Parameters Governing Permeate Flux in an Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor Treating Low-

Strength Municipal Wastewaters: A Literature Review

Author(s): P. R. Brub, E. R. Hall and P. M. Sutton
Source: Water Environment Research, Vol. 78, No. 8 (Aug., 2006), pp. 887-896
Published by: Water Environment Federation
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25053597 .
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STATE-OF-THE-ART REVIEW
Parameters
Governing
Permeate Flux in an
Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor
Treating
Low-Strength Municipal
Wastewaters:
A Literature Review
P. R.
B?rub?,
E. R.
Hall,
P. M. Sutton
ABSTRACT: The
objective
of this review was to conduct a
comprehen
sive literature
survey
to
identify
the
parameters
that
govern
the
permeate
flux in an anaerobic membrane bioreactor
(AnMBR) treating municipal
wastewater. Based on the
survey,
research to date indicates that the
optimal
membrane
system
for an AnMBR consists of an
organic, hydrophilic,
and
negatively charged
membrane with a
pore
size of
approximately
0.1
|im.
The use of both external and
submerged
membrane
configurations
shows
promise.
The
operating parameters
that affect
permeate
flux in an external
membrane
system
are transmembrane
pressure (TMP)
and cross-flow
velocity.
The
operating parameters
that affect
permeate
flux in a
submerged
membrane
system
are
TMP, sparging intensity,
and duration of the
relaxation
period.
Both cross-flow
velocity
and
sparging intensity impart
a
significant
amount of shear force on the biomass in an AnMBR.
High
shear
forces can reduce the microbial
activity
in an AnMBR. In
addition,
high
shear forces can reduce the size of the biosolids in the mixed
liquor
and
increase the release of soluble microbial
products.
In this
respect,
external
and
submerged
membrane
systems
are
expected
to
perform differently
because the
magnitude
of the shear forces to which the biomass is
exposed
in
an external membrane
system
is
significantly greater
than that in a
submerged
system.
The size of the biosolid
particles
and concentration of soluble
microbial
products
in the mixed
liquor
affect
permeate
flux.
Higher
concentrations of soluble microbial
products may
be
present
in the mixed
liquor
when an AnMBR is
operated
at
relatively
low
operating temperatures.
Aerobic
polishing following
anaerobic treatment can
potentially significantly
reduce the concentration of some
components
of the soluble microbial
products
in the mixed
liquor.
It is not
possible
to remove the foulant
layer
on
an
organic
membrane with caustic
cleaning
alone. Acidic
cleaning
or acidic
cleaning
followed
by
caustic
cleaning
is
required
to remove the foulant
layer.
This
suggests
that both
biological/organic
and
inorganic
material contribute
to membrane
fouling.
Water Environ.
Res., 78,
887
(2006).
KEYWORDS:
anaerobic,
membrane
bioreactor, permeate flux,
low
strength
wastewater.
doi: 10.2175/106143005X72858
Introduction
Anaerobic
biological
treatment
systems
can offer a number of
advantages
over their aerobic
counterparts.
The
operational
costs
associated with anaerobic
systems
are
typically
lower than with
aerobic
systems,
and anaerobic
systems
also
generate
less waste
sludge.
In
addition,
the
energy
associated with the
biogas produced
during
anaerobic
biological
treatment can be recovered.
However,
to
date,
the use of conventional anaerobic
biological systems
for
the treatment of wastewaters has been
relatively
limited. This is
especially
true for the treatment of
low-strength
wastewaters in
colder climates. Under such
conditions,
the biomass
growth yield
and
growth
rate are
relatively
low,
resulting
in a low overall net
biomass
production.
The net biomass
production
must exceed the
net biomass loss to the effluent for a
biological
treatment
system
to
function
properly.
However,
in conventional anaerobic
biological
treatment
systems,
the net biomass loss to the effluent is
governed
by
the
relatively poor settling
characteristics of the biomass. As
a
result,
it is
typically
not
possible
to maintain a
sufficiently large
biomass concentration in an anaerobic
biological system
to
effectively
treat
low-strength
wastewaters in colder climates. On
the other
hand,
in a membrane bioreactor
(MBR),
the membrane
component
of the
system,
can retain
virtually
all of the biomass
within the bioreactor.
Therefore,
it should be
possible
to maintain
an
adequate
biomass concentration
by coupling
a membrane to
an anaerobic
biological
reactor to
effectively
treat
low-strength
wastewaters in colder climates. In
addition,
it
may
be
possible
to
overcome some of the treatment limitations associated with
anaerobic
systems by coupling
a membrane to the bioreactor.
Anaerobic
biological
treatment
systems
can
effectively
remove the
bulk of the
organic
contaminants
present
in a
wastewater; however,
they
are
typically
not effective at
removing
residual levels of soluble
and colloidal
organic
contaminants. The results from recent research
suggest
that in an anaerobic membrane bioreactor
(AnMBR),
residual
organics
could be retained in the
system independently
of the
hydraulic throughput, enabling
these contaminants to be
hydrolyzed
and
biodegraded (Stuckey
and
Hu, 2003).
The
permeate
flux that can be maintained is one of the most
significant
factors that affects
capital
and
operating
costs associated
with an MBR.
Accordingly,
an extensive amount of research has
been
performed
to
investigate parameters
that affect
permeate
flux
in aerobic MBRs. Much of the recent research on
parameters
that
affect
permeate
flux in aerobic MBRs is summarized in
Chang
et al.
August
2006 887
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
B?rub? et al.
(2002).
On the other
hand,
only
a limited amount of research has
focused on
parameters
that
govern permeate
flux in an AnMBR.
The
objective
of this review was to conduct a
comprehensive
literature
survey
to
identify parameters
that have been
reported
to
govern permeate
flux in an AnMBR
treating municipal
wastewater.
It should be noted
that,
unless stated
otherwise,
only
the results from
studies that have focused on
permeate
flux in an AnMBR
treating
municipal
wastewater will be discussed. In
addition,
a
meaningful
comparison
of the absolute effect of
parameters
that
govern per
meate flux in an AnMBR cannot be made without
incorporating,
to the
review,
a detailed
description
of
methodology
used to mea
sure the
permeate
flux
(or
the decline in the
permeate flux)
and
experimental
conditions relevant to each of the studies that were
surveyed.
Therefore,
the
present
review focuses
mainly
on the rela
tive effect of
parameters
that
govern permeate
flux in an AnMBR.
The reader is
encouraged
to consult the referenced material to obtain
information on the
experimental
conditions relevant to each of the
studies that are cited.
Parameters
Governing
Permeate Flux in an
Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor
The
parameters
that affect
permeate
flux in an AnMBR can be
loosely
classified into the
following
three
general categories: (1 )
those
that are
governed by
the membrane
itself, (2)
those that are
governed
by
the
operational parameters
of the
membrane,
and
(3)
those that
are
governed by
the characteristics of the mixed
liquor being
filtered.
The characteristics of the membrane material
(e.g., polymeric
versus
ceramic,
charge,
and
pore size); packing density (i.e.,
mem
brane area
per
unit
volume);
looseness
(i.e.,
extent of lateral
sway);
configuration (i.e.,
external or
submerged);
and
operating
conditions
(i.e.,
surface shear and
operating
transmembrane
pressure [TMP])
are all
membrane-specific parameters
that affect
permeate
flux in an
AnMBR. The membrane
material,
packing density,
looseness,
and
configuration
are fixed
design
characteristics that are
specific
to
a
given
membrane
product. Although
the
operating
surface shear
and TMP are somewhat
specific
to a
given
membrane
product, they
can
typically
be varied within limited
ranges. Therefore,
to maxi
mize the
permeate
flux in an
AnMBR,
the
optimal
membrane
pro
duct and
optimal operating
conditions for that
specific product
must be selected.
