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This document describes the free and forced response of single degree of
freedom (SDOF) systems. A single degree of freedom system is a spring-massdamper system in which the spring has no damping or mass, the mass has no
stiffness or damping, the damper has no stiffness or mass. Furthermore, the
mass is allowed to move in only one direction. The horizontal vibrations of a
single-story building can be conveniently modeled as a single degree of freedom
system. In part 1 of this document we examine some useful trigonometric
identities. In part 2 of this document we determine how damped SDOF
systems vibrate freely after being released from an initial displacement with
some initial velocity. In part 3 of this document we determine how damped
SDOF systems respond to a persistent sinusoidal forcing.
Consider the structural system shown in Figure 1, where:
f (t) = external excitation force
x(t) = displacement of the center of mass of the moving object
m = mass of the moving object, fI = dtd (mx(t))
= m
x(t)
c = linear viscous damping coefficient, fD = cx(t)
x(t)
m
k, c
11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
f(t)
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
k
m
c
f(t)
x(t)
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
T (x, x)
=
(1)
(2)
(3)
T (x, x)
V (x)
+
+ p(x, x)
=0,
dt x
x
x
(4)
(5)
Either way,
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = f (t),
x(0) = do , x(0)
= vo
(6)
(7)
(8)
Proof:
X eit + X eit = (A + iB) (cos(t) + i sin(t)) +
(A iB) (cos(t) i sin(t))
(9)
(11)
= a cos(t) + b sin(t)
(12)
Comparing these forms, we see that a = 2A and b = 2B. Note that all of
the above expressions are exactly equivalent. Equation (7), is exactly the same
as equation (8). Equation (7) is easier to interpret as describing a sinusoidal
oscillation, however equation (8) is much easier to work with, mathematically.
We will endeavor to use both forms in this document, just to emphasize how
the two forms are one and the same.
Equations (7) and (8) describe a sinusoidal oscillation with a constant
of the oscillation x(t) can be found by adding
amplitude. The amplitude, X,
the magnitudes of the complex amplitudes X and X , or by solving x(
t) = 0
for t, and substituting into equation (7). Either way, the amplitude of the
oscillation is
= |X| + |X | = 2|X| = a2 + b2 ,
(13)
X
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
period, T
amplitude, |X|
response, x(t)
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
0
10
time, t, sec
(14)
(15)
b
a
(16)
(17)
(18)
a
b
(19)
Note, again, that equations (7) and (8) are equivalent to one-another and
s ,
are also equivalent to equations (14) and (17) using the definitions for X,
and c given above.
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin
(20)
= et (Xeit + X eit )
(21)
= Xe(+i)t + X e(i)t
(22)
= Xet + X e
(23)
Again, note that all of the above equations are exactly equivalent. The exponent is complex, = + i and = i. If is negative, then these
equations describe an oscillation with exponentially decreasing amplitudes.
Note that in equation (20) the unknown constants are , , a, and b. Angular frequencies, , have units of radians per second. Circular frequencies,
f = /(2) have units of cycles per second, or Hertz. Periods, T = 2/,
have units of seconds.
In the next section we will find that for an un-forced vibration, and
are determined from the mass, damping, and stiffness of the system. We
will see that the constant a equals the initial displacement do , but that the
constant b depends on the initial displacement and velocity, as well mass,
damping, and stiffness.
6
response, x(t)
|X| e
period, T
2
0
-2
-4
-6
0
10
time, t, sec
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
x(0) = do , x(0)
= vo ,
(24)
(25)
(m2 + c + k)Xet = 0 ,
(26)
c
=
2m
c
2m
k
.
m
(28)
(29)
(31)
cc = 2 mk .
The ratio of the actual damping rate to the critical damping rate is called
the damping ratio, .
c
=
.
(32)
cc
The two roots of the quadratic equation are real and are repeated at
(33)
1 = 2 = c/(2m) = cc /(2m) = 2 mk/(2m) = n ,
and the two basic solutions are equal to each other, e1 t = e2 t . In order
to admit solutions for arbitrary initial displacements and velocities, the
solution in this case is
x(t) = x1 en t + x2 t en t .
