Tri Decenije Pisanja Manifesta

Three Decades of Writing on Manifesto:
The Making of a Genre

Galia Yanoshevsky
French, Bar-Ilan University
Abstract The purpose of this article is twofold. First, it aims to survey the abundant
writings on manifesto. The study of existing defnitions refects the difuse frontiers,
even the confusion, among the political, the artistic, and the literary manifesto to
a point where, besides attributing to it certain generic characteristics, it is difcult
to speak of an evolution of the manifesto. Second, this article seeks to show the
relationship between scholarly work on manifesto and the position of the researcher
in the academic feld. The researchers position in the feld of literary criticism is
determined by the subject matter of his or her research. Hence manifesto, though a
subversive, marginal writing, helps him or her move toward the center. Marginal
academic domains and peripheral research groups gain notice and centrality by
advocating a new research program. Studies of manifestos played such a role for
French Canadian literary scholars.
Why Manifestos Have Been Abundantly Studied
Over the past three decades, writing on manifesto has fourished in Europe
and in North Americaso much so that the question posed at the beginning
of the 1980s, Is manifesto a good semiotic object? (Abastado 1980a: 3),
seems obsolete today, since many scholars have studied its history and its
general features without doubting its legitimacy as a genre of its own. Yet
researchers have repeatedly complained about the neglect of manifestos
Poetics Today 30:2 (Summer 2009) DOI10.1215/03335372-2008-010
2009 by Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics
I thank Meir Sternberg for his thoughtful comments and editing, thanks to which this article
gained clarity and perspective.
258 Poetics Today 30:2
in literary criticism. For example, in her 1991 article on feminist polemics
and manifestos, Janet Lyon (1991: 101) wonders why the manifesto, a genre
that has played so decisive a role in the history of radical democracy and
dissent has received little theoretical attention in this country [the United
States]. In French-speaking circles, Lise Dumasy and Chantal Massol
(2001: 11) protest in the introduction to a collection entitled Pamphlet, utopie,
manifeste XIXeXXe sicles that the pamphlet and the manifesto seemed to
us a bit forgotten, despite M. Angenots important contribution, on the
one hand, and the recent works by W. Asholt and H. van den Berg, on the
other (my translation).
Such claims are today clearly false in view of the large corpus of texts
now classifed as manifestos, extending from the political to the artistic
and literary varieties. For instance, Laura Winkiel (2006: 66) speaks of
political declarations posted in the twelfth century, by European heads of
state, religious leaders, and other public ofcials who used the manifesto
to make religious proofs, academic axioms, and state decisions such as exe-
cuting political prisoners, going to war, and passing decrees clearly under-
stood to its literate public. Wikipedias entry on manifestos provides a list
of manifestos, starting with the Futurist Manifesto in 1909 and running
to contemporary Internet ones. Dividing the last hundred years into fve
periods, it provides a wide range of manifestos, from classical prewar
avant-garde manifestos (futurism, Dadaism, surrealism); through postwar
manifestos, such as the 1948 Refus global; counterculture manifestos, like
Valerie Solanass (1967) controversial SCUM Manifesto; Punk and Cyber
manifestos, like A Cyberfeminist Manifesto for the Twenty-frst Century
by VNS Matrix (1991); to manifestos published on the Web, like the Stuck-
ists virtual manifestos, which have sprung up due to the wide use of the
Internet. Finally, manifestos seem to attract the attention of literary schol-
1. The Refus global (Total Refusal ) was an antiestablishment and antireligious manifesto
released on August 9, 1948, in Montreal by a group of sixteen young Quebecois artists
and intellectuals known as Les Automatistes, led by Paul-Emile Borduas. The Refus global
was greatly infuenced by Andr Breton, and it extolled the creative force of the subcon-
scious (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_manifesto#White_Manifesto_1946). It was lately sold
in an auction in August 2008 (www.radio-canada.ca/regions/Quebec/2008/08/04/003
exemplaire_refus_global.shtml).
2. SCUM is an acronym for the Society for Cutting Up Men, and the manifesto was not
specifcally about art (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_manifesto#S.C.U.M._Manifesto_1967).
3. VNS Matrix was a cyberfeminist art collective founded in Adelaide, Australia, in 1991.
Their manifesto, written in 1991, was translated over the years into many languages (www
.sysx.org/gashgirl/VNS/TEXT/PINKMANI.HTM).
4. Stuckism is an art movement that was founded in 1999 in Britain by Billy Childish and
Charles Thomson to promote fgurative painting in opposition to conceptual art. The Stuck-
ists formed an alternative to the Young British Artists (also known as Brit Art) patronized by
Charles Saatchi. The group is defned by its Stuckists Manifesto. Written by Childish and
Yanoshevsky
Three Decades of Writing on Manifesto 259

ars, as is manifested by their signifcant presence in recent publications
both collections and analytic worksnumerous dissertations, and a few
conferences.
Indeed, the scope of works on manifesto is wide and refects diferent
tendencies and perspectives. It ranges from anthologies and collections
with little or no theoretical consideration, such as Mary Ann Cawss (2001)
anthology of literary manifestos or Benjamin Harshavs (2001) anthology
of modernist manifestos in Hebrew translation, to particular case studies.
Thus quite a few dissertations and articles have been written on manifestos
specifc to particular artistic or literary movements (futurism, Dadaism,
surrealism, symbolism, Romanticism, etc.). These are generally excluded
from the present study, but examples are Anna Lawtons Futurist Mani-
festoes as an Element of Performance (1985) and her Russian and Ital-
ian Futurist Manifestoes (1989). The research done on the topic also
encompasses works with a theoretical contribution to the analysis of the
manifesto, such as Marcel Burgers Les manifestes: Paroles de combat (2002).
Burger attempts to distinguish among political, literary, and avant-garde
manifestos by studying them as variants of what he dubs combative
discourse.
Some researchers who theorize the manifesto advance theses that refect
their own perspectives but do not lay a claim to comprehensiveness. For
example, Dumasy and Massol (2001: 11) state in the introduction to their
collection, Our intention was not to recapitulate the diferent theories
and analyses concerning these discursive practices, but rather to gener-
ate confrontations and interrogations on discursive and textual forms (my
Thomson in 1999, it places great importance on the value of painting as a medium as well
as the use of it for the communication and the expression of emotion and experienceas
opposed to what they see as the superfcial novelty, nihilism, and irony of conceptual art and
postmodernism (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuckism#Manifestos).
5. Asholt and Fhnders 1995; Caws 2001 (which is considered to be the frst comprehensive
collection of manifestos in English).
6. Important recent works include Berg and Grttemeier 1998; Lyon 1999; Dumasy and
Massol 2001; Burger 2002; Somigli 2003; Puchner 2006. For a listing of the major publica-
tions on manifestos, see the selected annotated bibliography following this article.
7. I will only mention a few titles here: Amidon 2003; Burger 1996; Encke 2002; Heimpel
1996; Lefebvre 2003; Reddaway 2002; Somigli 1996. For further details, see the selected
annotated bibliography following this article.
8. For example, the special issue of Littrature on manifesto (1980) is the result of a con-
ference organized by the center of textual semiotics in Paris X Nanterre in January 1980.
