Supplement to Exploring relationships between craft distributions and

geographical distance and language in the upper Sepik and Border Mountains of
Papua New Guinea: Sample, population estimates and an assessment of data
relating to dialectical variation.

Andrew Fyfe and Jill Bolton

The sample and population estimates
92 string bags make up the sample (table 1). Small amulet bags were omitted because
their limited size greatly restricted the range of SBCNs and SBCPs able to be used for
their creation. Bags from poorly sampled language divisions and areas separated from
the larger sample by a region occupied by communities of an unrepresented language
group were also excluded to provide a relatively continuous and even distribution
across space. The sample comes from 33 settlements. 91 of the bags were collected
between 1959 and 1982. One was collected in 1930.

Table 1. List of string bags with source settlement name and object identity, language
attribution of source settlement, museum and museums accession number, year of
collection and collectors name.

Settlement Language/
Dialect
Museum/
Accession
Number
1

Date
collected/collector
Ambremaki-a Abau DR PM/E11614 1969/G. Gerrits
Ambremaki-b Abau DR PM/E11615 1969/G. Gerrits
Ambremaki-c Abau DR PM/E11629 1969/G. Gerrits
Ambremaki-d Abau DR PM/E11630 1969/G. Gerrits
Antibi Abau UR Amst./3947-10 1968/B. Craig
Auya 2 Yuri Gttingen/3641 1969-73/H. Peter
Baio-a Abau DR PM/79.1.298 1972/B. Craig
Baio-b Abau DR PM/79.1.301 1972/B. Craig
Baiwai Abau DR PM/79.1.299 1972/B. Craig
Bambledian Abau UR PM/79.1.319 1972/B. Craig
Bifrou-a Abau DR PM/E7490 1969/B. Craig
Bifrou-b Abau DR Sydney/E64604 1969/B. Craig
Bifrou-c Abau DR Sydney/E88852 1982/M. Mackenzie
Bifrou-d Abau DR Sydney/E88860 1982/M. Mackenzie
Bifrou-e Abau DR Sydney/E88861 1982/M. Mackenzie
Bifrou-f Abau DR Sydney/E88862 1982/M. Mackenzie
Bisiaburu-a Abau Central PM/E2598 1968/B. Craig
Bisiaburu-b Abau Central Sydney/ E64305 1968/B. Craig
Buna-a Abau Central Berlin/VI 49782 1968/B. Craig

1
Museum identities: Amst. (Amsterdam): Tropen Museum; Basel: Museum der Kulturen; Berlin: Ethnologisches
Museum; Gttingen: Institut und Sammlung fr Vlkerkunde der Universitt Gttingen; Leiden: Rijksmuseum
voor Volkenkunde; PM (Port Moresby): PNG National Museum; Sydney: Australian Museum; Vienna: Museum
fr Vlkerkunde.

2

Buna-b Abau Central Berlin/VI 49784 1968/B. Craig
Dabrau-a Awun PM/6004 c.1970/ A. & H. Kelm
Dabrau-b Awun Berlin/VI 50695 c.1970/ A. & H. Kelm
Dabrau-c Awun Berlin/VI 50701 c.1970/ A. & H. Kelm
Dieru-a Abau Central Sydney/E88869 1982/M. Mackenzie
Dieru-b Abau Central Sydney/E88870 1982/M. Mackenzie
Dieru-c Abau Central Sydney/E88871 1982/M. Mackenzie
Esyu Abau UR Berlin/VI 49837 1968/B. Craig
Fongwinam-a Yuri Sydney/E64303 1968/B. Craig
Fongwinam-b Yuri PM/E2649 1968/B. Craig
Fongwinam-c Yuri Berlin/VI 49887 1968/B. Craig
Fongwinam-d Yuri Gttingen/3643 1968/B. Craig
Hogru-a Abau Central Leiden/4477-321 1969/B. Craig
Hogru-b Abau Central PM/E7489 1969/B. Craig
Hogru-c Abau Central Berlin/VI 49929 1969/B. Craig
Hogru-d Abau Central Berlin/VI 49993 1969/B. Craig
Iburu Abau Central Leiden/4477-327 1969/B. Craig
Isagu Abau UR Sydney/E64315 1969/B. Craig
Kambriap-a Yuri Vienna/148884 1969-73/H. Peter
Kambriap-b Yuri Vienna/148890 1969-73/H. Peter
Kambriap-c Yuri Vienna/148894 1969-73/H. Peter
Kambriap-d Yuri Vienna/148899 1969-73/H. Peter
Kambriap-e Yuri Vienna/148900 1969-73/H. Peter
Kwieftim-a Ak PM/E5984 c.1970/ A. & H. Kelm
Kwieftim-b Ak Berlin/VI 50702 c.1970/ A. & H. Kelm
Kwieftim-c Ak Berlin/VI 50705 c.1970/ A. & H. Kelm
Kwieftim-d Ak Berlin/VI 50706 c.1970/ A. & H. Kelm
Kwieftim-e Ak Berlin/VI 50707 c.1970/ A. & H. Kelm
Mahani Abau Central Leiden/4477-328 1969/B. Craig
Miniaburu Abau Central PM/79.1.285 1969/B. Craig
Mukudami-a Namie Lawo Leiden/4477-325 1969/B. Craig
Mukudami-b Namie Lawo Sydney/E64601 1969/B. Craig
Mukwasi-a Abau Central Sydney/E64603 1969/B. Craig
Mukwasi-b Abau Central Berlin/VI 50294 1969/B. Craig
Naum-a Namie Wiyari Leiden/4477-322 1969/B. Craig
Naum-b Namie Wiyari Leiden/4477-323 1969/B. Craig
Naum-c Namie Wiyari Leiden/4477-324 1969/B. Craig
Naum-d Namie Wiyari Sydney/E64597 1969/B. Craig
Naum-e Namie Wiyari Sydney/E64598 1969/B. Craig
Naum-f Namie Wiyari Sydney/E64602 1969/B. Craig