The characteristics of the mixed
liquor being
filtered also
significantly
affect
permeate
flux. These characteristics are, in
part,
related to the nature of the raw wastewater
being treated,
but also to
the
operating parameters
that are
specific
to the
biological
com
ponent
of an AnMBR. As discussed in the
following
sections,
operating parameters,
such as
organic loading
rate,
sludge
retention
time,
and
hydraulic
retention
time,
and
operating temperature
can
significantly
affect
permeate
flux in an AnMBR.
However,
these
parameters
are
typically
set to
optimize
the
biological component
of
the
system,
rather than the
permeate
flux. As a
result,
an
optimal
set
point
in terms of the
biological stage
of an AnMBR
may
result in
a
nonoptimal set-point
in terms of the
permeate
flux.
Parameters Governed
by
the Membrane
System.
Membrane
Material. The
type
of membrane material used can
significantly
affect
fouling parameters
in an AnMBR.
Fouling
increases the
resistance that the
permeate
must
overcome to flow
through
a membrane.
Fouling
of
organic
membranes
(also commonly
referred to as
polymeric membranes) typically
arises as a result of
the formation of a cake
layer
on the membrane surface
during
filtration
(Kang
et
al, 2002).
Choo and Lee
(1996a) reported
that
the cake
layer
that forms on
organic
membranes in an AnMBR
consists of both
biological/organic
solids and
inorganic precipitates
and that the
principal inorganic
constituent of the cake
layer
is
struvite.
However,
as
reported by
Choo et al.
(2000),
the
fouling
of
organic
membranes
appears
to be
predominantly governed by
biological/organic
interactions with the
membrane,
rather than
by
struvite
precipitation. They
observed no difference in the rate of
fouling
when
ammonia,
a
component
of
struvite,
was removed from
the mixed
liquor
before filtration
using
an
organic
membrane. For
organic
membranes,
the resistance
resulting
from internal
fouling,
which is caused
by
the
adsorption
of soluble
and/or
particulate
material within the
pore
structure of a
membrane,
has been
reported
to be
significantly
less than that
resulting
from the cake
layer (Choo
and
Lee, 1996b;
Kang
et
al., 2002; Lee,
Jung,
and
Chung, 2001).
On the other
hand,
a cake
layer typically
does not form on an
inorganic
membrane,
and the bulk of the
fouling
can be attributed to
internal
fouling (Kang
et
al., 2002;
Yoon et
al., 1999).
Yoon et al.
(1999)
attributed the extensive internal
fouling
that occurs in in
organic
membranes to the
precipitation
of struvite.
Using scanning
electron
microscope (SEM) image analysis, they
observed no vis
ible cake
layer
formation on the surface of an
inorganic
membrane.
The SEM
image analysis
also revealed the
presence
of white
crystals,
characteristic of struvite
precipitate,
within the
pore
struc
ture of the
inorganic
membrane.
They
also
reported
that the amount
of struvite
present
in the membrane as an internal foulant could be
estimated based on the difference in the mass of
magnesium,
a
component
of
struvite,
contained in the mixed
liquor
and that con
tained in the
permeate. Kang
et al.
(2002) reported
that the struvite
content of the internal foulant material in
inorganic
membranes was
more than twice that observed in
organic
membranes. Choo et al.
(2000)
also attributed the extensive internal
fouling
that occurs in
inorganic
membranes to the
precipitation
of struvite.
They
observed
a
significant
difference in the rate of
fouling
when
ammonia,
a
component
of
struvite,
was removed from the mixed
liquor
before
filtration
using
an
inorganic
membrane. These results are somewhat
contradictory
to those
reported by
Elmaleh and Abdelmoumni
(1997),
who did not observe
any
internal
fouling. However,
their
experiments
were
performed using
a
synthetic
wastewater that
contained
only
acetic acid and nutrients.
The absence of a cake
layer
on
inorganic
membranes has been
reported
to result in a reduction in
permeate
flux over time that is
less than that for
organic
membranes
(Kang
et
al., 2002). However,
it should be noted that the difference
reported by Kang
et al.
(2002)
when
comparing fouling
of
organic
and
inorganic
membranes could
have been a result of structural differences between the two
types
of membranes
investigated.
The
inorganic
membranes used had a
smooth surface and a
pore
diameter of 0.14
pm,
while the
organic
membranes had a
rougher,
fibrous surface and a
pore
diameter of
0.2
pm. Ghyoot
and Verstraete
(1997)
observed that the
permeate
flux in an AnMBR with a ceramic membrane was
significantly
higher
than that which could be achieved with an
organic
mem
brane. Chen et al.
(2005)
also
reported
that the
permeate
flux that
could be maintained in an AnMBR with ceramic membranes was
approximately
twice that which could be maintained in the same
system
when
using
an
organic
membrane.
However,
based on a life
cycle analysis,
the cost of an AnMBR with a ceramic membrane is
approximately
twice that of an AnMBR with an
organic
membrane
(Ghyoot
and
Verstraete, 1997).
Hydrophobic
Nature and
Charge of
the Membrane. The
hydrophobic
nature of a membrane material in an AnMBR has
been documented to
significantly
affect
permeate
flux. Choo et al.
(2000) reported
that a
higher permeate
flux could be maintained
888 Water Environment
Research,
Volume
78,
Number 8
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B?rub? et al.
Process
Gas
To Gas
Handling
System
Influent Wastewater
Figure
1?External membrane
system.
when the surface of a membrane was
hydrophilic
in nature.
Sainbayar
et al.
(2001) reported
that the
permeate
flux
through
a
hydrophobic
membrane could be increased
through graft polymeri
zation,
in which
hydrophilic
functional
groups
are introduced to
a membrane surface. The extent of internal
pore fouling
decreased
as the
degree
of
graft polymerization
increased.
However,
graft
polymerization
also affected the
physical
structure of the membrane
surface
by reducing
the size of the
pores.
As a
result,
a maximum
permeate
flux was observed at an intermediate
degree
of
grafting,
at which the membrane surface exhibited
primarily hydrophilic
characteristics and membrane
pores
remained
relatively large.
Contradictory
results were
reported by
Choo and Lee
(1996a),
who observed that the extent of
fouling
was lower for membrane
materials that were more
hydrophobic
in nature. These results
suggest
that surface
hydrophobicity,
on its own, does not
govern
membrane
fouling (Choo
and
Lee, 1996a).
The membrane surface
charge likely
also
plays
a
significant
role in membrane
fouling.
The
membrane surface
charge
is
strongly
affected
by
the
pH
and ionic
strength
of the mixed
liquor.
Shimizu et al.
(1989) reported
that
negatively charged inorganic
membranes fouled less
rapidly
than
neutral or
positively charged
membranes
during
filtration of an
anaerobic broth.
They
attributed the difference to
stronger
electrical
repulsion
between
negatively charged
colloids in the mixed
liquor
and membrane surface.
Also,
as discussed in the Permeate Flux
Recovery
section,
the
charge
that a membrane
adopts during
the
cleaning process significantly
affects the extent to which
permeate
flux can be recovered
(Kang
et
al., 2002). However,
when
filtering
protein
solutions,
Fane et al.