(34)
where the real constants x1 and x2 are determined from the initial displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo . Details regarding this special
case are in the next section.
Case 3 c > cc over-damped
If the damping is greater than the critical damping, then the roots, 1
and 2 are distinct and real. If the system is over-damped it will not
oscillate freely. The solution is
x(t) = x1 e1 t + x2 e2 t ,
(35)
which can also be expressed using hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine
functions. The real constants x1 and x2 are determined from the initial
displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo .
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CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
x(t) = X et + X e t ,
(36)
We can re-write the dynamic equations of motion using the new dynamic
variables for natural frequency, n , and damping ratio, . Note that
c
k
1
c
k
c
k
= c = = 2
= 2n .
m
k m m
k m m
2 km m
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = f (t),
c
k
1
x(t) + x(t)
+ x(t) =
f (t),
m
m
m
1
x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n2 x(t) =
f (t),
m
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
The expression for the roots 1,2 , can also be written in terms of n and .
1,2
c
=
2m
c
2m
k
,
m
(41)
= n (n )2 n2 ,
(42)
= n n 2 1 .
(43)
= Im
1 x
1 + 2 = 2n
1 2 = 2 n 2 1
n2 = 14 (1 + 2 )2 14 (1 2 )2
n = 1 2
= (1 + 2 )/(2n )
2 x
= Re
The solution to a homogeneous second order ordinary differential equation requires two independent initial conditions: an initial displacement and
an initial velocity. These two initial conditions are used to determine the
coefficients of the two linearly independent solutions corresponding to 1 and
2 . If 1 = 2 , then the solutions e1 t and e2 t are not independent. In fact,
they are identical. In such a case, a new trial solution can be determined as
follows. Assume a new solution of the form
x(t) = u(t)x1 e1 t ,
(44)
1 t
x(t)
= u(t)x
+ u(t)1 x1 e1 t ,
1e
(45)
1 t
x(t) = u(t)x1 e1 t + 2u(t)
+ u(t)21 x1 e1 t
1 x1 e
(46)
=0
which is a first order ordinary differential equation for u(t).
The solution of
this ordinary differential equation is
u(t)
=C ,
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CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
2 1 is imaginary, and
1,2 = n in | 2 1| = i.
(48)
(49)
(50)
= Xet + X e t .
(51)
Now we can solve for X, (or, equivalently, A and B) in terms of the initial
conditions. At the initial point in time, t = 0, the position of the mass is
x(0) = do and the velocity of the mass is x(0)
= vo .
x(0) = do = Xe0 + X e
(52)
= X + X
(53)
= (A + iB) + (A iB) = 2A = a.
(54)
x(0)
= vo = Xe0 + X e 0 ,
(55)
= X + X ,
(56)
(57)
= A + id A + iB d B +
A id A iB d B,
(58)
= 2A 2B
(59)
= n do 2 d B,
(60)
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11
vo + n do
2d
vo + n do
d
(61)
(62)
= vo is
x(t) = en t do cos d t +
vo + n do
sin d t .
d
(63)
vo
6
do
response, x(t)
|X| e
- n t
2
0
-2
-4
-6
0
10
time, t, sec
1,2 = n n 2 1 = d .
(64)
= vo into the
solution (equation (35)), and solving for the coefficients results in
vo + do (n + d )
,
2d
= do x1 .
x1 =
(65)
x2
(66)
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12
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
Substituting the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine expressions for the
exponentials results in
x(t) = en t do cosh d t +
vo + n do
sinh d t
d
(67)
The undamped free response can be found as a special case of the underdamped free response. While special solutions exist for the critically damped
response, this response can also be found as limiting cases of the underdamped or over-damped responses.
vo
7
6
do
response, x(t)
5
4
3
=5.0
2
over damped
=1.5
=2.0
critically damped
0
-1
0
0.5
1.5
2
time, t, sec
2.5
3.5
(68)
(69)
(70)
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13
x1
en t1
en t1
2n/ 1 2
= (t +2n/ ) = t 2n / = e
,
d
n
d
x1+n
e n 1
e n 1e
which is independent of n and d .
ln(x1 /x1+n )/n,
(71)
() =
2
1 2
(72)
and, inversely,
(73)
2
4 2 + 2
where the approximation is accurate to within 3% for < 0.2 and is accurate
to within 1.5% for < 0.1.