3

Naum-g Namie Wiyari PM/E7484 1969/B. Craig
Naum-h Namie Wiyari PM/E7487 1969/B. Craig
Naum-i Namie Wiyari PM/E7488 1969/B. Craig
Naum-j Namie Wiyari Berlin/VI 50115 1969/B. Craig
Norambalip Namie Edawaki Berlin/VI 50687 c.1970/ A. & H. Kelm
Pananggan-a Yuri AMST./3947-17 1968/B. Craig
Pananggan-b Yuri BaselVb 26854 1969-73/H. Peter
Rawei-a Busa Leiden/4477-320 1969/B. Craig
Rawei-b Busa SydneyE64596 1969/B. Craig
Rawei-c Busa PM/E7485 1969/B. Craig
Tipas-a Namie Ameni Basel/Vb15839 1959/A. Bhler
Tipas-b Namie Ameni Basel/Vb15841 1959/A. Bhler
Tipas-c Namie Ameni Basel/Vb15842 1959/A. Bhler
Tipas-d Namie Ameni Basel/Vb15845 1959/A. Bhler
Tipas-e Namie Ameni Basel/Vb15846 1959/A. Bhler
Tipas-f Namie Ameni Basel/Vb15849 1959/A. Bhler
Tipas-g Namie Ameni PM/11620 1969/G. Gerrits
Tipas-h Namie Ameni Sydney/E88872 1982/M. Mackenzie
Troli-a Yuri Basel/Vb 26851 1969-73/H. Peter
Troli-b Yuri Gttingen/3642 1969-73/H. Peter
Troli-c Yuri Vienna/155045 1969-73/H. Peter
Wagu-a Abau DR Berlin/VI 50320 1969/B. Craig
Wagu-b Abau DR PM/E11618 1969/G. Gerrits
Wagu-c Abau DR PM/E11619 1969/G. Gerrits
Wiro Abau DR PM/E11621 1969/G. Gerrits
Yaru Namie Edawaki Sydney/88868 1982/M. Mackenzie
Yegarapi-a Namie Edawaki Berlin/VI 50219 1969/B. Craig
Yegarapi-b Namie Edawaki Leiden/4477-326 1969/B. Craig
Yegarapi-c Namie Edawaki Sydney/E64595 1969/B. Craig
Yegarapi-d Namie Edawaki PM/7486 1969/B. Craig
Yegarapi-e Namie Edawaki Sydney/E88873 1982/M. Mackenzie
Yiwani-a Namie Ewani Sydney/E79487 1930/J. Magers
Yiwani-b Namie Ewani Sydney/E64600 1969/B. Craig



In terms of the estimated aggregated population combining the language groups, the
ratio between string bags and people is approximately 1/100. Some settlements are
considerably better represented than others but, by and large, proportions for the
languages reflect those of relative estimated population figures (Fyfe 2009b: 96, table
9.3). One adjustment can be made to the figure of 4,500 given for the Abau. This
figure was based on Laycocks data (1973: 56, note 3) Laycock provided an