(1983) reported
that the effect of the
membrane surface
charge
becomes
negligible
when the ionic con
centration of the solution
being
filtered is
high.
Nominal Pore Size.
In addition to characteristics of the mem
brane material
itself,
the nominal
pore
size of a membrane also
significantly
affects
permeate
flux. Elmaleh and Abdelmoumni
(1997) investigated
the effect of
pore
size on the
steady-state per
meate flux in an AnMBR. The
permeate
flux was
highest
for a
membrane with a nominal
pore
diameter of
approximately
0.45 urn
when
filtering
an anaerobic mixed
liquor.
However,
when
filtering
a mixed microbial
population
of
methanogens,
the
optimal pore
Process
Gas
Influent Wastewater
Excess
Sludge
i Gas
Handling
~\ System
Mefnbrane
M?du
/
JL
Completely
Mixed
Anaerobic
Bioreactor
Filtered
Effluent
Gas
"
Recycling
A
Figure 2?Submerged
membrane
system.
diameter was
approximately
0.15
pm.
The differences in these
results
clearly
indicate that the
optimal
membrane
pore
size is
a function of the
specific
mixed microbial
population being
filtered.
Choo and Lee
(1996a) reported
that the
optimal pore
size for an
AnMBR was 0.1
pm. Chung
et al.
(1998) reported
that the
permeate
flux that could be achieved in an AnMBR with a nominal
pore
size
of 0.22
pm
was three times
higher
than that which could be
achieved with a membrane with a
pore
size of 0.6
pm.
He et al.
(1999) reported
that,
for treatment of a
high-strength
food
pro
cessing
wastewater
using
an
AnMBR,
membranes with a
larger
molecular
weight
cut-off size fouled more
rapidly
and to a
greater
extent. These results
suggest
that membranes with a
larger
nominal
pore
size
may
foul more
readily
as a result of
clogging by
macro
colloids,
which can
completely
block the entrance of the
pores,
while those with a smaller nominal
pore
size are
expected
to foul
more
readily
as a result of
clogging by
microcolloids,
which can
adsorb to the surface of the
pores.
The initial
permeate
flux
through
membranes with a
larger
nominal
pore
size tends to be
greater
than that
through
membranes
with a smaller
pore
size
(Saw
et
al., 1986). However,
Saw et al.
(1986)
observed that the rate of
fouling
was
higher
for membranes
with a
larger
nominal
pore
size. These results are consistent with
those
reported by
Wen et al.
(1999),
who observed that the rate of
fouling
in an AnMBR was
greater
at a
higher operating permeate
flux
(see
discussion in the
Operating
Flux
section).
Imasaka et al.
(1989) reported
that internal
pore fouling
was the main mechanism
responsible
for the
higher
rate of
fouling
that occurs in membranes
with
larger pores.
The
pore
size had no effect on the extent of
cake
fouling.
Membrane
Configuration.
Both external and
submerged
mem
brane
configurations
have been used in AnMBR
applications.
In an
external
system,
the mixed
liquor
to be filtered is
pumped
from the
bioreactor to the
membrane,
as illustrated in
Figure
1. The treated
water is collected on the
permeate
side of the
membrane,
and the
retained biomass is returned to the bioreactor. The circulation
rate
(i.e.,
cross-flow
velocity through
the membrane
system)
and
operating
TMP used in external
systems
are
typically relatively
high.
For an AnMBR with an external
membrane,
the cross-flow
velocity
and
operating
TMP
typically range
from 1 to 5
m/s
and
207 to 690 kPa
(30
to 100
psi), respectively.
On the other
hand,
the cross-flow
velocity
and
operating
TMP in
submerged systems
are
typically relatively
low. In a
submerged system,
the membrane
is located within the
bioreactor,
as illustrated in
Figure
2. The
treated water is collected on the
permeate
side of the
membrane,
and
the retained biomass
simply
remains in the bioreactor. Gas is
August
2006 889
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B?rub? et al.
sparged
into the
system
at the base of the membranes. The
sparged
gas
bubbles entrain
liquid upward, creating
a cross-flow
along
the
membrane surface. For an AnMBR with a
submerged
membrane,
the
operating
TMP has been
reported
to
range
from 21 to 103 kPa
(3
to 15
psi).
The bulk cross-flow
velocity
that can be achieved in
submerged
membrane
systems
tends to be less than 0.6
m/s (B?rub?
and
Lei, 2005).
The
significantly
different
hydrodynamic
conditions
that are
present
in
submerged
and external membrane
systems
can
have
significant
effects on the characteristics of mixed
liquor
in an
AnMBR. Chen et al.
(2005) reported
that the size of most of the
suspended
material
present
in the mixed
liquor
in an external
membrane
system ranged
from
approximately
0.1 to 0.4 urn, while
that for a
submerged system ranged
from
approximately
50 to 500
urn. As discussed in the Parameters Governed
by
the Characteristics
of the Mixed
Liquor
section,
the size of the material in the mixed
liquor
can have a
significant
effect on the
permeate
flux.
Stuckey
and Hu
(2003) reported
that the
permeate
flux that could
be maintained in an AnMBR with a hollow-fiber
submerged
membrane
configuration
was
slightly higher
than that which could
be maintained in a flat-sheet
submerged
membrane
configuration.
The
difference,
although
small, may
be a result of
dissimilarity
in
the extent of contact that occurs between the membrane surfaces
in these two
types
of
submerged
membrane
systems.
B?rub? and
Lei
(2005)
demonstrated that the
physical
contact between mem
branes that occurs in
submerged
membrane
systems,
which is a
function of the membrane
packing density
and
looseness,
signifi
cantly
affects
permeate
flux.
Unfortunately,
no studies were found that
investigated
the effect
of the
configuration
of the membrane
component
of an AnMBR
on
permeate
flux.
However,
as
presented
below,
TMP and cross
flow
velocity
can
significantly
affect the
permeate
flux in an
AnMBR.
Considering
that the
magnitudes
of these
operating
parameters
differ
significantly
for external and
submerged
mem
brane
systems,
it can be
expected
that the membrane
configuration
will have a
significant
effect on
permeate
flux that can be achieved.
Parameters Governed
by
the
Operational
Parameters. Cross
Flow
Velocity.
Cross-flow
operation
is used in external membrane
system
as a means to
provide high
shear conditions at the membrane
surface. Choo and Lee
(1998) reported
that it was
possible
to
sig
nificantly
decrease resistance
resulting
from concentration
polari
zation and cake
layer
formation
by increasing
the cross-flow
velocity.
However,
a
plateau
was reached at a
Reynold's
number of
approximately
2000,
for which no further reduction in resistance
could be achieved
by increasing
the cross-flow
velocity (Choo
et
al.,
2000).
At the
highest
cross-flow
velocity investigated,
the surface
resistance
(i.e.,
resistance
resulting
from concentration
polarization
and the cake
layer)
still accounted for most of the total resistance to
the
permeate
flux
(Choo
and
Lee, 1998).
For
inorganic
membranes,
internal
fouling
can
dominate,
especially
at
high
cross-flow velocities
(Kang, 1996). Although
the extent of internal
fouling
is
typically
considered to be
independent
of the cross-flow
velocity,
internal
fouling
can increase
slightly
as the cross-flow
velocity
increases
(Choo
and
Lee, 1998;
Choo et
al., 2000).