Towards a History of the Literary Institution in Canada 3 was organized by the Research
Institute for Comparative Literature at the University of Alberta in 1987 and published in
proceedings in 1990 (Blodgett and Purdy 1990). Still another conference, Pamphlet, Utopia,
and Manifesto, was held at the University of Stendhal-Grenoble III in 2001 and published
in proceedings in 2001 (Dumasy and Massol 2001).
translation). By contrast, other scholars try to draw general rules of mani-
festo from the particular studies they conduct. For example, Lyon (1999: 1)
associates feminist polemics with manifestos and attempts to draw from
her case study (of tracts of the Diggers and Levellers of 1650 [cf. Haller
and Davies 1964 (1944)] and the 1992 Dyke Manifesto) a comprehensive
analysis of the manifesto, a ubiquitous yet under-theorized genre in the
catalogue of modern discursive forms. One of her broadest claims is that
the manifesto form has much to teach us about the problems of moder-
nity (ibid.: 2). Like Lyon, Luca Somigli (2003) and Martin Puchner (2006)
view the manifesto as a form that announces modernity. Somigli views the
manifesto as a form of negotiation and legitimization of the artists role at
a time of profound social and cultural transformation, that is, European
modernism (18851915). He thus proceeds from politics to aesthetics, from
the history of the political manifesto (15501850) to the avant-garde mani-
festo, notably the futurist manifestos in France and in England. Finally,
Puchner analyzes the prototypical Communist Manifesto and studies the way
the manifesto rhetoric has infltrated into modernist aestheticscollages,
plays, poems, and theatrical performancesor what he calls manifesto
art. Those works are not based on the doctrines and theories proclaimed
in manifesto, we hear, but on the formal infuence of the manifesto, its
poetry, on art and are aggressive rather than introverted; screaming
rather than reticent; collective rather than individual (Puchner 2006: 6).
Rather than focus on a specifc movement or manifesto, I wish to study
here the various attempts to defne the genre by looking into the scholarly
discourse on manifesto. My purpose is twofold. First, I want to show how
manifesto has been forged into a literary genre by critics and scholars. Sec-
ond, I want to trace the emergence of research on manifesto in academic
discourse and to show how it infuences the literary academic feld. Alice
Kaplans (1983) idea of the mimetic relationship between theory and its
subject matter resonates in my claim that we can gain insight into aca-
demic research by examining the evolution of manifesto studies. By iden-
tifying how manifesto has been (re)studied by critics and scholars, I will
show how its strategic positioning at the crossroads of literary theory and
academic scholarship can teach us something about the way genres are
formed but also about how academics choose their subject matter. For this
purpose, I will review during the analysis some of the work done on mani-
festo for the past three decades.
9. The efect of the pamphlets and manifestoes on theory is striking: they tend to contami-
nate theory, in a way which makes theory start seeing itself, too, as real, as event, with a
history and ideological and social underpinnings of its own. Pamphlets and manifestoes tend
to engender new pamphlets and manifestoes (Kaplan 1983: 75).
Yanoshevsky

Genre-ating the Manifesto
Today the existence of the manifesto qua genre is indisputable thanks to
a series of studies conducted over the past three decades. One of its most
comprehensive theoretical examinations is that of Hubert van den Berg in
his 1998 Manifesto, eine Gattung? (Manifesto, a Genre?), with refer-
ence to manifestos of the historical avant-garde (futurism, Dadaism, sur-
realism). In the realm of literature, Djelal Kadir and Ursula K. Heise,
editors of the volume on the twentieth century (F) of The Longman Antholog
of World Literature (2004), devote the frst chapter (pp. 2155) to manifestos.
Furthermore, another indication of the genres maturing stage is the fact
that it encompasses, according to the majority of scholars, texts not nec-
essarily labeled manifesto or viewed as such by their authors. This is
typically illustrated by Joachim Du Bellays La dfense et illustration de la
langue franaise (1948 [1549]), which was considered a sort of manifesto
by Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve in the nineteenth century (Heimpel
1999: 25257). According to Daniel Chouinard (1980) and Caws (2001),
what are today regarded as the manifestos of Romanticism and symbolism
constitute another example of texts which were never labeled as such at
the time.
Claude Abastados Introduction lanalyse des manifestes (1980a)
seems to have acquired the status of a founding text in the analysis of
the genre. In fact, studies by Berg and Ralf Grttemeier (1998) and Caws
(2001) founded their defnitions of manifesto on Abastados 1980 article.
The reason for the centrality of Abastados article in the approach to both
political and literary manifestos doubtless lies not only in its early date of
publication but also in its modularity. The principal characteristic assigned
to the manifesto by Abastado is its multiformity, its versatility: that it
can come in diferent shapes and forms. This characteristic may account
for the numerous typologies that can be found in the work on manifesto,
grouping families of polemical discourse. It also seems to be responsible
for the confusion between political declarations and their literary counter-
parts, which runs through the work on manifestos: if the manifesto can
assume all shapes and forms, then it can be political or literary as well.
Indeed, Abastado (1980a: 3) subsumes a variety of types of text under
manifesto: The term manifesto, strictly speaking, applies to (often short)
texts published in a brochure, in a journal or a review, in the name of a
political, philosophical, literary or artistic movement (my translation). It
is defned by him vis--vis the call to action (lappel ), the declaration, the
petition, and the preface. For instance, the call to action, according to Aba-
stado, invites action without proposing a program, as did, for example, the
Appeal of 18 June 1940 (ibid.).0 The declaration afrms positions without
seeking the readers active response (for instance, the Dclaration sur le
droit linsoumission dans la guerre dAlgrie, published in 1960) (ibid.).
The petition, according to Abastado (ibid.), is a specifc demand signed by
those who make it; the preface accompanies a text, which it introduces,
comments on, and justifes. Abastado claims that the forms of manifestos
he suggests are historically determined: although a few examples can be
found starting from the end of the eighteenth century, the phenomenon
mainly belongs to the second half of the nineteenth century and the frst
third of the twentieth century.
Abastado also emphasizes the fuzzy borderlines among various types of
texts: manifesto, proclamation, appeal to action, address, preface, and dec-
laration. The historical circumstances of the text and its reception (under-
standing, reading, judgment) entail a shift in markers. But they can all be
considered, according to him, as belonging to the family of manifestary
texts.
These ideas are taken up by a number of scholars, notably Wolfgang
Asholt and Walter Fhnders (1995) and Berg (1998). Actually, in the Ger-
man arena scholars have even combined two perspectives in the study of
manifesto: the manifesto qua genre from a discursive (synchronic or sys-
tematic) perspective and the manifesto as a genre from a historical point
of view. Berg (ibid.: 194) thus asks, while considering the historical avant-
garde, whether the manifesto counts as a genre of its own. Though part of
a larger family of polemical genres, such as declarations, political decrees
issued by rulers, pamphlets, and so forth, the manifesto can be distin-
guished by its afnity to the historical avant-garde. That avant-garde
came to be realized through texts titled or functioning as manifesto. Fol-
lowing Abastado, Berg (1998) accordingly studies manifesto texts that do
not bear the name in their titles or never mention it in the body of the texts
and sometimes even appear under a diferent name. This greatly enlarges
the category. His classifcation includes, apart from the declaration, the
10. This was a famous speech by Charles de Gaulle, the leader of the Free French Forces, in
1940. From it arose the French Resistance to the German occupation during World War II.
11. Better known as the Manifeste des 121, this text afrms the right of the French to object
to the war in Algeria, to support the Algerians and their cause, without actually calling to
action.
12. As an example, he gives Andr Bretons preface to Poisson soluble (1924). Initially designed
as a preface to a collection of poems, it was published separately and came to be known as
surrealisms frst manifesto. Another example is the Dclaration sur linsoumission, which
became the above mentioned Manifeste des 121 (Abastado 1980a: 4).
13. By historical I mean the avant-garde movements of the beginning of the twentieth
century: futurism, Dadaism, and surrealism.
Yanoshevsky

decree, the proclamation, and the petition, the appeal to action, the ulti-
matum, fyers, pamphlets, explanations, prefaces, open letters, answers,
and so on (ibid.: 19394).
On the other hand, Berg shows the difculty of distinguishing the mani-
festo from related discourses. He maintains that anthologies of the avant-
garde that claim to be devoted to the manifesto seem to bring in other
genres as well (ibid.: 194). No study, he argues, singles out the manifesto
and tries to give it an orderly defnition or meaning. He thus comes to the
conclusion, along with Abastado and Asholt and Fhnders, that the mani-
festo is an extremely plural and open form (ibid.: 199), one that always
co-occurs with other kinds of text: manifesto and document; manifesto
and proclamation; manifesto, proclamation, and document; program and
manifesto; theoretical writing and manifesto; essay, manifesto, and theo-
retical writing; and so forth (Asholt and Fhnders 1995: 45559; quoted in
Berg 1998: 194).
