Chinese Ritual Music Under Mao and Deng

British Forum for Ethnomusicology
Chinese Ritual Music under Mao and Deng

Author(s): Stephen Jones
Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 8 (1999), pp. 27-66
Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology
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STEPHEN JONES
C h i n e s e r i t u a l m u s i c u n d e r
Ma o a n d
De n g
St u d yi n g
h ow m u s i c i a n s i n C h i n e s e
vi l l a ge s
h a ve m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r l oc a l
t r a d i t i on s ove r t h e t u r bu l e n t c ou r s e
of
t h e t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y m a y
i l l u m i n a t e t h e
r e l a t i on
of
m u s i c a n d
pol i t i c s .
Wh i l e t h e r u r a l r e vol u t i on i n
C h i n a ,
a n d c e n t r a l
c u l t u r a l
pol i c y,
a r e we l l
d oc u m e n t e d ,
t h e
fa t e of vi l l a ge m u s i c -m a ki n g
i s n ot .
Th e
r e vi va l
of
t r a d i t i on s i n C h i n a s i n c e t h e
1980s
m a y
s e e m l i ke s om e
m i r a c u l ou s s u r vi va l or a
r e -i m a gi n a t i on of
t h e
pr e -Ma oi s t pa s t .
Th i s
a r t i c l e s h ows
d i ffe r e n t
a s s a u l t s
fa c e d , t h r ou gh ou t
t h r e e
m a jor pe r i od s
i n
t h e i r m od e r n
h i s t or y, by
r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s
s e r vi n g fu n e r a l s
a n d c a l e n d r i c a l
r i t u a l s i n n or t h C h i n e s e
vi l l a ge s . By
c on t r a s t wi t h s om e ot h e r t r a d i t i on s wh i c h
we r e e r a s e d u n d e r
Ma oi s m ,
t h e s e a s s oc i a t i on s we r e m a i n t a i n e d
s por a d i c a l l y
t h r ou gh ou t
t h e Ma oi s t
pe r i od De s pi t e pr ofou n d
s oc i a l
u ph e a va l s ,
t h e
m e a n i n gs
offu n e r a l s
i n r u r a l
s oc i e t y
h a ve r e m a i n e d c on s t a n t
e n ou gh for
t h e a s s oc i a t i on s
t o r e t a i n t h e i r r e l e va n c e .
"Mu s i c ! Mu s i c ! Is i t
n ot h i n g
bu t t h e s ou n d s of be l l s a n d d r u m s ?" -
C on fu c i u s
(An a l e c t s 17, v.
11, m y t r a n s l a t i on )
"Th e r e i s n o s u c h
t h i n g
a s a r t t h a t i s d e t a c h e d fr om or
i n d e pe n d e n t
of
pol i t i c s ."
- Ma o
Ze d on g
(Ma o 1942:86)
"I h a ve n ot be e n a bl e t o
c h a n ge [C h i n a ]
-
I h a ve
on l y
be e n a bl e t o
c h a n ge
a fe w
pl a c e s
i n t h e
vi c i n i t y
of
Be i ji n g."
-
Ma o
Ze d on g
i n
i n t e r vi e w wi t h Ri c h a r d
Ni xon ,
1972
(Ki s s i n ge r 1997:31)
"Th e m ou n t a i n s a r e
h i gh ,
t h e
e m pe r or
i s fa r
a wa y."
-
C h i n e s e
pr ove r b
1 In t r od u c t i on
Th i s a r t i c l e foc u s e s on a
l i vi n g
r i t u a l t r a d i t i on i n n or t h e r n C h i n e s e
vi l l a ge s ,
t h a t of a m a t e u r r i t u a l
gr ou ps l oc a l l y
kn own a s "Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s "
BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSIC OLOGY VOL. 8 1999
pp.27-66
28 BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSIC OLOGY VOL.8 1999
(Yi n yu e h u i ).1
As t h e c i t a t i on s a bove
r e ve a l ,
bot h C on fu c i a n a n d Ma oi s t
t h ou gh t
s u ppor t
a ba s i c t e n e t of
e t h n om u s i c ol ogy:
t h a t m u s i c a l c u l t u r e i s
i n t i m a t e l y
r e l a t e d t o t h e
s oc i e t y
wh i c h n ou r i s h e s i t .
