IN DARKEST AFRICA - Part One

A GUIDE TO WARGAMING CENTRAL AFRICA IN THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY

WITH A SET OF SKIRMISH RULES AND CAMPAIGN SYSTEM.
by CHRIS PEERS (with a painting guide by Mark Copplestone).
As most wargamers have learned from experience, it is a
sensible policy to plan our figure collecting around the rules
that we enjoy playing, rather than buying figures because we
like the look of them, and then worrying about what to do with
them later. But of course, it usually doesn't happen that way.
The latest temptation to shake my resolve in this respect is
Mark Copplestone's new 25mm. Darkest Africa range from
Guernsey Foundry. I have always been interested in events in
Africa during the period of exploration, but until now I had
never thought much about it as a subject for wargaming. But
having decided that the figures were going to be irresistible -
and having seen how many other members of my local club
were infected with the same enthusiasm - it was obvious that
we would need a game we could play with them.

The following ideas are an amalgamation of several different
influences: notably Peter Pig's AK-47 Republic Modern
African rules and the campaign system which I devised for
them, and my own, half-forgotten, Cheap and Nasty Indian
Mutiny Skirmish Rules, as revived and revised by Mark
Copplestone and John French. I wrote the latter quite a few
years ago, for the usual reason - I had painted up some of
Wargames Foundry's Mutiny figures, but had no game which I
could use them for - and Duncan was kind enough to publish
them in WI at the time. To judge from the feedback from
readers this must have been the most popular article I have ever
written, which is a bit embarrassing as I threw the rules together
in about half an hour, between finishing the figures on Sunday
and playing the game on the following Tuesday. No one was
more surprised than I was to find that, incredibly basic though
they were, they actually worked! Nevertheless, they
languished largely forgotten for quite a while, until out of the
blue Mark and John asked if I minded if they adapted them for
their African game at Partizan this May. Of course I didn't
mind: they had solved my problem as well as their own. After
all, the rules were intended specifically for large 19th century
skirmishes between forces at different levels of technology and
organisation, and with a few obvious changes, they appeared to
work for Africa just as well as for India.
Skirmish games are all very well for an occasional light-
hearted encounter, but I find that people tend to lose interest in
them after a while, unless they are built into some more durable
structure. No one wants to buy a few hundred figures, put them
on the table once or twice, and then shove them to the back of a
drawer. Obviously, what was needed was an equally simple
campaign. And once again, the solution was already to hand. I
have explained in a previous article the stylised campaign
system which we (ie. the October Club in Birmingham) are
using for our current Modern African campaign, The
Dagomban Civil War. Well, it turns out that long-suffering
(but fortunately fictional) Dagomba was also a scene of
conflict about a hundred and thirty years ago. The system I
have used here is not identical to the modern version, because
the aims of the different factions are different, but the basic
snakes and ladders principle is the same, and basing it on the
map of Dagomba saved me the bother of finding or inventing a
new set of place-names.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND.
By the third quarter of the 19th century, East and Central Africa
had become something of a playground for explorers and
adventurers from Europe. For the people living there, on the
other hand, this was a time of disaster. Not only Europeans, but
Arab slavers and almost equally ruthless ivory traders
rampaged across the continent, dragging off the natives for sale
abroad or conscripting them as porters. At the same time
warlike tribes such as the Ngoni from the south and the
Karamojong from the north, set in motion by other upheavals
beyond their homelands, migrated or raided into the region.
The local tribes of course fought back, and in the vast region
between the Congo River and the Indian Ocean all sorts of
different armies allied or clashed with each other in what must
have seemed at times like a gigantic multi-cornered fight. As if
this was not enough, some tribes - notably the Masai - kept
themselves busy with bloody civil wars.