The manifesto, then, relates to a variety of families: political writing,
polemical discourse, or theoretical writing (literature dides). But it seems
to be most closely akin to programmatic texts in times of crisis or change.
Indeed, the second part of Abastados defnition pertains to these generic
characteristics of the manifesto: manifesto is any text that takes a vio-
lent position and produces a fagrant commanding relationship (une relation
injunctive fagrante) between its producer and his or her audience (Abastado
1980a: 4).
These characteristics are taken up by other scholars who see the mani-
festo as belonging to the family of polemical discourse and emphasize its
violent nature. From the frst systematic studies of the manifesto (as in Lit-
trature and Etudes franaises in the 1980s), then, it is believed (sometimes
argued, sometimes just assumed) that manifestos evolve from a family of
rupture and crisis and from a family of polemical and critical discourse.
As Jeanne Demers (1980: 6) puts it, the manifestos explicit function is
precisely to question the system, and crisis is its raison dtre (my
translation).
Earlier, the manifesto was mentioned in a special issue on pamphletary
discourse. There Marc Angenot (1978: 255) studies the discursive aspects
of the pamphlet by looking into a corpus of polemical, pamphletary texts
and satires published in France and in French-speaking countries in the
modern period. Though he does not specifcally study the manifesto there,
he includes it in the family of polemical discourses (discours polmiques)
and ofers other subdivisions, such as polemic, satire, and literary essay.
However, in his 1982 book on pamphletary discourse (La parole pamphl-
taire), he devotes a separate subchapter to the manifesto (Angenot 1982:
6061). There the manifesto is considered as a variant of polemical dis-
course, since it asserts and defends a thesis and invites the reader to take a
stance. It is also short, as required by the wider discourse type, and shares
the same characteristics of calling the reader to active participation: taking
a stance, accepting a thesis, or voicing ones agreement. This type of dis-
course bears a performative aspect, which represents both a risk and an
obligation for those who sign it. All this makes the manifesto a functional
discourse close to the pamphlet, the polemic, and the satire.
Dumasy and Massol (2001: 12) group the manifesto with the pamphlet
and the utopia, all of which they consider to be hybrid literary forms that
break the limits of genre and bear witness to a literature of, or in, crisis.
What these types of discourse have in common is the feature that they are
all textual strategies expressing social and political changes and mutations.
All three seem to be forms of postFrench Revolution modernity.
Manifestos are therefore akin to programmatic and prescriptive dis-
course. They may appear in the form of prefaces and art potique (Gleize
1980). In these forms, they often function as an introduction to an ensemble
of works (existing or potential) or to a new idea they wish to advance or
justify. Thus the preface by Crbillons fls to his novel Egarements du coeur et
de lesprit (173638), Denis Diderots piece of literary criticism entitled Eloge
de Richardson (1761), and Pierre Choderlos de Lacloss 1784 review of Fanny
Burneys Cecilia are given as examples of manifestos of the eighteenth-
century novel because of their innovative contents (Lynch 1980). To some
scholars, literary manifesto communicates the principles or doctrine of an
aesthetic or literary movement to a more or less wide public (Schultz 1981:
36, 228; quoted in Berg 1998: 198). Others, like E. D. Blodgett and A. G.
Purdy (1990: ix), see the function of the preface and the manifesto as texts
designed to situate another text or writing practice within the literary insti-
tution. They thus study prefaces and literary essays as manifestos, operat-
ing to contextualize a new discourse practice within or vis--vis the poetic
system.
Lastly, the manifesto may be viewed as a programmatic discourse of power
because it aspires to change reality with words; the manifesto is a discourse
where knowledge is asserted rather than developed because used by the
person who utters it as a revolutionary tool representing his or her dis-
14. Demers (1980) attempts to distinguish manifesto from ars poetica. Like other types of criti-
cal discourse, the manifestos function is to question the literary system, while ars poetica
goes with the system and explains it (ibid.: 6). But the manifesto still needs the system and
relies upon it and is therefore quickly recuperated by it.
Yanoshevsky

covery of knowledge: The author of a manifesto sees himself frst and
foremost as a researcher, an inventor, a discoverer. The evolutionary con-
ception of knowledge that characterizes the prefaces gives place to a . . .
revolutionary conception. . . . It is about . . . imposing the future by pro-
voking revolutions. . . . The conception of knowledge that is at stake is
that of foundational, even epiphanic knowledge (Millot 1996: 21213; my
translation).
Fuzziness: From Form to Function
As I mentioned earlier, to be a manifesto a text need not be dubbed as
such as long as it looks and behaves like one. For instance, both Marjorie
Perlof (1984) and Lawton (1985) agree that Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
considered the manifesto to be a new literary genre with a defnite structure
and style (Lawton 1985: 475). According to Perlof (1984: 65), Marinetti
even advised the painter Gino Severini to rephrase his manuscript, which
was intended to be a manifesto (Peinture de la lumire, de la profondeur, du dyna-
misme; ibid.: 93n1), so as to give it the allure of a manifesto.
Indeed, researchers sometimes prefer to bypass the designation mani-
festo and consider writings that are manifestantische (manifestary) or
proklamatorischen (hortatory) (Berg 1998: 197). This follows Abastados
(1980a: 3) observation on the unfathomable (insaisissable, ungraspable)
nature of the manifesto and his preference for his coinage criture mani-
festaire (manifestary writing; see Berg 1998: 204) or texts with a mani-
festo function (textes ayant une fonction de manifeste) over the fxed
label manifesto. In this sense, research on prefaces as manifestos (e.g.,
Blodgett and Purdy 1990; Millot 1996; Dumasy and Massol 2001) or art-
works (Puchner 2006) and novels as manifestos (Lynch 1980; Winkiel 1999)
can be characterized as bearing on the manifestary rather than on the
manifesto proper.
This considerably multiplies the number of corpora and case studies
available to researchers: they are no longer limited by a specifc appella-
tion or by a particular type of discourse, because texts with manifestary
qualities are found in literary, aesthetic, political, and perhaps other writ-
ing. Many critics thus turn to defning the manifestos functions rather than
15. I therefore advise you to take it back and reword it, removing all that I have already
mentioned, and intensifying and tightening it, recasting the whole new part in the form of
Manifesto and not in that of the review-article about futurist painting. (The letter is repro-
duced in Archivi del futurismo, ed. Maria Drudi Gambillo and Teresa Fiori, vol. 1, 29495
[Rome: De Luca, 1958]; and quoted in Perlof 1984: 65.)
trying to demarcate it by reference to a certain typology of texts (Berg
1998: 202). Instead of fguring out whether a manifesto belongs to liter-
ary or poetic discourse or not, scholars identify the roles ascribed to the
manifesto by the writers themselves. Scholars like Demers and Line Mc
Murray (1986: 10313) have therefore attempted to divide the manifesto
into subcategories, such as imposition or opposition, central or peripheral,
everydayism, and so forth.
Whether concerning the literary or the political kind, the force and the
theatricality of the manifesto are singled out by all researchers. Manifestos
are violent acts, spectacular acts, a way to sound your voice, whether the
act is artistic (like blaspheming) or political (like kidnapping a plane or a
person or suicide, though Abastado [1980a: 5] mentions specifcally that
these will not be retained in the defnition of the manifesto). The only
uniform convention among manifestos, maintains Lyon (1999: 13), is a par-
ticular hortatory rhetorical style. Puchner (2002: 449) sees a clear con-
nection between theater and manifesto: both involve the act of making
visible. The manifesto has a particular performativity: it does not merely
describe a history of rupture, but produces such a history, seeking to create
this rupture actively through its own intervention (ibid.: 450). The con-
nection between theatricality and manifesto, claims Puchner (ibid.: 461),
holds especially for historical avant-garde manifestos, in particular in the
early phase of futurism and Dadaism, when manifestos were performed,
screamed even, in front of an audience.