This increase in the extent of internal
fouling
can be attributed to the
thinning
of the cake
layer,
which serves as
a
protective layer against
the
passage
of foulants and a
subsequent
increase in the
passage
of foulants into the membrane
pores.
Elmaleh and Abdelmoumni
(1997) reported
that total
fouling
resistance could be reduced to
virtually
zero when the cross-flow
velocity
in a tubular membrane
system
exceeded 3
m/s.
These
results
suggest
that,
for this
AnMBR,
the
fouling
was a result of
cake
fouling only.
The
permeate
flux increased
linearly
with an
increase in the surface shear stress caused
by
the cross-flow
velocity
(Elmaleh
and
Abdelmoumni, 1997, 1998). However,
the
permeate
flux
plateaued
once a certain shear stress level was reached.
Using
baffles to induce
high-surface-shear
stresses at the membrane
surface had a similar effect on
permeate flux,
as did an increase in
the cross-flow
velocity.
The effect of baffles on the
permeate
flux
was
greatest
when the
cross-flowing liquid
was in the transition
regime
between laminar and turbulent flow. Their results
suggest
that the
magnitude
of
permeate
flux at the
plateau
is
governed by
the
mass flux of solids towards the membrane. Saw et al.
(1986)
reported
that the
permeate
flux in an AnMBR increased to a
greater
extent with an increase in the cross-flow
velocity,
when the flow
through
the membrane was turbulent. Imasaka et al.
(1989)
also
reported
that
permeate
flux increased with an increase in cross-flow
velocity.
However,
they
noted
that,
when
varying
the cross-flow
velocity,
the
permeate
flux at a
given
cross-flow
velocity
was
dependent
on the
stepwise
manner in which the cross-flow
velocity
was
changed.
Also,
Grethlein
(1978) reported
that the rate of
fouling
decreased as the cross-flow
velocity
increased.
However,
as
noted
by Bourgeous
et al.
(2001), although
the
permeate
flux can be
increased
by increasing
the cross-flow
velocity,
this increase comes
at a cost.
They reported
that,
although
an increase in the cross-flow
velocity
from 1 to 2
m/s
increased the
permeate
flux
by 20%,
the
power
cost for the
system
was increased
by
58%. In
addition,
the
high
cross-flow
velocity required
to
generate high
shear conditions
can
generate large
axial
pressure gradients, resulting
in a non
uniform TMP in tubular membrane
systems (Lee
et
al., 1999).
As
a
consequence,
some sections of the membrane can be under
nonoptimal
TMP conditions.
The cross-flow
velocity
can also
negatively
affect the
permeate
flux in an AnMBR. Brockmann and
Seyfried (1996)
and
Ghyoot
and Verstraete
(1997) reported
that the biomass
activity
could be
significantly
affected
by
shear. Choo and Lee
(1998) reported
that
higher
shear forces
imposed
on mixed
liquor
at
higher
cross-flow
velocities can reduce the size of the
particulate
material
(i.e.,
bio
mass).
As discussed in the Parameters Governed
by
the Charac
teristics of the Mixed
Liquor
section,
the size of the biosolids in
the mixed
liquor
can
significantly
affect
permeate
flux. In
addition,
Choo and Lee
(1996b) suggested
that the
high
shear conditions
caused
by high
cross-flow velocities can
significantly
increase cell
lysis, resulting
in a decrease in the overall
activity
of the biomass in
an AnMBR. For an aerobic
MBR,
Kim et al.
(2001) suggested
that
the
high
shear conditions
present
in a bioreactor could result in the
release of
high
concentrations of exocellular
polymeric
substances
(EPS)
into the bioreactor.
High
concentrations of EPS
(also
commonly
referred to as soluble microbial
products)
have been
documented to
negatively
affect
permeate
flux in aerobic MBRs
(Lawrence
et
al., 2001;
Van Houten et
al., 2001).
McMahon et al.
(2001) suggested
that
high mixing
intensities could break
up
micro
bial
aggregates
and therefore inhibit the
interspecies
substrate trans
fer that is essential for the stable
operation
of anaerobic
systems.
Fortunately,
anaerobic biosolids do not
appear
to be as affected
by
high
cross-flow velocities as does aerobic biomass
(Elmaleh
and
Abdelmoumni, 1997).
The
high
shear forces to which the biomass is
exposed
in an
external aerobic MBR is
mainly
a result of the recirculation
pumping
that is
required
in this
type
of bioreactor
configuration
(Shimizu
et
al., 1994).
Gear
pumps
and
positive displacement
pumps
have been observed to have the
largest negative
effect on
biomass
activity
in an aerobic
MBR,
while
centrifugal pumps
had
890 Water Environment
Research,
Volume
78,
Number 8
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B?rub? et al.
the smallest effect
(Flaschel
et
al., 1986).
This
may explain why
Beaubien et al.
(1996)
did not observe a
negative
effect of
high
cross-flow velocities on
methanogenic activity. Unfortunately,
the
authors did not disclose the
type
of recirculation
pump
used.
Gas
Sparging.
Gas
sparging
is
extensively
used in
submerged
membrane
systems
as a means to
provide high
shear conditions at
the membrane surface.
Increasing
the amount of
gas
increases the
amount of shear to which the membrane surface is
exposed,
much in
the same manner as an increase in the cross-flow
velocity,
in an
external/tubular
membrane
system,
increases the shear at a mem
brane surface.
Air is
typically
used as the
sparging gas
in an aerobic MBR. Vera
et al.
(2000) reported that,
for an aerobic
MBR,
the extent of
fouling
decreased as the air flowrate increased.
Lee,
Jung,
and
Chung
(2001) reported
that it was
possible
to maintain a
relatively high
permeate
flux in an AnMBR
by sparging
the
submerged
membrane
system
with air.
However,
the membranes could
only
be
sparged
for
approximately
5 seconds
every
10 minutes.
Sparging
the
system
with air for a
longer
duration resulted in nonanaerobic conditions
that
significantly
reduced the
activity
of the
acid-forming
micro
organisms
in the
system.
More extensive
sparging
is
required
to
maximize the
permeate
flux in an AnMBR.
Stuckey
and Hu
(2003) effectively
used
gas
in the
headspace
in
an AnMBR as a source of
relatively
inert
gas
for
continuously
sparging
a
submerged
membrane
system.
The TMP
required
to
maintain a constant
permeate
flux decreased as the
gas sparging
flow increased.
However,
a
plateau
was
reached,
for which no
additional
significant
reduction in the
required
TMP could be
achieved
by increasing
the extent of
gas sparging (Stuckey
and
Hu,
2003). Kayawake
et al.
(1991) reported
that the
permeate
flux that
could be maintained in an AnMBR with a
submerged
ceramic
membrane
system
could be doubled
by sparging
the
system
with
headspace gas.
Imasaka et al.
(1989)
used
nitrogen gas
for
sparging
in an AnMBR. The
permeate
flux increased as the
nitrogen gas
sparging
rate
increased, up
to a certain
value,
after which a further
increase in the
sparging
rate did not result in a
significant
additional
increase in the
permeate
flux.
They
also observed
that,
at the
higher
sparging
rates
investigated,
the
permeate
flux tended to decrease
continuously
over
time, while,
at the lower
sparging
rates,
the
permeate
flux tended to reach a
pseudo-steady-state
value.