The fighting was seldom over conventional territorial
objectives. For the European explorers, the ultimate goal might
be the unknown source of a river, or a semi-mythical lake or
mountain. The Arabs would be trying to collect enough slaves
or ivory to make the trip inland worthwhile, and then get their
cargo safely back to the coast. The native cattle-herding tribes
would be doing basically the same thing with other people's
cattle. Other native chiefs might aim to be recognised or
confirmed as a "divine" king (according to traditional African
notions of kingship), through a combination of material wealth
and success in battle. The farmers and hunters, on the other
hand, were strategically fairly passive - although they might try
to fight off slavers, or obstruct the passage of armies through
their territory - and would generally be happy if they remained
in control of the land they started with.
These rules, therefore, are based around the existence of a
number of different types of force, each composed of differing
proportions of the various types of troops available (with
acknowledgements to Peter Pig, who have used a similar
approach in their AK-47 Republic Modern rules). For game
purposes, I have reduced the enormous variety of real-life
troop-types to the following broad categories:

TROOP TYPES:
Europeans
Pretty obvious really. In this period
they are mostly explorers and big-
game hunters, rather than the
commanders of convent i onal
military expeditions. Armed with the
latest military or sporting guns,
practiced shots, convinced of their
absolute superiority over the
savages - and with nowhere to run
to if they don't stand and fight - they
are the most effective troops in the
game. However, they are only
available in very small numbers.

Askaris
Askari is an Arabic word meaning
soldier. For our purposes, it embraces all professional Arab
and African troops, armed with firearms of various types, and
having a reasonable amount of confidence in their ability to use
them. This includes Zanzibari and Sudanese slavers, and
native auxiliaries recruited and equipped by Europeans. Also
covered under this heading are the better equipped followers of
some native chiefs - such as the Ruga-Ruga employed by
warlords like Mirambo of the Nyamwezi tribe and his
contemporary Nyungu of the Kimbu - and professional slave
and ivory-traders like the pombeiros whom Livingstone
discovered operating along the upper Zambesi in the 1850s.
There are 2 sub-classes of Askaris, in addition to the standard
type:

Elite Askaris
Until the late 1860s,
these men will be dis-
tinguished mainly by
their better training
and morale. Thereaf-
ter, they might carry
breech-loading rifles
or repeating carbines
instead of the more
common muzzl e-
loaders. They will generally be a small minority of any force -
forming, for example, the bodyguards of Zanzibari leaders.

Baluchis
These were mercenaries, recruited mainly from the Indian
sub-continent, who were frequently found in the service of
the Zanzibaris. They continued to favour obsolete matchlock
muskets, backed up by sword and shield, and so are treated
here as less effective when firing, although better at hand-to-
hand combat, than standard Askaris.

Native Musketeers
Warriors from traditional African societies, armed with
firearms which were generally old-fashioned and badly-
maintained. These weapons had been supplied in very large
numbers over the preceding couple of centuries to native
agents of the ivory and slave trades. They were seldom,
however, used with any great skill. In warfare the noise they
made was often considered to be as important as any actual
damage they might do, and so ancient large-calibre muzzle-
loaders were often preferred, even when more modern
weapons were available. Ammunition was frequently
grapeshot made from nails, bits of pottery etc. (It was not
unknown for warriors to go to the trouble of filing off the rifling
from the insides of the barrels of modern rifles so that they
could be used to fire such improvised projectiles.)
Native Archers
The bow was less commonly used in warfare in the 19th
century than it had been formerly. This was at least partly due to
the prestige which had come to be attached to firearms,
although in fact skilled archers were often more effective than
their compatriots equipped with muskets which they had not
been trained to use properly. Some peoples - notably
pastoralists like the Masai - despised the bow, and restricted its
use to youths not yet qualified as warriors, and old men left to
guard the camp. However, some forest tribes who relied
heavily on hunting could still field numerous archers, many of
whom used poisoned arrows. There is 1 sub-class of this
category:

Pygmies
In the dense Congo rain forests, a few tribes of Pygmies still
lived as hunter-gatherers. They were exceptionally skilled in
fieldcraft and archery, and specialised in shooting poisoned
arrows from ambush. They usually preferred to avoid other
people, but in many cases had been lured or forced into a close
relationship with neighbouring farming tribes. The farmers
often thought of themselves as owning "their" Pygmies, but the
latter no doubt saw it differently. In fact, many other Africans
were secretly terrified of the deadly little hunters.