This kind of theatricality is operative, claims Puchner, even in the most
classical and most political specimen, the Communist Manifesto. It turns into
a kind of dramatic dialogue halfway through, when Marx begins to engage
other thinkers and does so by giving voice, in the form of direct speech,
to their arguments before switching back to his own voice in responding
to these hypothetical objections. The drama of history is thus mirrored in
the dialogic structure of the Communist Manifesto, and dialectics rejoins its
origin in the dramatic dialogues of Plato (ibid.: 462).
So far, we have followed the development of manifesto study from a
generic perspective. We now move to a survey of the development of the
defnition of manifesto, which shows the impossibility of reconstructing an
evolution of the genre. In the following sections, I will try to show how the
literary manifesto became entangled in the defnition of its political and
artistic counterparts. I will start by indicating the political origins of the
artistic and the literary manifestos. I will then show how the literary mani-
festo has been received by literary criticism.
Yanoshevsky

On the Political Origins of the Artistic and Literary Manifestos
and the Fuzzy Frontiers between Them
Scholars tend to derive political, artistic, and literary manifestos from
common roots. The fuzzy borders among these kinds are already visible in
the frst two special issues on the manifesto from the 1980s. The Canadian
Etudes franaises (1980) opts for the hybrid title Le manifeste potique/poli-
tique, while its French counterpart, Littrature (1980), carries a seemingly
neutral titleLes manifestesbut likewise brings together articles on
artistic and political manifestos. The latter collection includes an analy-
sis of the 1918 Dada Manifesto (Abastado 1980b); articles on musical,
cinematographic, and pictorial manifestos (respectively, Escal 1980 and
Vanoye 1980; Bauret 1980; Mourier 1980); a study of the manifesto of the
littrature engage (Idt 1980); and a theoretical article on the political
manifesto (Meyer 1980). Abastados (1980a) opening article in Littrature
introduces the history of the analysis of manifesto (political or poetic)
through an account of the political manifestos history. The collocation of
the three types of manifestospolitical, artistic, and literaryis also per-
ceptible in the attempts to defne the manifestos characteristics and forms.
Abastado invokes the mythical fgure of Proteus to describe the mani-
festos multiformity: there is no clear agreement on which forms can and
should be included in the generic family of manifestos, and this sometimes
amounts to contradictions in subsequent scholarly work, as was shown in
the previous section.
For Caws (2001) and Puchner (2006), the manifesto became a genre with
stable characteristics, starting from the Communist Manifesto (1848) by Marx
and Friedrich Engels, of immense infuence and historical importance for
later aesthetic proclamations and political statements (Caws 2001: xix).
In particular, argues Puchner, it became a reference point for Marinettis
1909 Futurist Manifesto, where it was adopted and adapted to suit artis-
tic purposes. Ever since Marinettis manifesto, the term has been used,
as Chouinard (1980: 28) puts it, in retrospective assimilationManifesto
of Symbolism, Manifesto of Romanticism. For Jean-Nicolas Illouz (2005:
112), Marinettis manifesto actually represents a sequel to a tradition of
publishing declarative texts in the press, much like Jean Morass essay on
symbolism in Le fgaro, dating from September 18, 1886, which later came
to be known as symbolisms manifesto.
Most accounts of the genre, then, consider the political origins of the
aesthetic/poetic manifesto. In examining the futurist one, Perlof (1984:
66) refers to the Oxford English Dictionarys defnition of political manifesto:
MANIFESTO: (1647) A public declaration or proclamation, usually issued
with the sanction of a sovereign prince or state, or by an individual or body of
individuals whose proceedings are of public importance, for the purpose
of making known past actions and explaining the reasons or motives for
actions as forthcoming (my emphasis). In Burgers (2002: 11921) account,
everything starts with the political manifesto, initially a particular mode
of management for the ruler, and later, with the emergence of civil society
in France (la socit dEtat), manifestos and other manifestary texts
become essential elements of the public sphere, redefned by the new idea
of citizenship. The political manifestos afrm citizenship and identity. For
instance, the 1789 Declaration of French Independence represents an afr-
mation of the public sphere and the citizen, and that is precisely why it is
viewed as a manifesto (ibid.: 12223). Manifesto becomes, according to
Lyon (1999: 4), the emblem of political strife: To write a manifesto is to
participate symbolically in a history of struggle against dominant forces;
it is to link ones voice to the countless voices of previous revolutionary
conficts.
It seems that Lyon and Burger follow Alain Meyers (1980: 2930)
perception of the manifesto as political in the widest sense of the term,
because it constitutes an intervention in the public sphere by a coherent
group aspiring to act upon the social fabric by destroying a previous
order in order to glorify other institutions connected by new cement (my
translation). It signifes a whole range of political speech acts directed
against the hegemony and the dominant culture (Lyon 1991: 1023). For
Burger (2002: 123) in turn, as already shown, manifestos and their efects
cannot be dissociated from the public sphere.
Despite the generally inclusive primary defnition of manifesto, how-
ever, all authors refrain from establishing a total synonymy between
manifesto and political manifesto. Meyer, who perceives the political
manifesto as the earliest subcategory of the genre, nevertheless doubts the
assumption that this is the model for all other kinds of manifesto and ofers
distinctive characteristics of the political manifesto. It is, according to
him, action oriented and time boundwith deadlines for carrying out the
political actions requiredas opposed to the aesthetic manifesto, which
is value oriented and can transcend time (Meyer 1980: 31). Following
Meyer, Lyon (1991: 123) suggests that the political manifesto is pragmatic
and tied to circumstance, as opposed to a utopian manifesto that envisions
immediate and total transformation or an artistic manifesto that articu-
lates and afrms a limited number of values or principles. Caws (2001:
xix) too seems to waver between viewing political and aesthetic manifestos
16. He bases this opposition on Lefebvre 1980: 55 and Merleau-Ponty 1947: xxviii.
Yanoshevsky

as belonging to a single kind with common origins and common models or
as two diferent types of discourse. But unlike Meyer, she views the artistic
manifesto as grounded in a certain context: The actual efcacy of the
political or theological manifesto depends on its power of declamation and
persuasion. That of the artistic manifesto, whose work will be carried on in
another world altogether . . . , depends on its context as well as its clever-
ness, and on the talents of its producer (ibid.).
Burger (2002: 90, 2023) attempts to draw diferences among the three
types of manifesto. Thus, he claims, political manifestos (for example,
Marx and Engelss Communist Manifesto) are anchored in the public sphere
and related to citizenship; literary manifestos (for instance, that of sym-
bolism, 1886) also relate to the public sphere, but their operation difers
considerably from that of political texts, since they are anchored in a fc-
tional, aesthetic world made up of discourse, that is, literary texts (ibid.:
150). Finally, he reserves a separate category for avant-garde manifestos
(e.g., Andr Bretons 1924 Manifesto of Surrealism [Breton 1963]), since
they represent total refusal and the negation of a world external to the
text as opposed to the literary manifesto, which assumes the existence of
a literary sphere outside the text (Burger 2002: 18182). Burgers tripartite
defnition seems to aim at setting the avant-garde manifesto apart from
both the political and the literary varieties, which to him share the same
public origins and objectives. He fnds the main diference between politi-
cal and literary manifestos, on the one hand, and avant-garde manifestos,
on the other, in their intentionality: the latters special characteristic is its
subversiveness, while the other two constitute part of an existing public
sphere that they support (ibid.: 13). Against Burgers division, however,
one can certainly think of literary manifestos (for example, those of the
New Novel) that are subversive in the sense that they undermine the rules
of novel writing.
Scholars also difer on the role played by politics in manifestos. Whereas
Burger (ibid.: 2023) makes the strange claim that avant-garde manifestos
escape the dichotomy between art and other (social) actions because they
have aesthetic concerns but pretend to have political ones, for Somigli
(2003) manifestos are places where political changes and events are incor-
porated and defned. They play a role in defning the relationship between
the feld of cultural production and other competing felds such as that
of political power, and can simultaneously articulate a series of positions
within the feld itself (ibid.: 53). Politics is therefore not an excuse for the
artistic manifesto but rather an integral part of it, since manifestos play a
double role, both outside what he dubs the creative domain and other
felds of power (i.e., the press) and within the feld of artistic production,
to articulate the identity of the various groups of individuals (ibid: 5455).
