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UNIT II
IC ENGINES AND GAS TURBINES
I C ENGINES AND GAS TURBINES
INTRODUCTION
• The ideal cycle is defined as the series of processes occuring in an imaginary
perfect engine
• The actual cycle is defined as the series of processes occuring in an actual
engine.
In internal combustion engines and gas turbines the working fluid remains gas
throughtout the cycle. Plants take in a mixture of air and fuel or air and fuel separately for
combustion and liberate heat energy. The working fluid of the cycle mainly consists of air, so
the properties of working fluid closely follow the properties of air.
To reduce the analysis to a manageable level, the air standard cycles are based on the
following approximations, commonly known as air standard assumptions.
1. Working fluid is air, throughout the cycle and always behaves as an ideal gas, i.e., it
follows the perfect gas law,
pV = mRT
2. All the processes are internally reversible.
3. Working fluid is homogeneous throughout and at all times and no chemical reaction
takes place.
4. Specific heat of air does not change with temperature.
5. Mass of air in the cycle remains constant.
6. Combustion process which may appear in actual process is replaced by heat addition
process from an external source.
7. Exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process and this rejection process is due
to heat transfer alone.
8. Engine operates as a closed cycle so that the working fluid is restored to its initial state
at the end of each cycle. Thus there are no intake and exhaust processes.
Work done
Air standard efficiency =
Heat supplied
=
( Heat supplied ) − ( Heat rejected )
Heat supplied
Q1 − Q2
ηas =
Q1
Actual efficiency of a cycle is always less than the air standard efficiency of that cycle
under ideal conditions. This is taken into account by introducing the terms relative efficiency
or efficiency ratio which is defined as
Figure 2 (a) and (b) show the representation of this cycle on p-V and T-s diagram. It
consists of two adiabatic processes and two constant volume processes.
Process 2-3
The piston is at rest for a moment at TDC, the addition of heat (Q1) at constant volume takes
place.
Process 3-4
The fluid expands adiabatically (isentropically) and the work is done by the system, i.e., the
piston moves from TOC to BDC by the expansion of gases.
Process 4-1
The piston is at rest for a moment at BOC, the hut rejection (Q2) at constant volume takes
place.
The air standard efficiency of the Otto cycle can be calculated as follows:
Consider 1 kg of air flowing through the cycle and it is a closed system.
Heat supplied at constant volume (Q1) during process 2 3
Heat rejected at constant volume (Q2) during process 4 1
Q2 = m Cv T
Mean Effective Pressure for Otto cycle Let Pm be the mean effective pressure (m.e.p)
.
Condition for Maximum Work Done
Work done is given by
Finally we obtain,
DIESEL CYCLE OR CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE
The cycle consists of two isentropic (adiabatic) processes, one constant pressure and
one constant volume process. Figure 3(a) and (b) show the representation of Diesel cycle on
p - V and T- s diagram.
Process 1-2
Isentropic compression of air during which the piston moves from BDC to TDC raising
pressure and temperature.
Process 2-3
At constant pressure the heat is supplied to the compressed air from an external source.
At point 3 the heat addition is stopped and the volume ratio V3/V2 is called the cut-off ratio.
Process 3-4
Isentropic expansion of air till the piston reaches BDC by which the work is done.
Process 4-1
At constant volume the heat is rejected to an external sink till the air restores initial
state.
Process 1 - 2
Air is compressed adiabatically in a compressor entropy constant process 2-3
Compressed air is heated at constant pressure
Process 3-4
Air expands adiabatically in a turbine and its pressure reaches the initial pressure.
Process 4-1
Heat rejection process in which the air at 4 is passed through a heat exchanger where it
is cooled to its initial condition 1.
These sequences of operations are for a closed cycle, but most of the gas turbine plants
in actual practice operate on open cycle.
The efficiency of the cycle increases with the rise in pressure ratio. But the rate of
increase in efficiency decreases with rise in pressure ratio.
IC ENGINES
INTRODUCTION
Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel Into thermal
energy; utilize this thermal energy to perform useful work. Thus, thermal energy is converted
to mechanical energy. Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories:
1. Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)
2. External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
In external combustion engines the combustion takes place external to the cylinder,
e.g., steam engines.
In internal combustion engines the combustion takes place inside the cylinder, e.g.,
petrol, diesel, gas engines.