4

adjusted figure of 4545 for 1970 based on census figures recorded between 1966 and
1971.
2
It is likely that aggregated census district figures were used by Laycock rather
than those for individual Abau settlements as only these data are usually provided in
the government censuses of that time. Taking into account both 1980 census figures
for Abau settlements (cited in Martin 1981: 211) and the PNG Department of District
Administrations 1968 figures for the Green River subdistrict, 4,317 and 3993
respectively, the figure of 4500 appears too high. The 1968 figure, an aggregate of the
three census divisions with Abau settlements also include several non-Abau
settlements, one of which, Usari, is inhabited by a lowland Yuri speaking population.
A comparison of the 1980 figures with other settlement specific census figures taken
during two patrols in 1973 reveal that for the nine settlements included in both figures
an overall population increase of 13 percent had occurred over the intervening period
(Kendorop 1973).
3
Lower figures exist for eight of the nine settlements and therefore
it is unlikely that the differences are due to the common movement of people between
Abau settlements reported by patrol officers in the late 1960s.
4
Therefore a population
of between 3,500 and 4,000 appears more accurate.

Estimates of dialect populations are more problematic but the data suggest the poorest
sample for any language/dialect category in terms of ratios between bags and
population was that from Abau Up-River dialect settlements (n = 4).
5
The best is Ak
(n = 5), although there are only one hundred speakers and they inhabit a single
settlement. The second largest sample is that for Yuri (n = 32) and in this regard the
language group provide the largest number of bags beyond a figure appropriately
reflecting the overall bag to population ratio. Most census figures during the period
place the Yuri population around 1,200 but these figures often omit Usari and
Auyingarap, the latter being located in [West] Papua very close to the border. The
population appears to have remained fairly constant since the late 1950s and a figure
between 1000 and 1500 is certain. With a mind to include as many bags as possible,
the number of bags chosen (15) reflected the upper end of this scale. Two Yuri
settlements, Fongwinam (n = 11) and Kambriap (n = 15) are the best represented
settlements in the whole sample. Therefore a number reflecting average ratios across
the other groups was achieved by selecting an appropriate number from those two
settlements. As available census data closest to the period in which the collections
were made have Kambriap and Fongwinam as having a slightly larger population
(Rigg 1973), five were selected for the former and four from the latter.

Naum (n =10) is the settlement with the third largest sample. As this is the only
settlement representing the Namie/Wiyari dialect, and as the total Namie sample
conforms to the overall bag to population ratio, it was decided to include all Naum
bags.



2
The census figures usually include absentees.
3
The 1973 census figures are part of a fragment from an otherwise missing patrol report.
4
Figures for five Abau settlements taken in 1963 and 1967 also indicate a steady increase in population
during that period (Plummer 1967a). Plummer (1967a) and Mekea (1967) report a high level of
migration occurring between Abau settlements and claim that this contributed to significant
fluctuations in settlement populations.
5
As estimates for dialect populations during the time in which the collections were made are difficult
to determine, due to lack of individual settlement figures, proportions reflect mean string bag number
per language group populations.

5

Method: Language
A matrix of linguistic distance between individual bags was constructed using Steers
seven point scale of linguistic relatedness (2005: 8, table 2). Steer also provides
measures of relatedness between the six languages (2005: 8, table 3). As stated
above, Yuri and Busa are unrelated to the others while three tiers of relatedness exist
between the Sepik languages.

SIL data indicate dialectical variation within the Abau, Namie and Yuri languages.
Three dialects have been reported for the Yuri: North Central Yuri, Auia-Tarauwi and
Usari. Unfortunately, no data are available on these divisions and their membership in
term of settlements, although the names for the latter two imply membership by Yuri
settlements in the lowland fringe. Consequently, Yuri settlements, which are also
spread over a smaller geographical area than are the Sepik languages, are treated as
being linguistically analogous.

Data have been provided for putative dialectical divisions within the Abau and Namie
language areas. According to the SIL data, Abau has three dialects: Down-River
(DR), Central and Up-River (UR). They are positioned sequentially along the course
of the Sepik with the DR and UR dialects separated by territory inhabited by
communities speaking the Central dialect (Martin 1981: appendix a).

These dialects were determined both by percentages of shared cognates and
information concerning perceived language affinities. The surveys used a standard
SIL wordlist of core vocabulary (SILSW) in 12 settlements and a shortened version
(SILSVSW) in 19.
6
Only one DR settlement (Wagu) was included in the SILSW
survey.