For Somigli, the manifesto is only a small part of a process where literature
becomes an independent feld in bourgeois society: it defends verbally the
cultural independence that art seeks within society.
The artistic manifesto is sometimes perceived by researchers as the aes-
theticizing of political aspirations. For example, Perlof (1984: 66) depicts
how, in the autumn of 1913, at the height of the manifesto fever that swept
across Europe in the years preceding World War I, the painter Severini,
a leading member of the futurist movement, then living in Paris, sent the
manuscript of a projected manifesto to futurisms main founder, Marinetti,
in Milan. In his reply, Marinetti commented on Severinis manifesto, as we
have already seen, and explained to him how to improve it. When study-
ing Marinettis reply to Severini, Perlof (ibid.) thus considers Marinettis
act as creating a new genre, a genre that might meet the needs of mass
audience. . . . The Futurist manifesto was a way of aestheticizing what had
traditionally been a vehicle for political statement. Similarly, manifestos
related to the historical avant-garde (i.e., futurism, Dadaism, and surreal-
ism, all avant-garde groups between 1910 and 1930) are, according to Lyon
(1999), political declarations that have undergone an aesthetization: the avant-garde
manifesto is where the shift toward aesthetics is carried out. The manifesto
is thus viewed as a mixed, vague form, combining the artistic and the
political: The terms vagueness extends even to the group of texts explic-
itly bearing the title manifesto, which by itself does not distinguish among
uses of the form that are utopian, political, or artistic (ibid.: 12). Lyon
(1991) illustrates the aesthetization of the political in her analysis of feminist
manifestos. She explains the gender rift by appealing to diferent relation-
ships between the political and the aesthetic within manifestos written by
women as opposed to men. Taking as an example the display artist Jenny
Holzers manifestos entitled Infammatory Essays (197982; see Waldman
1989), she shows where the diference between female avant-garde artists
and their male forebears lies: while artists like Marinetti and Wyndham
Lewis aestheticize political ideology, Holzer, on the contrary, inscribes
and highlights the aesthetic within the political (Lyon 1991: 12021).
Like its artistic counterpart, the literary manifesto is viewed by critics as
related to and infuenced by the political. Thus, although an attempt was
made to distinguish it as a genre of its own as early as 1974, the literary
manifesto is nearly always studied in relation to the political. As I have
17. Percy Wyndham Lewis (18821957) was a Canadian-born British painter and author. He
was a cofounder of the Vorticist movement in art and edited the Vorticists journal BLAST
(two issues, 191415).
18. In Vincent Fourniers article Manifestes littraires (1974).
Yanoshevsky

previously mentioned, Etudes franaisess special issue on manifesto is spe-
cifcally entitled Le manifeste potique/politique, and the literary mani-
festos lineage is traced back to the political declaration (Chouinard 1980).
The kinship between the literary and the political is further emphasized
in Dumasy and Massols (2001) collection of articles devoted to the study
of pamphlet, utopia, and manifesto in the nineteenth and twentieth cen-
turies. The authors view them as forms of literary expression, a literature
of ideas, that is part of the feld of literature (ibid.: 10). They examine how
the postrevolutionary democratic context of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries materializes in these texts, whether literary or political (ibid.:
1011). For Ronald Vroon (1995: 163), the literary manifesto, like the aes-
thetic one, is used to introduce political ideas into literature. Illouz (2005:
93) too maintains that the manifestos of symbolism seem to translate into
the literary feld forms of combat and legitimacy belonging to the political
feld: this at a time when the French Republic becomes solid in 1870 but
not yet without tensions, as it is still aficted by a series of anarchist attacks
throughout the 1890s. The rhetoric of the symbolist manifestos thus refects
the political conditions of their time. According to Burger (2002: 150), the
conditions of emergence of the literary and the political manifestos are the
same: they both attest to a major political crisis, though literary manifestos
are turned toward aesthetics.
As a literary phenomenon and as a further proof of being an unfxed
semantic feld (Berg 1998: 195), the manifestos boundaries are stretched
beyond recognition. Manifesto is thus applied by critics to numerous
texts that were not explicitly designated as such by their authors, such as
literary/theoretical essays, introductions and literary declarations, prefaces
to literary works, and lately even artistic catalogs. Thus Jean-Paul Sartres
Quest-ce que la littrature? (1947) is considered alternatively in Vincent Four-
niers La grande encyclopdie Larousse article on Manifestes littraires (1974)
as a literary essay and a manifesto. The French authors Jules and Edmond
de Goncourt (1980 [1888]) assembled introductions and prefaces to novels,
dramas, and histories and published them in a collection that they titled
Prfaces et manifestes littraires. A century later, when referring to Romantic
manifestos, Clarence Edward McClanahan (1981) and Larry H. Peer (1988)
also include prefaces among manifestos. Caws (2001: xxv) is seemingly
more prudent in stating that generally the manifesto stands alone, does
not need to lean on anything else, demands no other text than itself. . . .
it is not, generally, a prefatory pre-appendage to something else. Yet she
immediately concedes the point by acknowledging that some prefaces, like
William Wordsworths to the Lyrical Ballads or Victor Hugos La prface de
Cromwell, had the efect of manifestos and their certainty of tone. McCla-
nahan (1981: iv, 45), dealing with Romantic literature, goes so far as to
include magazines, journals, and newspapers in what he views as mani-
festos: they provide an abundance of writings on the subject of Romantic
literature, aesthetics, and doctrine (ibid.: 45). He even regards the letter
as a form of manifesto. For example, in his 1823 Lettre M. Chauvet, Ales-
sandro Manzoni argues for the liberation of genius from the fetters of
literary conventions and defnes the new movement as a classicism broad-
ened by history (ibid.: 91).
Similarly, the Grand encyclopdie Larousse (Fournier 1974) gives as examples
of manifesto Charles Perraults 16881697 Parallles, Wordsworths preface
to his Lyrical Ballads (1798), and Hugos La prface de Cromwell (1827). Bonner
Mitchell (1966) includes a wide array of literary declarations among the
literary manifestos of the Belle Epoque (18861914), such as Jean Schlum-
bergers Credo (Considrations), which reveals the intentions of the founders of
the Nouvelle revue franaise. Prefaces to literary works are central to Blodgett
and Purdys (1990) study of Canadas literary institution. Cawss Manifesto:
A Century of Isms (2001) features a wide anthological horizon by including a
host of literary genresprefaces, poems, literary declarations, and literary
essays. Some poems, like Stphane Mallarms A Throw of a Dice, are
incorporated because of their revolutionary form. Finally, even catalogs
are proving worthy of being treated as manifestos. In Colette Leinmans
(2009) study of surrealist exhibition catalogs from 1924 to 1938, they are
considered as such, for besides introducing surrealist art, they also partici-
pate in the shaping of surrealist ideology and group identity.
The Literary Manifesto and Its Frames of Reception;
or, How a Literary Text Becomes a Manifesto
Literary critics play an important role in determining what text will be
classifed as manifesto. This critical involvement in determining the genres
frontiers dates back to the nineteenth century, when, in his Tableau histo-
rique et critique de la posie franaise et du thtre franais au XVIe sicle (1843
[1828]), Sainte-Beuve considers Du Bellays La dfense et illustration de la
langue franaise (1948 [1549]) as the manifesto of this sudden insurrection of
19. Italian novelist, playwright, poet, essayist, and critic. His tragedies also demonstrate in
practice Manzonis disregard for the Aristotelian unities of time and place, which he stated
formally in his Lettre M. Chauvet: Sur lunit de temps et de lieu dans la tragdie (A Letter on Dra-
matic Unities and the Essence of Tragedy; 1823). Like the Lettre M. Chauvet, many of Manzonis
signifcant critical statements were drafted in epistolary form. Among these, his Lettera sul
romanticismo (1823), written to the Marchese Cesare DAzeglio, rejects the subject matter of
classical mythology in modern literature.
