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Charles Darwin, widely

considered as one of the greatest and


most revolutionizing scientists in
history, was the British naturalist who
formulated the theory of evolution.
Pre-Darwin, it was thought that each
species of life on earth came
individually and that none had ever
changed its form. He confuted this
notion and demonstrated from his
research that evolution is the law of
nature and all living things on earth
have descended from common
ancestors who lived millions of years ago. He proved that animals and plants have evolved in an
orderly manner and keep on evolving even today.

Contributions and Achievements:
Darwin got his big break in 1831. A naturalist was needed to travel along on a scientific
expedition a voyage around the world in the brigantine HMBS Beagle under the
supervision of Captain Fits Roy. Luckily, some of his Cambridge fellows also
recommended him for the place. The voyage took around five years.
Throughout this voyage, Darwin collected bones of extinct animals. He was curious
about the relationship between the extinct animals and the existing ones. The unusual
marine iguana, the tortoises and the finches on the Galapagos Islands in the pacific
made him perplexed, since similar, yet rather distinct, forms of the same animals were
found on separate islands. These observations led to his legendary ideas on evolution.
After the return, Darwin moved to London for a while and compiled an account of his
travels. Darwin got married to his cousin Emma Wedgowood in 1839. The coupled
moved to Downe House in Kent in 1844. There, Darwin got a letter from the naturalist
Alfred Russel Wallace, who had made similar observations about evolution separately.
A collaborative report by Darwin and Wallace was published in 1858. Darwin publicized
the theory of evolution in his famous book, The Origin of Species by Natural Selection,
in 1859. The book, which asserted that all the varied forms of life on earth could, in the
course of time, have evolved from a common ancestry, was a huge success. Darwin
also commented that in the struggle for life, only the fittest creatures would survive
while others fail.
The book became controversial due to its conflict with the religious belief about the
creation of the world. However, in later years, it was embraced by all biologists.
Darwins another book, The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication,
came out in 1868. It is considered to be his second most significant work. The book
maintains that man, by selective breeding, could make rather different breeds of
pigeons, dogs, and some species of plants also. His work also included The Various
Contrivances by which Orchids are Fertilised by Insects, Insectivorous Plants, The
Power of Movement in Plants, Descent of Man, and The Formation of Vegetable
Mould Through the Action of Worms.


















An Austrian biochemist
and author, Erwin
Chargaff is best known for
Chargaffs Rules which
lead to the discovery of
DNAs double helix
structure. He was born in
Bukowina, Austria-
Hungary, but today, his
birthplace is referred to as
Chernivtsi, Ukraine. He
became an American
citizen in the year 1940,
and emigrated to the U.S. during the time when the Nazis were still very much
active, and it was in the U.S. where he was able to come up with the discovery of
thymine and adenine amounts in DNA were about the same as the amount of
guanine and cystosine. This is now known as the third Chargaff rule and along
with two others, more about the DNA has been known because of the biochemists
work.
Scientific Contributions and Recognitions
Chargaff was able to publish several scientific papers which primarily dealt with studies concerning
nucleic acids like DNA. He used chromatographic techniques in his studies, and his interest in DNA
started after the identification of this molecule as the main basis of heredity. It was in 1944 when
Oswald Avery had made that discovery and this had prompted Chargaff to make studies of his own.
His studies which lead to the development of the famous Chargaffs Rules took long, and it was in
1950 when he was able to make the crucial elements which lead to the formation of his rules which
are as follows:
First, that the number of adenine or A residues are always equal to the number of thymine or T
residues;
Second, that the number of guanine or G residues are always equal to the number of cytosine or C
residues;
And third, that the number of purines or A and G combined and the number of pyrimidines or T and
C combined are always equal to each other (which is an obvious consequence of the first two rules).
Chargaff had also determined that the same findings hold true even if the ratio of pyrimidines and
purines may differ from one kind of living organism to another. When combined with the findings of
Rosalind Franklin about the diffraction studies on DNA, it was also determined how base-paring
between A and T as well as G and C is what is behind the double -helix structure of the DNA and
that no other combinations of these residues are possible. He explained the same findings to Francis
Crick and James Watson who were then the ones who enlightened the world about the double-helix
DNA structure.
Chargaffs research had been the springboard of many biology and heredity studies. However, his
studies were not limited to DNA-related concerns. He also studied lipids, plant nucleotides, inositol
and amino acid metabolism, and about the enzymes responsible for blood coagulation. Despite not
being credited for the discovery of the double-helix structure of DNA which won a Nobel Prize,
Chargaff had many other achievements such as the Pasteur Medal in 1949, Carl Neuberg Medal in
1958, Charles Leopold Mayer Prize in 1963, Heineken Prize in 1964, and the Gregor Mendel Medal
in 1973 among others.
Both he and his wife Vera Broido Chargaff died in New York. He lived alone for a few years in his
parkside apartment, and on the 20
th
of June in 2002, he died in a New York hospital at the age of 96.
