They
attributed the continuous decrease in the
permeate
flux to the
thinning
of the cake
layer,
which can occur at
higher sparging
intensities.
They suggested
that the
thinning
of the cake
layer,
which
can serve as a
protective layer against
the
passage
of
foulants,
resulted in an increase in the
passage
of foulants into the membrane
pores.
Fawehinmi et al.
(2004)
also
reported
a
higher permeate
flux
when
sparging
an AnMBR with
nitrogen gas during
treatment of
a
high-strength synthetic
wastewater.
Transmembrane Pressure. Permeate flux in an AnMBR is
governed by
different
parameters
when
operated
at low or
high
TMPs. At
relatively
low
TMPs,
such as those
typically
used in
submerged
membrane
systems, permeate
flux is
governed by
TMP.
Under such
pressure-limited
conditions,
permeate
flux increases
linearly
with the
applied
TMP,
and
permeate
flux is not
significantly
affected
by
cross-flow
velocity (Beaubien
et
al., 1996). However,
permeate
flux is affected
by
the mixed
liquor suspended
solids
(MLSS) concentration,
but
only
at low concentrations
(i.e.,
less than
2.5
g/L) (Beaubien
et
al., 1996).
At
higher
solids
concentrations,
the
permeate
flux is not affected
by
the concentration of MLSS.
At
relatively high
TMPs,
such as those
typically
used in external
membrane
systems, permeate
flux is
governed by
the mass transfer
of material
away
from the membrane surface. Under mass-transfer
limited
conditions, permeate
flux in an AnMBR is
governed by
cross
flow
velocity (i.e.,
surface
shear)
and MLSS concentration
(Beaubien
et
al., 1996; Zhang
et
al., 2004).
Beaubien et al.
(1996) reported
a linear increase in
permeate
flux with an increase in cross-flow
velocity along
the membrane surface at
high
TMPs.
However,
the
magnitude
of the increase in
permeate
flux was lower at
higher
MLSS
concentrations. The lower
magnitude
of the increase in
permeate
flux
can be attributed to the
higher
rate of mass transfer towards the
membrane
and/or
to the increase in the
viscosity
of mixed
liquor
that occurs at
higher
MLSS concentrations.
Zhang
et al.
(2004)
also
observed an increase in
permeate
flux when the cross-flow
velocity
was increased in an AnMBR
treating
swine manure.
However,
a
plateau
was
reached,
above which a further increase in cross-flow
velocity
did not result in an increase in
permeate
flux. These results
suggest that,
as the cross-flow
velocity
increases,
mass-transfer
limitations can be
removed,
and the
system
becomes
pressure
limited. As discussed
above, permeate
flux is not
significantly
affected
by
cross-flow
velocity
under
pressure-limited
conditions.
Under mass-transfer-limited
conditions, permeate
flux is theoret
ically
not affected
by
TMP.
However,
at
very high
TMPs,
Elmaleh
and Abdelmoumni
(1997) reported
a decrease in
permeate
flux with
an increase in TMP. The decrease in
permeate
flux under such
conditions was attributed to the
compaction
of the foulant
layer.
When
filtering
a
digested sludge,
Saw et al.
(1986)
also observed
that,
at
very high operating
TMPs, permeate
flux in a microfiltra
tion membrane decreased with an increase in TMP.
However,
they
observed
that,
when
using
ultrafiltration membranes
(molecular
weight
cutoff sizes of 8 to 20
kDaltons), permeate
flux remained
constant with an increase in TMP.
They suggested
that the structure
of the foulant
layer
that forms on microfiltration membranes is not
as dense as the
layer
that forms on ultrafiltration membranes and is
therefore more
susceptible
to
collapsing
under elevated TMPs.
Beaubien et al.
(1996) suggested
that,
for
relatively high-pressure
systems,
it is
possible
to
identify
a TMP that maximizes the
permeate
flux while
minimizing
membrane
fouling.
The
optimal
operating pressure
could be calculated
using eq
1,
as follows:
A/W
=
y
(1)
Where
APOPT
=
optimal
TMP,
Rm
=
resistance
resulting
from membrane-solute interactions
(i.e.
resistance
resulting
from
pore plugging
and
adsorption),
and
?
=
a mass-transfer
parameter.
According
to
eq 1,
when
fouling
is caused
predominantly by
the
formation of a cake
layer
on the membrane
surface,
the
optimal
TMP is low.
However,
if internal
fouling governs (i.e.,
resistance
resulting
from membrane-solute interactions is
high),
the
optimal
TMP is
high. Although permeate
flux for
high
TMP
systems
was
reported
to be a function of both the cross-flow
velocity
and
the concentration of
suspended
solids in the mixed
liquor,
the
opti
mal TMP was
reported
to be
independent
of the
suspended
solids
concentration
(Beaubien
et
al., 1996).
The
dependence
of the
optimal
TMP on the cross-flow
velocity
is somewhat intuitive
because
high
cross-flow velocities tend to remove the cake
layer,
making
internal
fouling
the dominant
fouling
mechanism.
Operating
Flux. As
previously
discussed,
the
ability
to main
tain a
high permeate
flux can decrease both the
capital
and
operating
August
2006 891
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B?rub? et al.
cost associated with an AnMBR.
However,
at a
higher permeate
flux,
the rate of mass transfer of material towards the membrane
surface is
greater.
As a
result,
the rate of
fouling (i.e.,
accumulation
of foulant material on the membrane
surface)
in an AnMBR has
been
reported
to be
greater
at a
higher operating permeate
flux
(Wen
et
al., 1999).
The more
rapidly
a membrane
fouls,
the more often it
must be cleaned.
Therefore,
it
may
not be advisable to
attempt
to
maintain the
highest possible permeate
flux. A balance between
maintaining
a
high permeate
flux and
long
filtration runs must be
achieved to maximize the total
permeate
volume.
Permeate Flux
Recovery (i.e.,
Membrane
Cleaning).
Lee,
Jung,
and
Chung (2001) reported
that it was not
possible
to recover
permeate
flux
through
an
organic
membrane
by backflushing
the
membrane with a caustic solution. Caustic solutions are considered
to be effective at
removing organic/biological
foulants from a
membrane
surface,
while acidic solutions are considered to be
effective for
removing inorganic
foulants from a membrane surface
(Lee, Jung,
and
Chung, 2001). However,
a number of studies have
reported
that it is
possible
to
consistently
recover
permeate
flux
through
an
organic
membrane
by backflushing
the membrane
exclusively
with an acidic solution
(Choo
et
al., 2000;
Kang
et
al.,
2002)
or with a caustic solution
following
an acidic
cleaning (Lee,
Jung,
and
Chung, 2001). Considering
that the
fouling
of
organic
membranes can be attributed
mainly
to the formation of a cake
layer,
which consists of biomass and struvite
(Kang
et
al., 2002),
these results
suggest
that removal of struvite
governs
the
recovery
of
permeate
flux.
On the other
hand,
a number of studies have
reported
that it is not
possible
to
consistently
recover
permeate
flux
through
an
inorganic
membrane
by backflushing
with an acidic
solution, regardless
of the
type
of acidic solution used
(Choo
et
al., 2000; Kang
et
al., 2002;
Yoon et
al., 1999).
These results are somewhat counterintuitive
because the internal
pore fouling
in
inorganic
membranes has been
attributed
mainly
to struvite
(Kang
et
al., 2002;
Yoon et
al., 1999),
which is soluble under acidic conditions.