Yanoshevsky

a new generation (the Pliade poets), trying to break away from the classi-
cal means and themes of writing.0 (Sainte-Beuve is mentioned in Fournier
1974 and quoted in Heimpel 1999: 255.) Referring to Sainte-Beuves text,
Rod S. Heimpel (1999: 25859) explains that one owes this development
to critical discourse, and not, or not exclusively, at any rate, to the myth of
the author driven by his passion for new ways of perceiving in literature
and the arts [Littr ] (my translation). The manifestary identity of each and
every one of the texts that Sainte-Beuve uses for illustration depends to a
great extent on their later reception and not on their instantaneous irrup-
tion, unexpected and so to speak heroic, into the literary scene (ibid.).
Indeed, academic and journalistic criticism plays a prominent role in
establishing a manifesto as such. Both the Symbolist Manifesto (Septem-
ber 18, 1886) and the Futurist Manifesto (February 20, 1909) were con-
ceived in the pages of Le fgaro. Morass Symbolist Manifesto was solicited
by Le fgaros editors, who published the article with the following note:
M. Jean Moras, one of the best known literary revolutionaries, has for-
mulated upon our request the fundamental principles of the new manifes-
tation of art, for the beneft of the Supplements readers (quoted in Illouz
2005: 100). What gives Morass text the status of a manifesto, Illouz adds,
is actually the journalistic choice of Le fgaros editors and a media strategy
on the part of Moras. From then on, claims Illouz, literature has tried to
gain legitimacy through the press. This is also the case with Sartres Quest-
ce que la littrature? (1947); published in Les temps modernes between February
and July 1947, this text came to be viewed as a real manifesto of littrature
engage.
The French New Novels manifestos repeat this pattern established in
the earliest modern artistic/literary precedents. Nathalie Sarrautes col-
lection of essays Lere du soupon (1956) and Alain Robbe-Grillets Pour un
nouveau roman (1963) would not have been considered manifestos had it not
been for their critical receptions. Though Sarrautes theoretical texts were
initially accepted as literary essays on current problems in literature (Picon
1956), their revolutionary and polemical tone, bespeaking the advent of a
20. According to Sainte-Beuve (1843 [1828]: 34243), La dfense, written in 1549, was ini-
tially designed as a letter (ptre) or a notice (averstissement) for the reader. But it gained vol-
ume and became a booklet, where Du Bellay makes the revolutionary claim that poetry
cannot rely solely on what comes easily and naturally but is the result of hard labor and
pain. Du Bellay is also the frst to give an example of an elevated and eloquent criticism. It
is probably the readers reactions and the polemic that ensued with other poets from the old
school that gave Sainte-Beuve (ibid.: 343) the idea to call it a manifesto (Son manifeste
ft grand clat et scandale).
21. La grande encyclopdie Larousse of 1974 cites it as an example of the literary manifesto
(Fournier 1974).
new literary school, did not escape the critics ears (Mauriac 1958). In later
years it was taken to be, along with her successors collection, one of the
two manifestos of the New Novel (Yanoshevsky 2006: 2733).
Robbe-Grillets Pour un nouveau roman features both literary journal articles
and later versions of two series of columns on the situation of the novel
published by him upon request in Lexpress and France observateur between
1955 and 1957 (Yanoshevsky 2003). Pour un nouveau roman is thus considered
by critics as 140 pages of theoretical point of views on the esthetic of the
genre of the novel, as a series of articles containing the famous 1956
manifesto (Une voie pour le roman futur) and the notorious proclama-
tion Nature, humanisme, tragdie (Fletcher 1964: 854), or as refections
of a novelist on his art. Some critics (for example, Champigny 1967) men-
tion the collections doctrinal nature and its revolutionary theories.
The new edition of Sarrautes Lere du soupon (1964) appeared almost
simultaneously with the publication of Robbe-Grillets Pour un nouveau
roman. This encouraged numerous comparisons between the two collec-
tions and brought to the fore the polemical nature of Sarrautes articles,
considered as both apologia (Turnell 1964) and treatise (Tadi 1984). An
article in the Tribune de Genve (1964) suggests that, although Sarrautes
theoretical articles have been published separately since 1947, the collec-
tion entirely preserves its polemical value (my translation). In retrospect,
the prominent literary editor Maurice Nadeau (1984) referred to Sar-
rautes collection as a central manifesto of the New Novel, a treatise on
the novel that contributes to changing the view of literary history. The evi-
dent polemical tone of Robbe-Grillets articles invited their classifcation
as manifestos, though they themselves did not ofcially adopt this label.
In short, even though the term manifesto is not always present in the
critics or in the writers own discourse in reference to Lere du soupon and
Pour un nouveau roman, those works often use a rich vocabulary that sig-
nals this type of discourse: to plead, to oppose, to protest, to announce,
to denounce, to witness, to attack, to declare, to contrast, to clarify, revo-
lution, dogmatically, anti, rejecting tradition, and so forth. This usage
supplies the proof that, even if not referred to directly as manifestos, the
texts at issue are considered to have manifestary qualities that are clearly
recognized and emphasized by the critics.
In the following section, I attempt to show that the relationship between
critics and manifestos is not unidirectional. As the critics determine what
text will come to be taken as a manifesto, manifestos afect what critics
write and how they position themselves in the literary feld.
Yanoshevsky

Research and Manifestos
An Abridged Sociopoetics of the Academic Field
It would be a mistake to postulate a one-way relationship between mani-
festo and criticism. True, criticism shapes its objectmany a manifesto
would not have been considered as such had it not been for the critics.
But according to Kaplan (1983), the relationship between criticism and
manifestos is reciprocal. Not only does criticism enlarge the notion of mani-
festoes to include such non-texts as Rimbauds silence, Lacan, and punk
(ibid.: 77), but as objects of study manifestos and pamphlets also afect the
theories about them. In fact, she says: The efect of the pamphlets and
manifestoes on theory is striking: they tend to contaminate theory, in a
way which makes theory start seeing itself, too, as real, as event, with a
history and ideological and social underpinnings of its own. Pamphlets
and manifestoes tend to engender new pamphlets and manifestoes (ibid.:
75). Whats more, Kaplan (ibid.: 76) hypothesizes that the object of studys
energy is transferred to criticism: the manifestos and pamphlets of liter-
ary modernism studied in the 1960s through the 1980s gave rise to a new
generation of critics, marked by the desire for new beginnings.
The infuence of manifestos on their students can be mimetic. If the
manifesto is repetitive (Leroy 1980), then research on the manifesto is
repetitive too, because it reiterates what has been done before: from the
frst important special issues on the topic in the 1980s until today, theories
of manifesto, as well as particular case studies, constantly recap the mani-
festos history and its poetics. The efect manifestos have on their criticism
is even extended to the way researchers organize the knowledge they extract
from the manifestos. For instance, Mc Murrays (1980) article on Oulipos
manifestos mimics the style and logic of Oulipo in the presentation of its
critique, even from a graphic point of view. So much so that the reader
wonders whether she or he is reading the criticism of the manifesto or the
manifesto itself. For example, the article contains a to do list and a com-
bination of graphics (icons) and text, much like the style devised by one of
Oulipos prominent members, Georges Perec. Therefore, some of its parts
do not at all look like an article published in a scientifc journal (which, of
course, it is). The same applies to Demers and Mc Murrays 1986 Lenjeu du
manifeste, le manifeste en jeu. While the book is devoted to the analysis of the
genre, its hortatory style suggests that this may be yet another manifesto.
Indeed, the declarative and revolutionary tone and style of manifestos,
especially avant-garde ones, which breaks with literary and essayistic con-
22. See, for example, his La vie, mode demploi (1978).
ventions not only in content but also in form, perhaps demands that the
critic break with a standard, logical reading in studying the manifestos.