Native Spearmen
Other tribal warriors, whether armed with spears (by far the
most common) or other hand-to-hand weapons such as swords
and axes. Swords were popular in East Africa and areas under
Arab influence, but less so in the Congo. There are 2 sub-
classes, apart from standard Spearmen:

Agile Spearmen
The younger warriors of some pastoral or semi-pastoral
societies, whose lifestyle and training for war made them
exceptionally fleet of foot, and who were expected to prove
themselves in battle before they could progress to full adult
status within the tribe. Among some peoples, like the Masai,
this distinction was formalised by a traditional system of
organised age-classes, members of which fought together.

Warrior Spearmen
Comprising a small elite of the older, more experienced men in
most societies, but the bulk of the mature warriors of a few
notably warlike peoples, such as the Masai or Ngoni. These
men might be slightly less mobile than their juniors, but are
exceptionally deadly in close combat.

FORCE TYPES:
The above troop-types, in varying proportions, may be
combined into any of the following force types. Like the troop
categories they are necessarily over-simplified, but it should
be possible to fit most historical examples into one or other of
them. The numbers given are of course only suggestions, and
could for example be halved (or doubled!) depending on the
number of figures available. Relative strengths are intended to
produce a rough balance between the different forces, but this
depends on a lot of other factors (such as the terrain), and so
cannot be guaranteed.

European-led Expedition
In this period Europeans came to tropical Africa not so much as
conquerors as explorers, whether private or government-
backed. Some of them had a genuine (if usually misguided)
interest in helping the Africans, by spreading civilisation or
suppressing the slave trade. For others, the motive was
scientific curiosity, career advancement, or the desire to get
rich. They would not usually launch unprovoked attacks on
native forces, but would insist on going wherever they liked,
and would be inclined to take drastic action if this was
disputed. Sometimes they would intervene in local disputes.
British expeditions, in particular, might be under instructions
to attack slavers. Some explorers managed to avoid conflict
with the natives, while others - Stanley and Peters being among
the worst examples - fought their way ruthlessly through
anything resembling opposition. Expeditions could vary
greatly in size, but for our purposes a typical force looks like
this:
16 figures: 1 - 3 Europeans.
6 - 12 Askaris. (Up to 1/3 may
be Elite.)
0 - 8 Native Musketeers or
Archers.
0 - 8 Native Spearmen.
3 of the above figures are officers. At least 1 of them must be
European. Up to 2 may be Elite Askaris.
Arabs
During the 19th century, Arab expeditions penetrated East
Africa from two different directions. The Zanzibaris - heirs to
the Omani expansion down the coast which had replaced the
Portuguese - came from the east coast, while Egyptians and
Sudanese moved down from the north. The latter were often
referred to as Turks, because they came from areas which
had once been under the control of the Ottoman Sultans. The
Zanzibaris had a bad reputation as slave-raiders, although most
of their victims were in fact captured for them by native allies.
They also engaged in more legitimate trade, especially in ivory.
The "Turks" were even more rapacious, as they were mainly
interested in seizing recruits for the Egyptian army, and carried
no goods for peaceful trading. However, they seldom
penetrated further south than the north of what is now Uganda.
In their operations in the Sudan (both East and West) they often
relied on cavalry, but horses were unsuited to the tsetse-fly
infested regions of East and Central Africa, and so are not
catered for in these rules. Arab factions often fought not only
native peoples, but also each other. They were also at various
times allies and enemies of various European expeditions. A
notional force of this type will consist of:
32 figures: 12 - 24 Askaris. (Any may be
Baluchis. Up to 4 Askari
figures may be Elite.)
0 - 12 Native Musketeers.
0 - 4 Native Archers.
8 - 20 Native Spearmen.