() =
2.6 Summary
x(0) = do , x(0)
= vo
x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n2 x(t) = 0 ,
x(0) = do , x(0)
= vo
k
m
c
c
= =
cc
2 mk
n =
d = n | 2 1|
1
x1
ln
n
x1+n
() = 2
2
4 + 2
=
14
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
If the SDOF system is dynamically forced with a sinusoidal forcing function, then f (t) = F cos(t), where is the frequency of the forcing, in radians
per second. If f (t) is persistent, then after several cycles the system will respond only at the frequency of the external forcing, . Lets suppose that
this steady-state response is described by the function
x(t) = a cos t + b sin t,
(74)
x(t)
(75)
(76)
then
and
Substituting this trial solution into equation (6), we obtain
m 2 (a cos t b sin t) +
c
k
(a sin t + b cos t) +
(a cos t + b sin t) = F cos t.
(77)
(78)
(m 2 b ca + kb) sin t = 0,
(79)
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin
15
which is a set of two equations for the two unknown constants, a and b,
k m 2
c
c
k m 2
a
b
F
0
(80)
a() =
(81)
F .
(82)
(83)
x(t)
=
X
=
+b
t
a
c is the phase between the force f (t) and the response x(t), and
cw
a
tan c = =
b
k m 2
(84)
X
X
=
=
F
F
1
.
(k m 2 ) + (c)2
(85)
16
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
(86)
In a solution of the form, x(t) = Xeit + X eit , the coefficient X corresponds to the positive exponents (positive frequencies), and X corresponds
to negative exponents (negative frequencies). Positive exponent coefficients
and negative exponent coefficients are independent and may be found separately. Considering the positive exponent solution, the forcing is expressed as
F eit and the partial solution Xeit is substituted into the forced equations
of motion, resulting in
(m 2 + ci + k) X eit = F eit ,
(87)
from which
X
1
=
,
F
(k m 2 ) + i(c)
which is complex-valued. This complex function has a magnitude
X
=
F
1
,
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2
(88)
(89)
the same as equation (85) but derived using eit in just three simple lines.
Equation (88) may be written in terms of the dynamic variables, n and
. Dividing the numerator and the denominator of equation (85) by k, and
noting that F/k is a static displacement, xst , we obtain
X
=
F
1/k
+i
F/k
m 2
k
X =
c
k
+i
(90)
,
,
(91)
2 n
X
1
=
,
2
xst
(1 ) + i (2)
X
1
=
,
xst
(1 2 )2 + (2)2
(92)
(93)
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin
17
where the frequency ratio is the ratio of the forcing frequency to the natural
frequency, = /n . This equation is called the dynamic amplification
factor. It is the factor by which displacement responses are amplified due to
the fact that the external forcing is dynamic, not static. See Figure 7.
frequency response: F to X
10
=0.05
| X / Xst |
8
6
0.1
4
0.2
2
0.5
1.0
0.5
0
0
phase, degrees
1.5
2.5
2.5
=0.05
-45
-90
=1.0
-135
-180
0
0.5
1.5
2
frequency ratio, = / n
st , equation (92).
Figure 7. The dynamic amplification factor for external forcing, X/x
2
1 2
(94)
F /k
x(t) =
[ (1 2 ) cos t + (2) sin t ] ,
2
2
2
(1 ) + (2)
(95)
x(t) =
tan c =
or, equivalently,
where = /n .
