Bonding and properties

Chemical substances can be determined by careful observation of their properties. Although several substances may
have similar properties, no two substances are alike in all respects.

Structure and bonding in substances
All substances are made up of atoms, molecules or ions. The way these particles are arranged in a substance is
described as the structure of the substance. The structure of the substance depends upon:
The nature of the particles present
The forces holding the particles together
Many of the physical properties of a particular substance can provide evidence of the structure of that substance.
On the basis of their melting points and electrical conductivities, substances can be classified into four classes:
covalent molecular substances
covalent network substances
ionic substances
metallic substances
Properties of substances
Properties of ionic substances
Ionic substances are composed of a negatively charged ion bonded to a positively charged ion. These compounds
form large ionic lattices except in an aqueous solution when they exist as ions.
Melting means the breaking up the orderly arrangement of ions. As the electrostatic forces between ions are
strong, much energy (and therefore a high temperature) is needed to do this. Boiling produces a vapour that
consists of a well-separated ion pairs so this requires an even greater amount of energy.
The strong electrostatic attraction between pairs of ions makes ionic substances hard. Applying a strong force
causes ions of the same charge to come close together. Then then repel each other and this causes the crystal to
shatter. Therefore ionic crystals are brittle.
Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity. In the solid, the ions are tightly bound into an orderly array and
are so unable to move. When ionic substances melt, ions can move about relatively freely. As they can then
migrate, molten substances conduct electricity.
Similarly, when dissolved in water, the solutions consist of individual ions moving randomly about through the
water. These can migrate towards oppositely charged electrodes so solutions conduct electricity.

Physical properties are those which can be determined without changing the chemical composition of the
substance. Examples of physical properties include melting point, boiling point, malleability and ductility.
Chemical properties are those which relate to the ability of a substance to form new substances to form new
substances. Chemical properties also relate to when a substance breaks down or reacts with substance during a
chemical reaction. Examples of chemical properties include reactivity, electronegativity and ionisation energies.
Properties of covalent molecular substances
Bonding forces (intramolecular forces) holding atoms together within a covalent molecule are very strong but
the forces between one molecule and its neighbours are quite weak. These weak forces between pairs of
molecules are called intermolecular forces.
Boiling involves separating molecules from one another. Boiling overcomes intermolecular forces. It does not
break any covalent bonds. Because the intermolecular forces are weak not much energy is required. Melting like
boiling only overcomes weak intermolecular forces.
The strength of the intermolecular forces does vary from one molecular compound to another:
The stronger the intermolecular forces in molecular compounds, the higher are the melting and boiling points.
It is easy to distort a solid covalent molecular substance. Such solids are soft.
Covalent molecules are neutral; they cannot conduct electricity either as pure substances or in solution.
If the covalent substance reacts with water to form ions then it will conduct electricity e.g. HCl
Properties of covalent network solids
Covalent network solids are solids in which the covalent bonding exists indefinitely throughout the whole crystal.
Covalent network solids are sometimes called covalent lattices solids or covalent lattices. The word lattice is used
to mean an infinite orderly array of particles. (Ionic solids are also called ionic lattices)
Carbon in the form of diamond is an example of a covalent network solid. Each carbon atom is covalently bonded
to four other carbon atoms. Silica (silicon dioxide or quartz, SiO
2
) is another example.
As with ionic lattices, the chemical formula for a covalent lattice compound represents the ratio in which the atoms
are present in the compound i.e. the empirical formula.
Melting covalent lattices involves breaking many covalent bonds that are very strong. This requires a lot of energy
and thus only occurs at high temperatures. Covalent lattices have extremely high melting points, typically above
1000C.
With the exception of graphite, covalent network solids do not conduct electricity. They do not contain ions and all
the electrons are tied up being held by individual atoms or shared by pairs of atoms. None are free to move.


Empirical Formulae:
The formula of an ionic compound or covalent lattice is not a molecular formula, since ionic compounds form
large crystal lattices containing large numbers of atoms, which would result in huge numbers, not molecules.
Instead the formula shows the ratio of ions in the crystal, in the simplest form, and is called an empirical formula.
Sometimes more than one of a polyatomic ion is needed in a formula. This is when brackets are used,
for example Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
, Ca(OH)
2
, (NH
4
)
2
CO
3.
Empirical formulae are used for lattices because molecular formula
would be incorrect and impractical.

Molecular Formula:
For carbon dioxide, a molecule consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms covalently bonded together.
Its formula is CO
2.
The molecular formula represents the number and types of atoms in the molecule.
Properties of metals
Metals, with exception of mercury, are solids at room temperature. Most have relatively high boiling points and
are fairly hard. They are all good conductors of electricity.
A metal consists of an orderly three-dimensional array of positive ions held together by a mobile sea of
delocalised electrons. The valence electrons break away from their atoms, leaving behind positive ions. These free
electrons, called delocalised because they no longer belong to particular atoms, move randomly through the
lattice and by being shared by numerous positive ions, and provide the chemical bonding that holds the crystal
together. Its the ability of these delocalised electrons to move freely that causes metals to be good conductors of
electricity.
Metals can be bent, rolled into sheets (they are malleable) and drawn into rods and wires (they are ductile). When
the orderly array of positive ions is sheared, the mobile electrons are able to adjust to the new arrangement of
positive ions and again glue the metal atoms together.