Kang
et al.
(2002)
attributed the
poor
recoveries observed when
backflushing
an
inorganic
membrane with acidic solutions to the
positive charge
adopted by
the
inorganic
membrane
during
acidic
cleaning. They
suggested
that the
positive charge
could result in
strong
attractive
interactions between the membrane surface and various solutes in
the mixed
liquor.
Relaxation,
which consists of
periodically interrupting
the
filtration
process by reducing
the
driving
TMP to
zero, is also
extensively
used in membrane bioreactors to increase the
permeate
flux. Wen et al.
(1999) investigated
a number of relaxation scenarios
with
permeation
and relax times
ranging
from 2 to 8 and 0.5 to
2
minutes,
respectively.
Their results indicated that
permeate
flux
was
highest
at intermediate
permeate
times
(i.e.,
4
minutes)
and
intermediate relax times
(i.e.,
1
minute).
Grethlein
(1978)
also
reported
that the rate of decline in
permeate
flux could be minimized
using
this
approach.
Operating Temperature.
Baek and
Pagilla (2003) reported
that
higher operating temperatures
could be maintained in an AnMBR
(32?C) compared
with their aerobic
counterparts (29?C).
The dif
ference in the achievable
operating temperatures
could be attrib
uted to the
cooling
effect of the aeration
system
in the aerobic MBR.
Higher operating temperatures
can have beneficial effects on
permeate
flux
by reducing
the
viscosity
of the
permeate. Hogetsu
et al.
(1992) reported
an increase in
permeate
flux of over 30%
when the
operating temperature
was increased from 40 to 47?C.
Similar results were
reported by
Zoh and Stenstrom
(2002).
Most results
presented
in this review are from studies that were
performed using
an AnMBR at
operating temperatures
in excess
of 30?C.
However,
a number of studies were
performed
at ambient
temperature.
Wen et al.
(1999)
were able to maintain a
relatively
high permeate
flux in an AnMBR
operated
at
temperatures ranging
from 14 to 25?C over an extended
period
of
time,
when the mem
brane was
operated
with a relaxation
period. Kiriyama
et al.
(1992)
also
successfully operated
an AnMBR at
temperatures ranging
from
20 to 25?C.
However, they
did not
report
the
magnitude
of the
permeate
flux that could be maintained.
A number of studies have also
reported
that
relatively high
treatment efficiencies can be achieved
using
conventional
upflow
sludge
blanket
(USAB) systems.
Alvarez et al.
(2003) reported
that
over 80% of the
suspended
solids in
municipal
wastewater could
be
hydrolyzed
at
operating temperatures
of less than 20?C
using
an USAB.
Singh
and
Virarghavan (2003) reported
that 70 to 90%
chemical
oxygen
demand
(COD)
removal efficiencies could be
achieved at
operating temperatures ranging
from 11 to 32?C
using
a USAB. A
poor
COD removal
efficiency
was observed at a lower
temperature.
Schiener et al.
(1998)
and Fawehinmi et al.
(2004)
observed a decrease in the concentration of soluble microbial
pro
ducts in a conventional anaerobic bioreactor as the
operating
tem
perature
increased.
Therefore,
operating
an AnMBR at an elevated
temperature
can also have beneficial effects on
permeate
flux
by
reducing
the concentration of soluble microbial
products
in the
system (see
discussion in the Soluble Products
section).
Pretreatment
Approaches.
Powdered activated carbon
(PAC)
addition has been used to enhance
permeate
flux in an AnMBR. Park
et al.
(1999) reported
that,
at
relatively
low cross-flow
velocities,
PAC addition did not
significantly
affect
permeate
flux.
However,
at
higher
cross-flow
velocities,
the addition of PAC resulted in an
increase in
permeate
flux. The effect of PAC addition on
permeate
flux was
greater
at
higher
PAC
dosages.
Park et al.
(1999)
attributed
the
higher
observed
permeate
flux to the
scouring
effect of the PAC
on the membrane surface and to
adsorption
of
dissolved/colloidal
material from the mixed
liquor.
Similar results were observed
by
Pirbazari et al.
(1996)
when
investigating
the effect of PAC addition
in an aerobic MBR
system.
Kim and Lee
(2003)
attributed the
higher permeate
flux observed
following
PAC addition to an aero
bic MBR to a reduction in the amount of fine colloids and soluble
microbial
products
in the mixed
liquor (see
discussion in the
Parameters Governed
by
the Characteristics of the Mixed
Liquor
section). They
also observed that the effect of PAC on
permeate
flux
was more
pronounced
for a
submerged
membrane
system
than for
an external membrane
system. They
attributed the difference to the
more extensive floe
breakage
that occurred in the external membrane
system.
Choo and Lee
(1996a) suggested
that the addition of an
adsorbent or a
coagulant
could also enhance the
permeate
flux
by
agglomerating
the fine colloids
present
in the mixed
liquor being
filtered into
larger particles
that have a lower
tendency
to foul
membranes
(see
discussion in the Colloidal Solids
section).
Imasaka et al.
(1989) investigated
the addition of an ion
exchange
resin to an AnMBR to enhance the
scouring
effect of the cross
flow
velocity
at the membrane surface
and,
as a
result,
reduce the
thickness of the foulant
layer.
The addition of the ion
exchange
resin at a concentration of 2.5% solids did not affect the
permeate
flux.
However,
the addition of the resin at a concentration of 5%
solids doubled the
permeate
flux.
The removal of other material that can contribute to membrane
fouling
has also been
investigated.
Choo et al.
(2000) reported
that
struvite formation can be minimized
by combining
a
dialysis/zeolite
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Research,
Volume
78,
Number 8
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B?rub? et al.
system
with an AnMBR. The
dialysis/zeolite component
of the
system
can
selectively
remove
ammonia,
a
component
of struvite.
With such a combined
approach,
the
permeate
flux
through
an
inorganic
membrane was
reported
to increase
by
15 to 20%.
Miscellaneous
Operating
Conditions. Shimizu et al.
(1989)
reported
that the
permeate
flux that could be maintained in an
AnMBR
operated
under
stable,
steady-state
conditions was
approx
imately
twice that which could be maintained under nonstable
conditions. These results
may
be a result of the different amounts of
soluble microbial
products
that are
produced
under
steady-
and
non-steady-state
conditions.
Kang
et al.
(2003)
observed a
strong
correlation between the
dissolved
oxygen
concentration in an anoxic MBR and the
specific
cake resistance. The
specific
cake resistance was
significantly
higher
at a dissolved
oxygen
concentration of 0.3
mg/L
than at
a concentration of 5
mg/L. They suggested
that the differences
could be attributed to
larger
floes that are
typically
more
prevalent
at
higher
dissolved
oxygen
concentrations. Smaller solids tend to
contribute to membrane
fouling
to a
greater
extent than
large
floes.
For their
part,
Kim and
Somiya (1999) investigated
the effect of
intermittent ozone
gas sparging
on flux
recovery
in an AnMBR. The
permeate
flux that could be maintained with intermittent ozonation
was almost twice that which could be maintained without
ozonation. The
specific parameters
that resulted in an increase in
permeate
flux were not examined.
However,
the authors noted that
extensive ozonation could inhibit microbial
activity
in the AnMBR.
Parameters Governed
by
the Characteristics of the Mixed
Liquor. Suspended
Solids. The concentration of
suspended
solids in mixed
liquor
in an AnMBR has been
reported
to have
a
significant
effect on resistance to the
permeate
flux.