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin
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CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
When the dynamic loads are caused by motion of the supports (or the
ground, as in an earthquake) the forcing on the structure is the inertial force
resisting the ground acceleration, which equals the mass of the structure times
the ground acceleration, f (t) = m
z (t).
x(t)
111
000
000
111
000
111
m
k, c
z(t)
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
k
m
c
z(t)
x(t)
(96)
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = m
z (t)
(97)
x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n2 x(t) =
z (t)
(98)
(99)
The steady-state response can be expressed as the sum of independent complex exponentials, x(t) = Xeit + X eit . The positive exponent parts are
independent of the negative exponent parts and can be analyzed separately.
19
(100)
2
(1 2 )2 + (2)2
(101)
See Figure 9.
Finally, lets consider the motion of the mass with respect to a fixed
point. This is called the total motion and is the sum of the base motion plus
the motion relative to the base, z(t) + x(t).
X +Z
X
(1 2 ) + i(2) + 2
=
+1 =
Z
Z
(1 2 ) + i(2)
1 + i(2)
=
(1 2 ) + i(2)
(102)
and
1 + (2)2
= Tr(, ).
(103)
(1 2 )2 + (2)2
This function is called the transmissibility ratio, Tr(, ). It determines the
ratio between the total response amplitude X + Z and the base motion Z.
See figure 10.
X +Z
=
Z
For systems that have a longer natural period (lower natural frequency)
than the period (frequency) of the support motion, (i.e., > 2), the transmissibility ratio is less than 1 especialy for low values of damping . In
such systems the motion of the mass is less than the motion of the supports
and we say that the mass is isolated from motion of the supports.
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin
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CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
frequency response: Z to X
10
=0.05
|X/Z|
8
6
0.1
4
0.2
2
0.5
1.0
0
0
0.5
phase, degrees
1.5
2.5
2.5
=0.05
-45
-90
=1.0
-135
-180
0
0.5
1.5
2
frequency ratio, = / n
Z,
equation (100).
Figure 9. The dynamic amplification factor for base-excitation, X/
transmissibility: Z to (X+Z)
10
=0.05
| (X+Z) / Z |
8
6
0.1
4
0.2
2
0.5
=1.0
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
2.5
phase, degrees
0
=1.0
-45
-90
-135
=0.05
-180
0
0.5
1.5
2
frequency ratio, = / n
Figure 10. The transmissibility ratio |(X + Z)/Z| = Tr(, ), equation (102).
21
Another type of sinusoidal forcing which is important to machine vibration arises from the rotation of an eccentric mass. Consider the system shown
in Figure 11 in which a mass m is attached to the primary mass m via a rigid
link of length r and rotates at an angular velocity . In this single degree of
freedom analysis, the motion of the primary mass is constrained to lie along
the x coordinate and the forcing of interest is the x-component of the reactive
centrifugal force. This component is mr 2 cos(t) where the angle t is the
counter-clockwise angle from the x coordinate. The equation of motion with
x(t)
m
k, c
11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
k
m
r
m
c
x(t)
this forcing is
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = mr 2 cos(t)
(104)
(105)
(106)
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22
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
Unlike the transmissibility ratio asymptotically approaches 0 with increasing , the vibratory force transmitted from eccentric mass excitation is 0
when = 0 but increase with for > 2. This increasing effect is significant for > 0.2, as shown in Figure 12.
2
transmission: (Z to (X+Z))
=0.05
8
6
0.1
=1.0
4
0.2
| (X+Z) / Z |
10
0.5
2
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
2.5
phase, degrees
0
=1.0
-45
-90
-135
=0.05
-180
0
0.5
1.5
2
frequency ratio, = / n
3.4
Finding the damping from the peak of the frequency response function
For lightly damped systems, the frequency ratio of the resonant peak,
the amplification of the resonant peak, and the width of the resonant peak
are functions to of the damping ratio only. Consider two frequency ratios
1 and 2 such that |H(1 , )|2 = |H(2 , )|2 = |H|2peak /2 where |H(, )|
is one of the frequency response functions described in earlier sections. The
frequency ratio corresponding to the peak of these functions peak , and the
value of the peak of these functions, |H|2peak are given in Table 1. Note that
the peak coordinate depends only upon the damping ratio, .