Criticism, claims Kaplan, needs to invent a new language for the analysis
of manifestos/pamphlets. Leinmans (2009) analysis of surrealist catalogs
too is afected by her object of research. Just as the surrealist catalogs lan-
guage strives to break with its conventional applications (a catalog presents
a work of art, transposes the visual into the verbal medium, etc.), so Lein-
mans attempt to classify the argument schema within the surrealist cata-
logs eludes traditional discursive categorization: instead of subgrouping
catalogs according to their recurrent argument schema, she demonstrates
how each catalog functions as a manifesto in a unique way.
The infuence between manifestos and criticism is, then, reciprocal.
Furthermore, manifestos as research objects shape not only the theories
made about them but also the identities of the theorists and other research-
ers. Since they are symptoms of a system in instability or crisis (Leroy 1980;
Yahalom 1980; Millot 1996), manifestos are the place where researchers
intervene, like physicians, to diagnose the political/artistic problems and
concerns of an epoch or a feld. Like the diagnosis of an illness with regard
to the doctor, the analysis of the manifesto is empowering for the critic. The
manifesto appeals to critics because it is halfway between self-identifcation
and knowledge: the critics recognize themselves in it, since they are after
all the ones who gave the baby its name, but at the same time they must
suspect it for its rhetoric and apply to it their critical faculties.
Because it is programmatic discourse seeking to legitimize a speaker
on behalf of a group, a movement, or a poetic reform (Millot 1996: 206;
Illouz 2005: 113), manifesto language is highly rhetorical and at times even
manipulative. Therefore, the researcher must be on the lookout for the
manifestos hidden agendas. Thus when studying the manifesto, the critic
recuperates a part of his or her identity as an interpreter, because he or she
is required to uncover the texts implicit layers.
23. For example, futurism, Dadaism, surrealism, and Oulipo all combine various genres of
expression (essays, poetry, aphorisms, defnitions, word games) as well as diferent graphic
styles and images.
24. In referring to Angenots 1982 work on the pamphlet, Kaplan (1983: 78) says: Where
criticism is looking for logic, how can it treat an object which by defnition attacks logic?
You cannot, for example, merely attack the logic of a pamphlet, for, as Angenot explains, it
is precisely a non-logical ground that pamphlets occupy and colonize.
25. By argument schema Im referring to conventional categories of argument found in
the vast literature on argumentation, such as argumentation by association, by dissociation,
based on the structure of reality, from reciprocity, and so forth.
26. Looking into manifestos to account for crisis in art is common in adjacent felds as well.
For instance, Maria M. Delgado and Cridad Svich (2002) use it to explain the crisis in con-
temporary theater.
Yanoshevsky

The Sociology of the Academic Field
In Littratures 1980 special issue, Abastado (1980a: 3) asks, Is manifesto a
good semiotic object? The answer is yes, not because its contours are easily
defned but because it has been amply studied. It therefore provides a body
of data for those interested in fnding out how critics operate in the literary
feld. It also allows the critic to observe his or her own infuence on the
literary feld. It is fattering to discover that one determines how a text will
be read by intervening in the interpretation process as a Hermes between
authors and readers. On the other hand, though, the researcher does not
determine the meaning of a manifesto single-handedly. Research para-
digms play a signifcant role in determining ones approach: a researcher
will understand and explain manifestos in the light of other scholars work
and by reference to his or her research environment. Thus to study and
analyze the research conducted on manifestos is a good way to understand
how a feld of knowledge functions in general and how the feld of literary
research operates in particular. In order to exemplify this point, let us turn
to the studies of manifesto in chronological order.
A limited number of studies can be found as early as the late 1960s and
the beginning of the 1970s. Mitchells 1966 critical anthology of literary
manifestos of the Belle Epoque, though not exhaustive, includes a wide
variety of texts announcing a durable innovation of literary technique in
three diferent ages: classical Renaissance, symbolism, and socialist art or
art engag. The primary purpose of the anthology is thus to create liter-
ary histories of the periods reviewed (ibid.: 8). Cawss (1974: 3) Le manifeste
et le cach: Langages surralistes et autres is a collection of academic essays on
Dadaist, surrealist, and avant-garde manifestos designed to give a wide
array of possible readings of the manifestos concerned without limiting the
interpretation to a specifc school or theory.
We mentioned earlier that manifesto is often related to the family of
agonistic discourse. To some extent, interest in such discourse of polemics
and of crisis repeats itself in the mid- and late 1970s, but its association
with the manifesto does not become current until the beginning of the
1980s. Then, in the special issue of the Canadian Etudes franaises, a selec-
tion of critical bibliography suggests that manifesto belongs to the family
of polemical discourse and is akin to pamphlet and avant-garde. The
two special issues of 1980the Canadian Le manifeste potique/poli-
tique in Etudes franaises and the French Les manifestes in Littrature
ofer a variety of studies of political, literary, and artistic manifestos in
addition to two more general articles: Chouinard (1980) on the history
27. Cf. Morin 1976 and the Etudes littraires special issue on pamphletary discourse in 1978.
of the manifesto and Abastados (1980a) introduction to the analysis of
manifestos. Another volume, published the same year in the French Lit-
erature Series (Hardee 1980), attempts to limit the manifesto to literature
and to French literary movements. The two special issues and the volume
on manifestos refect the early stages of research, when the subject mat-
ter is only approximately defned. The list of articles in Littrature suggests
eclecticism by its very range: from historical to synchronic defnitions
and attempts to defne the manifesto, from political to artistic (musical,
cinematic, pictorial) and literary manifestos, from authorial intentions to
reader response, and from theory to particular case studies. The Cana-
dian issue, as heterogeneous as its French counterpart, ofers a study in
the history of manifesto and attempts to distinguish manifesto from other
genres and their case studiesCanadian, avant-garde, and others. The
bibliographical list of texts considered as manifestos, carrying the subtitle
En vrac, quelques manifestes (An Unsorted List of Some Manifestos),
shows the genres diversity. It ranges from declared manifestos (such as the
Futurist Manifesto, the Surrealist Manifesto, the Communist Manifesto) to
texts with manifestary characteristics (Emile Zolas Jaccuse, Morass Le
symbolisme, Hugos La prface de Cromwell ), from political manifestos (the
Communist one, Manifeste des 121 on the war in Algeria) to artistic and
literary manifestos (that of Oulipo or of Dadaism), from manifestos of gen-
der to manifestos of minorities (the sufragettes, Le manifeste des femmes qu-
bcoises, Michle Lalondes Speak White). The idea that the genre is still
undelimited is refected in the compilers hesitation between what is mani-
festo and what is not: some of the texts included in the list (such as Loeuvre
de Lautramont) come with a question mark.
The French Canadians special interest in the discourse of contest
becomes obvious when, in 1982, the French Canadian scholar Angenot
publishes his magnum opus on pamphletary discourse. In the same year,
at McGill University, Sorel L. Thompson writes a masters thesis on Mani-
festo: A Preliminary Model for Discourse Analysis. In 1983 the American
Lesprit crateur publishes an issue on manifesto and oppositional writing
(contre-criture) with a review article by Kaplan entitled Recent Theo-
retical Work with Pamphlets and Manifestoes.0 The manifesto as a genre
seems even more attractive to the French Canadian eye when Demers and
28. The work is preceded, as I have mentioned before, by a special issue of the Canadian
journal Etudes littraires (1978) on the pamphlet with an introductory article by Angenot
carrying the same title as his bookLa parole pamphltaire.
29. Exploring all periods of French literature and thought, Lesprit crateur studies topics that
characterize French and Francophone studies.
30. Kaplan surveys the literature on manifesto in French.
Yanoshevsky

Mc Murray publish in 1986 the frst book entirely devoted to the topic.