The questionnaire of perceived language affinities was undertaken in 17 Abau
settlements, although people were questioned about the relationships between their
settlements language and the languages of 28 other settlements (Martin 1981: 224,
table 7).

Pairwise matrices created from both sets of cognate percentages were permuted to
show settlements with the highest cognate percentages nearest the middle of the
diagonal with the lowest towards the end (Martin 1981: 221-22, tables 5 & 6). The
matrix generally indicates a cline with minimal support for any particular boundaries.
However, the subjective data generally support three groupings (Martin 1981: 224,
table 7).

In terms of the SILSVSW data, when paired with either DR or UR settlements, the
Central dialect settlements averaged 86 percent cognates. DR and UR pairings
averaged 80.5 percent. Given Crowleys (1992: 170) range of 81 percent of core
vocabulary or more to indicate a shared language 80.5 percent is very low.
Calculations made with the SILSVSW matrix scores also show significant variation in
average within-dialect pairings cognate rates: DR = 91, C = 92 and UR = 82 percent.
Martin (1981: 200-21) points out the strongest relationship between UR settlement

6
The SILSW consists of 106 pronouns and common verbs, adjectives and nouns. This list is provided
by Feldpausch and Feldpausch (1999: appendices a). Martins SILSVSW list includes the first 27
words of the SILSW. Six unspecified words were omitted from the SILSW by Martin (1981: 220.) due
to their being deemed unreliable. Two words of the SILSVSW were similarly omitted.

6

Idam 2 (Antibi) and others is with five belonging to the Central dialect settlements
and that this indicates a recent migration of this community, or a segment of this
community, from the latter region. Strong anecdotal evidence for a recent trend of
migration upstream is provided by Craig (e.g. 2008: 40-41) and this is also a likely
cause of the weaker linguistic relationships between UR settlements.

The SIL Namie survey undertaken by Feldpausch & Feldpausch (1999) is
comprehensive and five small dialect areas are postulated. These dialects correspond
with locally recognised social groupings according to which members are strongly
identified. Unlike the Abau situation these social groups are named by the Namie
populace: Ameni, Edawaki, Ewane, Lawo and Wiyari.

All Namie dialects are clustered around the Sand and Yellow rivers. A map of the
dialect areas is provided by Feldpausch & Feldpausch (1999: 13, map 1), although
Ewane is omitted. Ewane settlements (Yiwani, Wakau and Aukwom) are situated
southwest of the Edawaki dialect area along the lower east bank of the Sand River
(Map 1). The SILSW, plus an additional forty word list comprising mostly nouns for
local birds and aquatic animals, were used. Namie informants judged the latter as
being most idiomatic (Feldpausch & Feldpausch 1999: appendices a & b). The results
indicate the dialects as being extremely close: no less than 98 and 83 percent cognate
rates respectively.

Both the method and results of the Abau and Namie surveys are somewhat disparate
and therefore any determination of relative measures for distances between their
respective dialects is problematic. That the Namie idiomatic wordlist cognate
percentages are comparable with the Abau SILSVSW cognate percentages indicates
that the linguistic distance between Namie dialects is far smaller than that between
any Abau dialects. Also, the SILSW percentages for Namie dialect pairings are
greater than that typically between settlements within Abau dialect groups. However,
the relatively sparse coverage of the SILSW in the Abau area may have resulted in
lower between-dialect and within-dialect cognate percentage averages than would
otherwise be the case. This, and the fact that Abau speakers commonly identify other
communities with whom they share SILSW cognate percentages in the low eighty
percent range as having vernacular that is wankain stret (exact), demonstrate that
these cognate percentages do not provide a definitive picture. For one thing, it may be
that some of the lower cognate percentages are due to the makeup of a typical Abau
community lexicon, as the Abau population is large and Abau settlements often
comprise groups originating from a number of other Abau settlements. On the other
hand, Namie dialects have smaller populations and more stable settlements with
restricted spheres of inter-personal exchange.
7
Therefore lexica would certainly be
more diverse in Abau settlements. Consequently, for this exercise Namie dialect
distance is given the highest score of seven in Steers scale and distance between
pairings of Abau dialects was given six.




7
Feldpausch and Feldpausch (1999: 4) report that marriage exchange predominantly occurs between
the settlements within a Namie dialect area (Feldpausch & Feldpausch 1999: 4). The Namie also have
more permanent settlements than the other lowland groups (Craig 1975).