Si Amado Vera Hernndez (13 Setyembre
1903 24 Marso 1970) ay isang makata at
manunulat sa wikang Tagalog. Kilala rin siya
bilang "Manunulat ng mga Manggagawa",
sapagkat isa siyang pinuno ng mga Pilipinong
manggagawa at sa kaniyang mga pagpuna at
pagsusuri sa mga kawalan ng katarungang
naganap sa Pilipinas noong kaniyang
kapanahunan. Nakulong siya dahil sa
pakikipagugnayan niya sa mga kilusang
makakomunista. Siya ang punong tauhan sa
isang bukod-tanging kasong panghukuman na
tumagal ng 13 taon bago nagwakas.
Bilang Manunulat
Noong kaniyang kabinataan, nagsimula na siyang magsulat sa wikang Tagalog para sa
pahayagang Watawat (Flag). Nang lumaon ay nagsulat siya ng para sa mga Pagkakaisa at naging
patnugot ng Mabuhay. Napukaw ng kaniyang mga sulatin ang pansin ng mga dalubhasa sa
wikang Tagalog at ilan sa kaniyang mga salaysayin at tula ay napabilang sa mga antolohiya,
katulad ng Parolang Ginto ni Clodualdo del Mundo at ngTalaang Bughaw ni Alejandro
Abadilla. Noong 1922, sa gulang na 19, naging kabahagi si Hernandez ng samahan pampanitikan
na Aklatang Bayan na kinabibilang ng mga kilalang manunulat sa Tagalog na sina Lope K.
Santos at Jose Corazon de Jesus.
Sinalaysay ni Hernandez sa kanyang mga akda ang pakikipagsapalaran at pakikibaka ng mga
manggagawang Pilipino. Minsan siyang napiit dahil sa salang sedisyon, at habang nasa loob ng
kulungan, naisulat niya ang "Isang Dipang Langit", ang isa sa mga mahahalaga niyang tula.
Nakilala rin si Hernandez sa kanyang mga nobelang gaya ng "Ang Ibong Mandaragit", at "Luha
ng Buwaya". Ang ilan sa kanyang maikling kuwento ay natipon sa isang tomo na pinamagatang
"Langaw sa Isang Basong Tubig at Ibang Kuwento". Nagturo din siya sa Pamantasan ng
Pilipinas. Kakikitaan ng diwang makabayan ang marami niyang tula at nobela: lantad sa mga ito
ang makatarungang poot sa pagiging tila isang kolonya ng Estados Unidos ang kaniyang bansang
Pilipinas. Naipakulong siya ni Elpidio Quirino dahil sa bintang na pagiging mapanghimagsik.





Si Lope K. Santos ay isa sa mga
dakilang manunulat sa wikang
Tagalog. Siya ay nobelista,
makata, abogado, kritiko, lider
obrero, at itinuturing na Ama ng
Pambansang Wika at Balarila.
Si Santos ay isinilang sa Pasig,
dating sakop ng Rizal, noong 25
Setyembre 1879. Namatay si
Santos noong 1 Mayo 1963. Si
Santos ay supling nina Ladislao
Santos na tubong Pasig at
Victoria Canseco na tubong San Mateo, Rizal. Noong 10 Pebrero 1900, ikinasal si
L.K. Santos kay Simeona Salazar na nagbigay sa kaniya ng limang supling.
Mga Akda
Kabilang sa mga akda ni Santos ang Ang Pangginggera at Banaag at Sikat na
pawang inilathalang muli ng Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Press para sa bagong
henerasyon ng mambabasa. Ang kaniyang mga tula, nobela, kuwento, sanaysay, at
kritika ay lumabas din sa mga pahayagan at magasing pinamatnugutan niya, gaya
ng Muling Pagsilang, Ang Mithi, Lipang Kalabaw, at Sampaguita. Naging
manunulat si L.K. Santos sa Renacimiento Filipino na pumalit sa dating El
Renacimiento na wikang Espanyol ang ginagamit.
Ang kaniyang Balarila ng Wikang Pambansa, na kauna-unahang aklat hinggil sa
wikang Tagalog na sinulat ng isang manunulat na Tagalog, ay naging sanggunian
ng mga pag-aaral at pagpapaunlad ng wikang Filipino.

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