The main advantages of internal combustion engines over external combustion engines
are greater mechanical simplicity, lower ratio of weight. A bulk output due to absence of
auxiliary apparatus like boiler and condenser. The cost is lower, higher overall efficiency and
lesser requirement of water for dissipation of energy through cooling system.
CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES
Internal combustion engines are classified as follows:
1. Number of stroke per cycle
• Four stroke engine
• Two stroke engine
2. Type of Ignition used
• Spark ignition (SI) engine
• Compression ignition (CI) engine
3. Types of fuel used
• Petrol or Gasoline engine
• Diesel engine
• Gas engine
4. Type of cooling system
• Air cooled engine
• Water cooled engine
5. Arrangement of cylinder
• Vertical engine
• Horizontal engine
• Radial engine
• V-engine
• Opposed cylinder engine
• Opposed piston engine
6. Applications
• Stationary engine
• Automotive engine
• Marine engine
• Aircraft engine
• Locomotive engine
The working cycle of the engine is completed in four strokes or in two revolutions of
crank and petrol or diesel is used as fuel.
During this stroke inlet valve stays open and the exhaust valve is closed. The piston
moves downward from top dead centre (TOC) by means of crank shaft which involving by the
momentum of the flywheel or by power generated by the electric start motor. This movement
increases the size of combustion space thereby reducing the pressure in it, with the result that
the higher pressure of outside atmosphere forces the air into the combustion space.
In petrol engines a carburetor is put in the passage of incoming air which supplies a
metered quantity of fuel to this air. This air fuel mixture thus comes into the engine cylinder.
In diesel engines air alone comes into the engine cylinder.
Fig. 6 (a) Suction stroke, (b) Compression stroke, (c) Working stroke, (d) Exhaust stroke
The sucked in substance during the suction stroke is compressed during the next
upward stroke. The compression forces the fuel into closer combination with air. The heat
produced during this compression stroke aids the combustion of fuel just a little before the end
of compression stroke. Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke.
In petrol engines, the fuel d air mixture is ignited by a spark produced by spark plug. In
diesel engines, fuel injector injects the fuel in atomized form and the combustion takes place
by means of high pressure and temperature of air.
During this stroke both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. The fuel and air which
burn at the end of the compression stroke expands due to the heat of combustion.
During this stroke, the inlet and fuel valves remain closed and exhaust valve remains
open. The piston moves up in the cylinder and pushes out the burned gases. The piston reaches
the TDC and completes the exhaust stroke and becomes ready for the next cycle.
VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINE
The actual valve timing diagram of a four stroke cycle engine is shown in Fig. 7. The
inlet valve opens 100 to 25° in advance of top dead centre position (TDC) and 25° to 50° after
the bottom dead centre (BDC) position. Exhaust valve opens 30° to 50° in advance of BDC
position and closes at 10° - 15° after the TDC position. The fuel injection takes place at 50° to
10° after the TDC position. The inlet valve remains open for 25°+ 80°+35° = 240°.
In diesel engines, fuel injection takes place at 5° to 10° before TDC position and
continues up to 15° to 25° after TDC position.
Thus the exhaust valve remains open for 40° + 180° + 15° = 235°. In petrol engines,
spark is produced through spark plug 30° to 40° before the TDC during the compression
stroke. The angle through which the spark is given earlier is called ignition advance or angle of
advance.
First Stroke
• During first stroke, the piston moves upwards from bottom dead centre to top dead
centre. It closes the transfer port and the exhaust port.
• The charged air-petrol mixture which is already there in the cylinder is compressed.
• Due to upward movement of the piston, a partial vacuum is created in the crank case
and a fresh charge is drawl into the crank case through the uncovered inlet port.
• At the end of this stroke, the pistol reaches the TDC position.
Second Stroke
• The compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber by means of an electric
spark produced by the spark plug, slightly before the completion of the compression
stroke.
• Due to combustion of the air-petrol mixture, the piston is acted by a large force and is
pushed in the downward direction producing the useful power.
• During this stroke, the inlet port is covered by the piston and the fresh charge is
compressed in the crank case.
• Further downward movement of the piston uncovers the exhaust port and then the
transfer port. The expanded gases start escaping through the exhaust port and at the
same time fresh charge which is already compressed in the crank case is forced into the
cylinder through the transfer port.
• The charge strikes the deflector on the piston crown, rises to the top of the cylinder and
pushes out most of the exhaust gases.