Stuckey
and
Hu
(2003)
observed that the TMP
required
to maintain a constant
permeate
flux in an AnMBR
treating
a
synthetic
wastewater at an
MLSS concentration of 35
g/L
was more than two times
greater
than that
required
at an MLSS concentration of 7
g/L.
Saw et al.
(1986)
observed a
log-linear
decrease in the
steady-state permeate
flux with an increase in the concentration of
suspended
solids
when
filtering
a
digested sludge.
The extent of decline was
greater
for membranes with
larger pore
sizes. Kitamura et al.
(1996)
also
observed a decrease in
permeate
flux with an increase in the
concentration of
suspended
solids in an AnMBR
treating distillery
wastewater.
They
noted that
permeate
flux did not increase
by
the same extent when the
suspended
solids concentration was
decreased. Yamazaki et al.
(1997)
also observed a decrease in
permeate
flux that could be maintained with an increase in MLSS
concentration in an AnMBR. The exact
relationship
between the
concentration of
suspended
solids and the
steady-state permeate
flux
in an AnMBR has not been
extensively investigated.
However,
the
effect of the concentration of
suspended
solids in an aerobic MBR
has been
reported
to also be a function of the
hydrodynamic
conditions in the
system.
L?bbecke et al.
(1995) reported
that,
at
lower
concentrations,
the
steady-state permeate
flux in an aerobic
MBR was not affected
by suspended
solids.
However,
above
a
specific
concentration,
which was
dependent
on the cross-flow
velocity,
the
steady-state permeate
flux decreased as the concentra
tion of
suspended
solids in the
system
increased. The results
suggest
that,
at low concentrations of
suspended
solids,
the rate of mass
transfer of solids towards the membrane surface is less than the rate
of mass transfer of
suspended
solids
away
from the membrane
surface.
However,
as the concentration of
suspended
solids
increases,
the
viscosity
of the mixed
liquor
increases. At a certain
point,
the increase in the
viscosity
of the mixed
liquor
will causes
a shift from turbulent to laminar flow conditions
along
the
membrane
component
of the
system.
The rate of mass transfer of
suspended
solids
away
from the membrane
surface,
which is
largely
governed by
the
eddy
diffusion,
is much lower under laminar flow
than turbulent flow conditions
(Mallevialle
et
al., 1996).
Colloidal Solids. Choo and Lee
(1996a, 1998) reported
that
fine colloids
play
a critical role in
increasing
the
hydraulic
resistance
of a foulant
layer
in an AnMBR. Fine colloids tend to have a lower
back-diffusion rate than
larger
solids. Choo and Lee
(1998) sug
gested
that,
as a
consequence
of this lower back-diffusion
rate,
fine
colloids tend to
migrate
to and accumulate at the membrane surface
to a
greater
extent than
larger suspended
solids. In
addition,
they
suggested
that smaller solids tend to form a more
compact
foulant
layer
on the membrane surface.
Therefore,
not
only
do smaller
solids tend to accumulate at the membrane
surface,
the
resulting
foulant
layer
is more
compact.
Choo and Lee
(1996a)
also
reported
that the
polarization
index at the membrane surface for the colloidal
material was much
higher
than that for the soluble material or
microorganisms
contained in an anaerobic
digestion
broth. Based
on these
results,
they speculated
that flux
improvements
could be
obtained
by degrading
the colloidal material into soluble material
or
by agglomerating
the colloidal material into coarser
particles.
Langenhoff
et al.
(2000)
observed that the
production
of soluble
microbial
products
in a conventional anaerobic bioreactor that was
fed a
synthetic
wastewater was
higher
when the colloidal content of
the wastewater was
higher.
This
production
of soluble microbial
products
could enhance membrane
fouling (see
discussion in the
Soluble Products
section).
In a review of recent
developments
in AnMBR
technology,
Van Houten et al.
(2001) suggested that,
because an anaerobic mixed
liquor
tends to contains more fine
colloids than an aerobic mixed
liquor,
the
parameters
that
govern
fouling
in anaerobic
systems
are
likely
to be different from the
parameters
that
govern fouling
in aerobic
systems. However,
no
specific
data or results were
presented.
Soluble Products.
Although permeate
flux in an AnMBR has
been
reported
to be
significantly
affected
by
the concentration of
suspended
and colloidal solids in the mixed
liquor,
the soluble
component
of the mixed
liquor appears
to
play
a
significant,
if not
greater,
role in the formation of a foulant
layer
on the membrane
component
of the
system (Harada
et
al., 1994).
For aerobic
MBRs,
the extent of
fouling
has been
extensively
documented to be related to the concentration of soluble microbial
products
in mixed
liquor (Chang
and
Lee, 1998;
Fawehinmi et
al.,
2004; Lee, Ahn,
and
Lee, 2001;
Wisniewski and
Grasmick, 1998).
Lee, Ahn,
and Lee
(2001)
even
reported
that a
higher permeate
flux
could be maintained in a
suspended-growth
aerobic MBR than that
which could be maintained in an
attached-growth
aerobic MBR.
These results are
counterintuitive, considering
the
reported
effect
of
suspended
solids on
permeate
flux in MBRs
(see
discussion in
Suspended
Solids
section).
This
clearly
indicates that soluble
products play
a
significant
role in membrane
fouling.
In
addition,
these results
suggest
that there
may
be no benefit to
including
attached-growth
surfaces in an AnMBR to reduce the concentration
of
suspended
solids in the solution
being
filtered.
Lee, Ahn,
and Lee
(2001)
also observed
that,
for both attached- and
suspended-growth
aerobic
MBRs,
the rate of
fouling
was lower at
higher suspended
solids
concentrations,
and the rate of
fouling
was lower when
filtering
a mixture of
suspended
solids and soluble microbial
products
than when
filtering
a solution
consisting only
of soluble
microbial
products.
These results are consistent with those
reported
by
Shin and
Kang (2002).
When
investigating
the
permeate
flux in
August
2006
893
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B?rub? et al.
an
aerobic/anoxic MBR,
they
observed that most of the membrane
resistance was induced
by
soluble
components
in the mixed
liquor.
However,
to
date,
the effect of soluble microbial
products
on the
permeate
flux in an AnMBR has received limited attention.
Stuckey
(2003)
observed that the
type
of soluble microbial
products
produced
in an AnMBR and those
present
in the effluent
permeate
were different. These results
suggest
that the membrane
component
of the AnMBR retained some of the soluble microbial
products.
Because some of the soluble microbial
products
are
retained,
they
likely
contribute to the formation of a foulant
layer
on the
membrane surface.
Stuckey (2003)
also
reported
that the
type
of soluble microbial
product
that
predominates
in an AnMBR was a function of both
influent load and
composition
of wastewater. This is consistent with
results
reported
for conventional anaerobic bioreactors. Barker
and
Stuckey (2001) reported
that the amount of soluble microbial
products
formed in a
conventional-type
anaerobic bioreactor fed
with
synthetic
wastewaters increased with the COD of the waste
water
being
treated.
These results are somewhat
contradictory
to those
reported by
Langenhoff
et al.
(2000).
For a conventional anaerobic bioreactor
treating
a
synthetic
wastewater,
they reported higher
concentrations
of soluble microbial
products
at lower
hydraulic loading
rates. This
is consistent with results
reported by Kay
awake et al.