4 Askari figures (of any sub-type) are officers.
Native Chiefdom
Some East African peoples were either already highly
organised under traditional rulers - like the Buganda of Lake
Victoria - or organised themselves in response to outside
influences - like the Nyamwezi in Tanzania, who made so
much profit from their employment as porters that they became
slave-owners themselves. Such people could afford fair
numbers of firearms, and often managed to look after
themselves quite well. This force represents both the
traditional chiefdoms, and the more ephemeral regimes of men
like Mirambo
and Nyungu.
T h e
a s ka r i s ,
particularly in
the latter type
o f f o r c e ,
would include
the colourful
Ruga-Ruga irregulars, whose discipline sometimes left
something to be desired, but who were full-time soldiers with
good weapon-handling skills:
44 figures: 8 - 16 Askaris.
8 - 16 Native Musketeers.
0 - 10 Native Archers.
8 - 16 Native Spearmen. (Up to
1/4 may be Warrior
Spearmen.)
5 Askari figures are officers.
Tribal Farmers
Many Africans - especially those far from the coast - still lived
in small farming communities, largely isolated from the great
trading routes, and so cut off from a supply of modern
Tribal Farmers
Many Africans - especially those far from the coast - still lived
in small farming communities, largely isolated from the great
trading routes, and so cut off from a supply of modern
weapons. In reality they seldom managed to resist
PAINTING GUIDE:
EXPLORERS
Early European explorers tended to wear clothes of a cut and
colour popular at home, or a specially made, often
idiosyncratic, travelling costume. Later a white or pale khaki
"uniform" with a tropical helmet or wide-brimmed hat became
the norm. Some of the more famous explorers were associated
with a particular costume:

Livingstone - a red smock and a blue peaked cap with a gold
band.
Baker - a loose smock and trousers, dyed in natural shades,
with a peaked cap with neckflap.
Speke - light brown trousers, a greenish tweed waistcoat with
many pockets, and a check shirt.
Stanley - a frogged jacket and curious hat of his own devising,
in a pale shade of khaki.

Flags - expeditions starting in Zanzibar usually carried the
Sultan's plain red flag, and often a national flag too.

ASKARIS
Skin - could vary from yellowish bronze to dark brown.
Askaris would not wear warpaint, although some would have
tribal scars.

Loincloths - most commonly off-white cotton, sometimes
dyed yellow-brown, indigo (all shades from blue-black to
faded denim) or white with a narrow reddish border. Other
more colourful fabrics included blue with a broad red stripe,
dark blue with a red or yellow border, multi-coloured checks
and sometimes plain red. In practice these best clothes would
be kept for special occasions, and everyday loincloths would
be ragged and stained.

Waistcoats - blue or red in imitation of the Zanzibaris.

Coats and Shirts - if worn at all, could represent a rudimentary
uniform eg the white coats with red or blue cuffs and a
matching 1' square between the shoulders worn by Imperial
British East Africa Company troops in 1890.

Hats - either fezzes and caps, in red or white, or turbans,
usually white.

BEARERS
Dressed more poorly than askaris in plain fabrics or animal
skins.

ZANZIBARI ARABS
Skin - varied, from olive to dark brown, with the number of
generations a family had been settled in East Africa.

Gown - a long shirt with full-length sleeves. Originally this
was a dull yellow, but by the 1870s was usually white, its
brightness increasing with status. At the waist there was
usually a sash, often white although any colour could be used.
A shorter shirt, in a striped or patterned fabric, was sometimes
worn over the gown.

Waistcoats and Jackets - dark blue or red zouave style with
contrasting edging and decoration.
Overmantles - in dark blue or red, worn by leaders.
Hats - white fezzes or turbans. Wealthier Arabs often used
multicoloured, striped silks for their turbans.
European or Arab incursions, but for the sake of game balance
we will give them a large enough force to stand a chance:

64 figures: 0 - 16 Native Musketeers.
0 - 24 Native Archers. (Up to
12 f i gur es may be
Pygmies.)
32 - 64 Native Spearmen. (Up to
1/4 may be Warrior
Spearmen.)