The purpose of this work is to create methodological tools for the study of
manifesto, to demonstrate the diversity and the ambiguity of its relation-
ship to the institution, and to propose a dynamic typology. It is an attempt,
in short, to examine the manifesto as a genre. Canadians also made mani-
festos and prefaces their focal point in 1990 in Blodgett and Purdys bilin-
gual Prfaces et manifestes littraires/Prefaces and Literary Manifestoes as part of a
larger project of describing the literary institution in Canada. The French
Canadian special interest in the genre is further demonstrated by two more
general dissertations on political and literary manifestos. Heimpels 1996
dissertation (University of Toronto, in French), on the literary manifestos
genealogy, studies the genre from the perspective of critical reception and
was published in book form in 2002. Richard Lefebvres 2003 dissertation
(University of Montreal) returns to the study of the political manifesto in
an attempt to defne a rhetoric that is particular to it vis--vis the liter-
ary one.
If we are to draw some conclusions about the literary feld based on
the research conducted on the manifesto, we should devote serious atten-
tion to French Canadians signifcant (even dominant) contribution to its
study. This seems to be related to their marginal cultural position in North
America and peripheral geographical position relative to France. As Diane
Poliquin-Bourassa and Daniel Latouche (1980: 32) put it: for people living
on the fringes of space and time, speaking is no luxury but often the only
way to prove to oneself that one is alive. Thus from the perspective of the
reader, political manifestos are testimonies to the vigor with which French
Canadians have come to publicize their existence or to the facility with
which they tell themselves stories that make them feel they exist. For the
people of Quebec, we hear, the political manifesto is a means to claim
their place in America or in Canada. By the same token, the relatively
prolifc scholarly research on the manifesto in Francophone Canada can
be explained as a way to produce an independent academic identity vis-
-vis Anglophone North America and even France itself. Thus in imita-
tion of their manifestary object of research, they act as the avant-garde in
academic research, exploring new territories and gradually moving them
from the periphery toward the center.
To study declarative literary writing is also to characterize the literary
institution of a given culture or even to invent it. This is the case with an
31. This collection is the proceedings of the third in a series of conferences entitled Towards
a History of the Literary Institution in Canada.
32. In the Canadian Etudes franaises (1980) special issue on manifesto.
early dissertation written in the United States by James Marvin Hutchis-
son (1987), who examines the history of the literary institution in America
through the history of the study of the manifesto in it. Hutchisson shows
thereby how manifestos, defned as hortatory documents that were
intended as or came to be known as a proclamation about the condition
of American letters (ibid.: 4), are in fact related to and representative
of major movements in American literature (nationalism, realism, Imag-
ism, proletarianism, postmodernism, etc.) and the literary controversies
they generated or sustained (ibid.: 6). American literature is invented via
manifestos, in opposition to English literature. Finally, the manifesto as
a distinct genre seems to refect American societys national ethos: some
authors, like the poet Walt Whitman, thus organized the ideas of the Young
America movement (which initiated the frst true campaign for literary
nationalism in America [ibid.: 8]) into one cogent statement (ibid.: 9).
Later works on the manifesto written and published in America (Lyon
1999; Somigli 2003) no longer question the existence of the genre. Eman-
cipated from the need to devise a typology to accommodate the manifesto,
which is by now established as a distinctive text type, they are free to
develop a more complex outlook on it. For example, Lyon (1991, 1999)
studies how feminist polemics relate to the development of modern spheres
of public contestation and debate via the history and theory of the mani-
festo. In her 1991 article, she compares numerous manifestos written by
women, such as Solanass SCUM Manifesto (1967), Combat pour la lib-
eration de la femme (1970), the Redstockings Manifesto (1970), Donna J.
Haraways A Cyborg Manifesto (1991 [1985]), and Holzers Infammatory
Essays. In her 1999 book, Lyon extends her work to the modern public
sphere and examines, among other things, how early prototypes, like the
tracts of the Diggers and Levellers of 1650, evolved into modern incarna-
tions, such as the 1918 Dada Manifesto and the 1992 Dyke Manifesto. She
suggests that the manifesto as a genre is constitutive of the public sphere
to the degree that it persistently registers the contradictions within modern
political life (Lyon 1999: 8).
Again, Winkiels 1999 dissertation examines the relationship between
manifestos and novels to defne the role of the masses in inspiring mani-
festo aesthetics. For example, she studies the relation between Elizabeth
33. Once the literary manifesto is taken as an established genre by scholars, the frameworks
and tools developed for its analysis are then recycled and used to explore political mani-
festos. It is not surprising, then, to fnd in a recent dissertation the desire to investigate the
political manifesto with tools that are not borrowed from literature (Lefebvre 2003). Literary
studies of the manifesto, Lefebvre (ibid.: summary, iii) claims, have either ignored the politi-
cal variety or applied to it the tools of fctional analysis unsuitable for such research.
Yanoshevsky

Robinss 1907 popular novel The Convert and the British womens sufrage
movment. In a recent article, Winkiel (2006) claims, among other things,
that the history of the manifesto form transmits the racial contradictions
of Enlightenment discourse to the avant-garde. Borrowing the diferential
treatment in regard to those peoples in the periphery (as exemplifed in
Kants notorious anthropological writings . . .), European national com-
munities are diferentially constituted as modern, rational, universal com-
munities that are bounded within a clearly demarcated territory (ibid.:
68). And she adds, Just as philosophies of modernity depended on racial-
ized diference to construct the modern subjects and communities, the
manifesto genre, too, has long depended upon racial myths to ground its
creation of communities, who break from the past in order to realize their
liberties. . . . [The manifestos of modernity] rely on recognizing com-
munity and its destiny often in racial terms. In periods of revolutionary
activity, when the public sphere is expanded as pamphlets, manifestoes,
newsletters, journals, posters, broadsides, increase exponentially, the rhe-
torics of race and liberty are conjoined (ibid.: 69).
Finally, Puchner (2006) extends the boundaries of the genre by invent-
ing a new subcategory, manifesto art, covering works of art infltrated
by characteristics of the manifesto, such as collages, plays, poems, and
theatrical performances. The rich Wikipedia entry in English entitled Art
Manifesto, is concerned with the defnition of the genre. Heavily relying
on Puchners (2000) defnition of the artistic manifesto, the Wikipedia entry
views it as a hybrid form, where the aesthetic interests of a group of artists
are combined with a political declamation. The entrys interest resides not
in the defnition it gives but rather in the large number of manifestos com-
mented on as well as in its extension to present-day Internet manifestos,
which have not yet been studied in current scholarship. It starts with the
Futurist Manifesto in 1909 and extends to the contemporary cyber mani-
festos (for example, Haraways 1985 A Cyborg Manifesto) and mani-
festos published on the World Wide Web (for instance, Kerry Mitchells
1999 The Fractal Art Manifesto).
Concluding Remarks
The manifesto becomes a distinct genre owing to academic research.
Once established as such, its study turns to look for new forms that may
be included in the family of manifestos. So writing on manifestos has con-
tributed not only to the increase of knowledge but also to the shaping and
34. She develops this point further in a later article (Winkiel 2004).
structuring of the literary feld. The advance of manifesto scholarship from
periphery to center represents the possibility of repositioning in this feld:
marginal academic domains and groups change their status by advocating
a new research program. Studies of the manifesto played such a role for
French Canadian literary scholars.
Kaplans (1983) claim that theoretical research imitates its subject matter
can thus be partly justifed: peripheral research centers choose marginal
themes, marginal in two senses. First, manifestos are written and acted
out by marginal groups. Second, manifestos were originally of minor inter-
est to scholars in the literary feld and gained interest by degrees, primarily
thanks to their promotion by French Canadian scholars. Paradoxically,
the choice of marginal subject matters by peripheral research centers helps
the latter improve their position in the global literary critical feld.
Finally, the manifesto is identifed by being associated with families or
types of discourse (polemic, crisis, avant-garde, etc.) while diferentiated
from other genres (pamphlet, preface, proclamation, poem, ars poetica,
etc.). Similarly, the identity of critics and scholars as researchers is deter-
mined by the object or family of objects that they study. The critic is
therefore not only responsible for defning his or her object of study (Heim-
pel 1999), but in doing so he or she also determines his or her own iden-
tity. By drawing the manifestos contours, the scholarly specter gains form.
This is why studying the writing on manifesto is a good way to seek and
gain an understanding, albeit limited, of how the academic literary feld
functions.
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