(1991)
for an
AnMBR
treating
wastewater
sludge. They reported
that a
higher
permeate
flux could be maintained when the AnMBR was
operated
at a
higher loading
rate. Barker et al.
(2000) suggested
that the
higher production
of soluble microbial
products
in a conventional
anaerobic bioreactor at
longer hydraulic
retention times is
likely
a result of the more extensive biomass
decay
that occurs at
longer
residence times. This
hypothesis
is consistent with results
reported
by
Shin and
Kang (2002).
For an
aerobic/anoxic MBR, they
observed that resistance induced
by
the soluble fraction of the
mixed
liquor
was more severe at
long sludge
retention times.
The
production
of soluble microbial
products
and the effect of
these
compounds
on
permeate
flux in an AnMBR remains unclear.
However,
as
suggested by
Hern?ndez et al.
(2002),
it is
likely
that
an intermediate
loading
rate can maximize
permeate
flux in an
AnMBR.
They reported
that
permeate
flux was
greater
at a medium
loading
rate
(1.5
to 10
kg/m3
d)
than at a low
loading
rate
(0.3
to
lkg/m3d).
Barker et al.
(2000) reported
that 22% of effluent COD from
a conventional anaerobic bioreactor
treating
a
low-strength
synthetic
wastewater consisted of
high-molecular-weight
soluble
microbial
products.
This fraction was found to be
highly
bio
degradable
under aerobic
conditions,
with 86% COD
being
biodegradable.
However,
only
4% COD was
biodegradable
under
anaerobic conditions. The
low-molecular-weight
fraction of the
soluble microbial
products
formed
during
anaerobic treatment
accounted for 36% of the effluent COD. The authors
reported
that
33% of this fraction was
biodegradable
under anaerobic
conditions,
while
only
17% was
biodegradable
under aerobic conditions. These
results
suggest
that it
may
be beneficial to add an aerobic
polish
ing step
before membrane filtration in an AnMBR to remove the
aerobically biodegradable
soluble microbial
products.
Pontes et al.
(2003) reported
that
postaerobic
treatment could also be used to
further remove residual COD in effluent from a conventional USAB
by approximately
50%.
Barker et al.
(2000)
and Schiener et al.
(1998) reported
that the
amount of soluble microbial
products produced
in a conventional
anaerobic bioreactor
treating
a
synthetic low-strength
wastewater
increased as the
operating temperature
decreased. Barker et al.
(2000) speculated
that the
greater
concentration of soluble microbial
products
was a result of a reduction in the rate of
biod?gradation
of
these
products
at lower
temperatures.
Similar results were
reported
by
Fawehinmi et al.
(2004)
when
treating
a
high-strength synthetic
wastewater
using
an AnMBR.
Inorganic Precipitates/Struvite.
The conditions in an AnMBR
are ideal for the formation of struvite
(Marnais
et
al., 1994).
Both
ammonia and
phosphate
are
typically
abundant,
and the
pH
of the
mixed
liquor
in an AnMBR
typically ranges
from 7.5 to
8.5,
which
promotes
the
precipitation
of struvite.
Choo and Lee
(1996b) reported
that struvite contributed
signi
ficantly
to the
fouling
of membranes in an AnMBR. The amount of
struvite that
precipitated
could be estimated based on a mass-balance
analysis
of the concentrations of
magnesium
in the influent and
effluent of an AnMBR and the concentration of ammonia and
phosphate
in the mixed
liquor. Zhang
et al.
(2004)
also observed
inorganic precipitates
imbedded within the foulant
layer
when
investigating
the treatment of swine manure
using
an AnMBR.
Based on
SEM-energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy analysis,
the
inorganic precipitates likely
consisted of
struvite, calcite,
and
clay.
The extent to which struvite can affect
permeate
flux in an AnMBR
has also been
reported
to be affected
by
the
type
of membrane
used
(see
discussion in the Membrane Material
section).
Summary
of Review and Research Needs
Based on the extensive literature review
presented above,
research,
to
date,
indicates that the
optimal
membrane
system
for
an AnMBR consists of an
organic, hydrophilic,
and
negatively
charged
membrane with a
pore
size of
approximately
0.1 urn. The
use of both external and
submerged
membrane
configurations
shows
promise.
The
operating parameters
that affect
permeate
flux
in an external membrane
system
are TMP and cross-flow
velocity.
The
operating parameters
that affect
permeate
flux in a
submerged
membrane
system
are
TMP,
sparging intensity,
and duration of the
relaxation
period.
The
optimal set-point
for these different
operating
parameters
needs to be
investigated through
further research.
Both the cross-flow
velocity
and
sparging intensity impart
a
significant
amount of shear force on the biomass in an AnMBR.
High
shear forces can reduce the microbial
activity
in an AnMBR.
In
addition,
high
shear forces can reduce the size of the biosolids
in the mixed
liquor
and increase the release of soluble micro
bial
products.
In this
respect,
external and
submerged
membrane
systems
are
expected
to
perform differently,
because the
magnitude
of the shear forces to which the biomass is
exposed
in an external
membrane
system
is
significantly greater
than that in a
submerged
system.
The effect of shear forces needs to be considered when
investigating
the
optimal set-points
for the different
operating
parameters
listed above.
The size of the biosolid
particles
and concentration of soluble
microbial
products
in mixed
liquor
affect the
permeate
flux. The
effects of
particle-size
distribution and the
composition
of soluble
microbial
products,
both of which have a
significant
effect on the
permeate
flux,
need to be further
investigated.
Higher
concentrations of soluble microbial
products may
be
present
in the mixed
liquor
when an AnMBR is
operated
at
relatively
low
operating temperatures (i.e.,
less than
35?C).
Aerobic
polishing following
anaerobic treatment can
potentially significantly
reduce the concentration of some
components
of the soluble
microbial
products
in the mixed
liquor.
Both the effect of the
operating temperature
and aerobic
polishing
on the concentration
894 Water Environment
Research,
Volume 78,
Number 8
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
B?rub? et al.
and
composition
of soluble microbial
products
and
permeate
flux
need to be
investigated.
It is not
possible
to remove the foulant
layer
on an
organic
membrane with caustic
cleaning
alone. Acidic
cleaning
or acidic
cleaning
followed
by
caustic
cleaning
is
required
to remove the
foulant
layer.
This
suggests
that both
biological/organic
and
inorganic
material contribute to membrane
fouling.
Further research
is
required
to
investigate
the
composition
of the foulant
layer.
Acknowledgments
Credits. The authors
acknowledge
the Water Environment
Research Federation
(Alexandria, Virginia)
for its
financial,
technical,
and administrative assistance in
compiling
the informa
tion
presented
in this review.
Authors. P. R. B?rub? is an assistant
professor
and E. R. Hall is
a
professor
in the
Department
of Civil
Engineering,
The
University
of British
Columbia, Vancouver,
British
Columbia,
Canada. P. M.
Sutton is a
consulting engineer
and President of P. M. Sutton and
Associates, Enfield,
New
Hampshire. Correspondence
should be
addressed to Pierre
B?rub?,
Department
of Civil
Engineering,
The
University
of British
Columbia, Vancouver, BC,
Canada V6T
1Z4;
e-mail:
berube@civil.ubc.ca.
Submitted
for publication
November
9, 2004;
revised
manuscript
submitted
July
19, 2005;
accepted for publication August
11,
2005.
The deadline to submit Discussions
of
this
paper
is November
15,
2006.
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