6 figures (not Pygmies) are officers.
Tribal Herdsmen
Some African societies in the drier savannah regionsrejected
farming, and lived mainly or exclusively from the products of
their cattle. They tended to be very warlike, conservative, and
convinced of their own superiority over both farmers and
hunters. In some cases they instituted a virtual reign of terror
over their neighbours, though in others the relationship was
more peaceful. The most famous example from East Africa is
the Masai, but similar herdsmen dominated much of the
southern Sudan. The Ngoni, who migrated into East Africa
from the south early in the 19th century and brought with them
a military system derived from that of the Zulus, may also be
placed in this category. A popular pastime among the warriors
of these tribes was stealing cattle, from the farmers or each
other. (According to Masai legend, all the cattle in the world
originally belonged to them, although some had been
temporarily misappropriated by lesser peoples. It was
obviously a warrior's duty to help return them to the fold.) They
fought very effectively against other traditional Africans, but
their rash courage, and their tendency to despise guns and
skirmishing tactics, made them terribly vulnerable to modern
firearms.

64 figures: 0 - 4 Native Archers.
60 - 64 Native Spearmen. (Up to
1/ 2 ma y be Agi l e
Spearmen, 1/5 to 3/4 are
Warrior Spearmen.)

6 Warrior Spearman figures are officers.

Tribal Hunters
By the 19th century, this ancient lifestyle survived only in a few
isolated pockets, which were too dry or too densely forested
for agriculture. Thus hunters were seldom troubled much by
slavers, being too few and too elusive to be worth chasing.
Most - though not all - of the specialist hunters were pygmies
living in the rainforests of the Congo. This type of force will be
quite effective in thick cover, but perhaps less useful
elsewhere:

48 figures if Pygmies; 60 if not:
All or none may be Pygmies. If Pygmy, all count as Pygmy
Native Archers. If not, up to 24 figures may be Native
Spearmen, and the rest standard Native Archers.
5 figures are officers if Pygmies, 6 if not.


Flags - a blood-red flag was the sign of a caravan from
Zanzibar, although the contingents of individual leaders
carried their own flags. These were probably simple vertical or
horizontal stripes in blue, red and white, although patterned
fabrics may have been used.


RUGA-RUGA
Clothing - a mixture of askari, Zanzibari and tribal styles. Red
cloaks were sometimes worn. Officers wore Zanzibari-style
white gowns with red or blue coats.

Hats - large turbans with feathers, feathered tribal headdresses
and probably fezzes.

Ornaments - hung with charms, lots of ivory bangles, brass or
copper wire around wrists and ankles.


CENTRAL AFRICAN TRIBES
Skin - from light to very dark brown, fairly uniform within a
particular tribe

Loincloths - animal skins, bark cloth (pale red-brown) and
later imported cloth.

Hair and Headgear - huge variety of hairstyles, which were
often the distinguishing feature of a tribe. Feathers could be
fixed in hair - ostrich feathers (long white and short black) in
East Africa, and parrot feathers (long crimson and short grey)
in the Congo basin. Feathers could also be attached to animal
skin or basketwork caps.
Warpaint - not always used, but when it was red and white
were the usual colours. Patterns usually involved painting
parts of the body in solid colours (eg white arms and legs or red
upper body). Sometimes the entire body could be painted, half
red and half white. A tribe might use a common style, but
would not be painted absolutely uniformly.

Shields - in East Africa, when used, were round or oval and
made of hide. They were often unpainted, although at least one
tribe painted theirs half red and half black. Any combination
of red, white and black is possible. In the damper Congo,
where hide was unavailable or would rot too fast, shields were
made of basketwork or light wood. Both types were
commonly painted black, either plain or with geometric
patterns left in the natural cane colour. Shields were held by a
central hand-grip.

Skirmish Rules and Campaign System to follow in
Part Two ....