well as laboratory wor involving research and design. !n addition
the oscilloscope can also be used for measuring voltage, fre'uency and phase shift.
Cathode Ray !ube
A cathode ray tube is the heart of the oscilloscope. !t is a vacuum tube of special
geometrical shape and converts an electrical signal into visual one. A cathode ray tube
maes available plenty of electrons. &hese electrons are accelerated to high velocity and
are brought to focus on a fluorescent screen. &he electron beam produces a spot of light
wherever it stries. &he electron beam is deflected on its =ourney in response to the
electrical signal under study. &he result is that electrical signal waveform is displayed
visually.
9igure #athode 9ay &ube
Ele$tron Mun Asse*bly- &he arrangement of electrodes which produce a focused
beam of electrons is called the electron gun. !t essentially consists of an indirectly
heated cathode, control grid, a focusing anode, and an accelerating anode. &he control
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $0<
grid is held at negative potential with respect to cathode whereas the two anodes are
maintained at high potential with respect to cathode.
&he cathode consists of a nicel cylinder coated with o)ide coating and provides
plenty of electrons. &he focusing anode focuses the electron beam into a sharp pin >
point by controlling the positive potential on it. &he positive potential 3 about $0,000
24 on the accelerating anode is much higher than on the focusing anode. &herefore
this anode accelerates the narrow beam to a high velocity.
3efle$tion -late asse*bly-
$. 2ertical deflection plates
(. Horizontal deflection plates
&he vertical deflection plates are mounted horizontally in the tube. 5y applying proper
potential to these plates, the electron beam can be made to move up and down vertically
on the fluorescent screen. An appropriate potential on horizontal plates can cause the
electron beam to move right and left horizontally on the screen.
S$reen-&he screen is the inside face of the tube and is coated with some fluorescent
material such as Binc Crthosilicate, Binc o)ide etc. .hen high velocity electron beam
stries the screen, a spot of light is produced at the point of impact.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $$0
A$tion of CR!
C
$
" " " " " "
e e e e e e C
C
(
.hen the cathode is heated, it emits plenty of electrons. &he control grid
influences the amount of current flow. As the electron beam leaves the control
grid, it comes under the influence of focusing and accelerating anode. As the two
anodes are maintained at high potential, therefore they produce a field which acts
as an electrostatic lens to converge the electron beam at a point on the screen.
As the electron beam leaves the accelerating anode, it comes under the influence
of vertical and horizontal deflection plates. !f no voltage is applied to the
deflection plates, the electron will produce spot of light at the center 3point C 4 of
the screen. !f the voltage is applied to vertical plates only, the electron beam and
hence the spot of light will be deflected upwards 3point C
$
4. &he spot of light will
be deflected downwards 3C
(
4 of the portential on the plate is reversed. 6imilarly
the spot of light can be moved horizontally by applying voltage across the
horizontal plates.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $$$
Signal Pattern on S$reen
#9C 6creen
(
$ , 5
t
/
e "
6awtooth wave applied across horizontal plate
!f the signal voltage is applied to the vertical plates and saw tooth wave to the
horizontal plates, we get the e)act pattern of the signal as shown in figure.
.hen the signal is at instant $, its amplitude is zero. 5ut at this instant, ma)imum
voltage is applied to the horizontal plates. &he result is that the beam is at the
e)treme left on the screen as shown. .hen the signal is at instant (, its amplitude
is ma)imum. However the >ve voltage on he horizontal plate is decreased.
&herefore the beam is deflected upwards by the signal and towards the right by
the saw tooth wave. &he result is that the beam now stries the screen at point (.
Cn similar reasoning, the beam stries the screen at points ,,/ and 5. &herefore
e)act signal pattern appears on the screen.
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $$(
(
$ ,
5

/
8arious $ontrols on CR"
!n order to facilitate the proper functioning of #9C, various controls are provided on the
front panel of the #9C.
$. Intensity Control-&he nob of intensity control regulates the bias on the control
grid and affects the electron beam intensity.!f the negative bias on the grid is
increased, the intensity of electron beam is decreased, thus reducing the
brightness of the spot.
(. 9o$us Contrl- !t regulates the positive potential on the focusing anode. !f the
positive potential on this anode is increased, the electron beam becomes 'uite
narrow and the spot on the screen is a pin0point.
,. 8erti$al -osition $ontrol- &he nob of vertical position control regulates the
amplitude of d.c. potential which is applied to the vertical deflection plates in
addition to the signal. 5y ad=usting this control, the image can be moved up or
down as re'uired.
A--li$ations of CR"
$. E)amination of waveforms
(. 2oltage measurements
,. Fre'uency measurements
%otes by E.9.6udhindra 7housia #ollege of Engineering 9amnagar $$,

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