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin
23
2 1
2
(107)
which is called the half-power bandwidth formula for damping. For the
first, second, and fourth frequency response functions listed in Table 1 the
approximation is accurate to within 5% for < 0.20 and is accurate to within
1% for < 0.10.
Table 1. Peak coordinates for various frequency response functions.
H(, )
peak
|H|2peak
1
(12 )+i(2)
2 2
22 21
1
4 2 (1 2 )
4 1 2
i
2
(1 )+i(2)
1
4 2
4 1 + 2
2
(12 )+i(2)
1
12 2
1
2
4 (1 2 )
4 1 2
18 2 (1 2 )
8 4
8 4 4 2 1+ 1+8 2
ouch.
1+i(2)
(12 )+i(2)
((1+8 2)1/21)
2
1/2
24
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
4 Vibration Sensors
A vibration sensor may be accurately modeled as an inertial mass supported by elements with stiffness and damping (i.e. as a single degree of
freedom oscillator). Vibration sensors mounted to a surface ideally measure
the velocity or acceleration of the surface with respect to an inertial reference frame. The electrical signals generated by vibration sensors are actually
proportional to the velocity of the mass with respect to the sensors case
(for seismometers) or the deformation of the elastic elements of the sensor
(for accelerometers). The frequency response functions and sensitivities of
seismometers and accelerometers have qualitative differences.
4.1 Seismometers
Seismometers transduce the velocity of a magnetic inertial mass to electrical current in a coil. The transduction element of seismometers is therefore based on Amperes Law, and seismometers are made from sprung magnetic masses that are guided to move within a coil fixed to the instrument
housing. The electrical current generated within the coil is proportional to
the velocity of the magnetic mass relative to the coil; so the mechanical input is the velocity of the case z(t)
(108)
25
4.2 Accelerometers
Accelerometers transduce the deformation of inertially-loaded elastic elements within the sensor to an electrical charge, a voltage, or a current.
Accelerometers may be designed with many types of transduction elements,
including piezo-electric materials, strain-gages, variable capacitance components, and feed-back stabilization.
In all cases, the mechanical input to the accelerometer is the acceleration
of the case z(t) = 2 Zeit , the electrical output is proportional to the
deformation of the spring v(t) = x(t) = Xeit , and these variables are
related in the frequency domain by
V
/n2
=
2 Z
(1 2 ) + i(2)
(109)
26
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
Accelerometers are typically light, small, and rugged but require electrical
power, amplification, and signal conditioning.
4.3 Design Considerations for Accelerometers
(110)
2
2
1 2
(111)
27
Accelerometer Sensitivity ( Z to X)
1.015
| X / (2 Z) |
1.01
1.005
1
0.995
= 0.650
= 0.675
= 0.707
0.99
0.985
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
= 0.650
= 0.675
= 0.707
-1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
frequency ratio, = / n
[H(, )]
(112)
[H(, )] =
[H(, )] .
(113)
That is, [H()] is an even function and [H()] is an odd function. This
fact is true for any dynamical system for which the inputs and outputs are
real-valued.
For any frequency response function, the magnitude |H(, )| and phase
(, ) may be found from
|H(, )|2 = ( [H(, )])2 + ( [H(, )])2
[H(, )]
tan (, ) =
[H(, )]
(114)
(115)
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CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2014 H.P. Gavin
29
6
4
(a)
X / Xst
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
frequency ratio, = / n
1.5
i X / Xst
(b)
2
0
-2
-4
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
frequency ratio, = / n
1.5
6
4
(c)
X/Z
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
frequency ratio, = / n
1.5
(X+Z) / Z
(d)
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
frequency ratio, = / n
1.5
Figure 14. The real (even) and imaginary (odd) parts of frequency response functions, = 0.1.