Where is area of diagram of rectangle in m2, s is scale of pressure, i.e., scale of indicator
spring kN/m2 per m and l is length of the diagram in m.
where pm is actual mean effective pressure as obtained from the indicator diagram in kN/m2,
L is length of stroke in meters; A is area of the piston in m2,
N is speed of the engine in rpm,
n is number of working strokes/mm, n = N/60 (for two stroke cycle) and n = N/2 × 60 (for four
stroke cycle).
where W is dead load in kg, S is spring balance reading in kg, D is diameter of brake drum in
meters, d is Diameter of the rope in meter, N is rpm of the engine
Efficiency of IC Engine
It is the ratio of work done to the energy supplied to an engine.
Mechanical Efficiency:
It is the ratio of brake power (BP) to the indicated power (IP).
Mechanical efficiency, m = B.P / I.P
Relative Efficiency
It is also known as efficiency ratio. The relative efficiency of an IC engine is the ratio
of indicated thermal efficiency to the air standard efficiency.
Volumetric Efficiency
It is the ratio of actual volume of charge admitted during the suction stroke a NTP to
the swept volume of the piston.
APPLICATIONS OF IC ENGINES
Petrol Engine
(i) Four-stroke petrol engine
Light vehicles such as cars, jeeps, aero planes and small generating sets
(ii) Two-stroke petrol engine
Very light vehicle such as motorcycles, scooters, three wheelers and par table crop
sprayers, etc.
Diesel engine
(i) Four-stroke diesel engine
Diesel power plants, heavy vehicles such as buses, road - rollers, tractors, diesel
locomotives and water pumps.
COMBUSTION
Combustion of fuels can be represented by chemical equation, both qualitatively and
quantitatively. The smallest quantity of a gas which can exist alone is a molecule, hence a
quantity of separate gas in a chemical equation must be stated as O2, H2, N2 etc., Table 1 gives
the approximate atomic and molecular masses of the substances which will be necessary, for
calculation work in problems on combustion of fuels.
Table 1: Approximate atomic and molecular masses of some substances
JAYAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DHARMAPURI
DEPARTMENT : EEE
YEAR / SEM : SECOND/ THIRD
SUBJECT : ME1211 / APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
ASSIGNMENT NO 2
Unit 2 - IC Engines and Gas Turbines
PART A
1. What is thermodynamic cycle?
2. What are the assumptions made for air standard cycle analysis?
3. Mention the various process of diesel cycle.
4. Mention the various process of dual cycle.
5. Mention the various process of Brayton cycle.
6. Sketch Otto cycle on p-V diagram and name all the process.
7. Plot the Diesel cycle on p-V & T-s diagram.
8. Define mean effective pressure as applied to gas power cycle. How it is related to
indicate power of an I.C. engine?
9. Comparison between the S.I engine and C.I engine.
10. What is meant by octane number and cetane number?
11. What is meant by Ignition lag?
12. What is meant by auto ignition?
13. What is meant by Knocking?
14. What are the effects of Knocking?
15. Define the following terms. 1) Compression ratio 2) cut off ratio 3) Expansion ratio
16. Name the factors that affect air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle?
17. For the same compression ratio and heat supplied, state the order of decreasing air
standard efficiency of Otto, diesel and duel cycle.
18. What is the range of compression ratio for Otto and Diesel cycle?
19. Write an expression for mean effective pressure for an Otto cycle interns of
compression ratio and other parameters.
20. Different between the auto cycle, diesel cycle, duel cycle.
PART B
1. An engine on Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8.5. The temperature and pressure
at the beginning of compression are 93º C and 0.93 bar. The maximum pressure in the
cycle is 38 bar. Determine the pressure and temperature at salient points and find the
air standard efficiency.
2. Sketch the Brayton cycle. Air enters the compressor of the cycle at 1 bar and 25º C.
Pressure after compression is 3 bar. Temperature at turbine inlet is 650º C. determine
per kg of air the cycle efficiency, heat supplied to air, work available, heat rejected in
the cooler and temperature of air leaving the turbine.
3. An oil engine working on theoretical diesel cycle has a bore of 200 mm and a stroke of
300 mm. Compression ratio is 16. Cutoff takes place at 10% of stroke. Find clearance
volume, cutoff ratio, and expansion ratio and air standard efficiency.
4. Sketch the p-v and T-s diagram for the Diesel cycle and obtain an expression for its air
standard efficiency.
5. Sketch the p-v and T-s diagram for the Duel cycle and obtain an expression for its air
standard efficiency.