Howe ve r ,
wh i l e t h e r u r a l r e vol u t i on i n
C h i n a i s we l l
d oc u m e n t e d ,2
t h e fa t e of
vi l l a ge m u s i c -m a ki n g
i s n ot . Bot h i n
C h i n a a n d
a br oa d ,
s t u d i e s h a ve be e n c on s t r a i n e d
by pol i t i c a l
fa c t or s . In
C h i n a ,
s c h ol a r s h a ve be e n
d i s c ou r a ge d
fr om
wr i t i n g c a n d i d l y,
a n d t r a d i t i on a l
e xpr e s s i ve
c u l t u r e i s oft e n d e s c r i be d i n
s om e t h i n g
of a t i m e l e s s h i s t or i c a l
pr e s e n t ,
wi t h s c a n t m a t e r i a l on i t s l oc a l m a i n t e n a n c e
t h r ou gh
d i ffe r e n t
ph a s e s
of
t we n t i e t h -c e n t u r y h i s t or y. For e i gn
s c h ol a r s h a ve u n t i l
r e c e n t l y
h a d l i t t l e a c c e s s .
As wi t h C h i n e s e
s oc i e t y
a s a
wh ol e ,
a t l e a s t t h r e e
m a jor pe r i od s m a y
be
d e fi n e d i n t h e m od e m
h i s t or y
of t h e a s s oc i a t i on s : t h e "ol d
s oc i e t y"
be for e t h e
C om m u n i s t "Li be r a t i on " of 1949
(or
be for e t h e
Ja pa n e s e
i n va s i on of
1937);
t h e
ye a r s
of Ma oi s t
c a m pa i gn s
a n d t h e c om m u n e
s ys t e m
u n t i l
1979;
a n d t h e e r a of
l i be r a l r e for m s s i n c e 1980. Not e t h a t a r ou n d 20
ye a r s
h a ve
a l r e a d y pa s s e d
s i n c e
t h e
d i s m a n t l i n g
of t h e Ma oi s t c om m u n e
s ys t e m . In d e e d ,
t h i s m a ke s t h e
d oc u m e n t i n g
of t h e
pe r i od
a l l t h e m or e
u r ge n t ,
s o we c a n
i n t e r pr e t vi l l a ge r s '
m e m or i e s be for e we a l l s u c c u m b t o s h a l l ow
m yt h .
1.1 Mu s i c a l
ba c kgr ou n d
On t h e c e n t r a l He be i
pl a i n
s ou t h of
Be i ji n g3
m os t
vi l l a ge s h a ve ,
or
h a d ,
s om e
ki n d of a m a t e u r
r i t u a l
a s s oc i a t i on
pe r for m i n g
for fu n e r a l s a n d c a l e n d r i c a l
r i t u a l s for t h e
god s , n ot a bl y
t h e C h i n e s e Ne w Ye a r . Som e a r e "Bu d d h i s t Affa i r s
As s oc i a t i on s "
(Fos h i h u i ) c on s i s t i n g
of a
gr ou p
of voc a l
l i t u r gi s t s
a c c om pa n yi n g
t h e m s e l ve s on r i t u a l
pe r c u s s i on ,
wh i l e
m a n y
m or e a r e "Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on s "
a d d i n g
a
pa r a -l i t u r gi c a l
i n s t r u m e n t a l e n s e m bl e .
In fa c t t h e fol k
r e l i gi on
s t i l l
pr a c t i s e d by
t h e s e
vi l l a ge
a s s oc i a t i on s i s a n
a ge -ol d s yn t h e s i s
of Bu d d h i s m a n d
Da oi s m , wh e r e by
t h e
pr ot e c t i on
of a
r a n ge
of
god s
i s
s ou gh t
i n or d e r t o
gu a r a n t e e
a bu n d a n t
h a r ve s t s , good h e a l t h ,
a n d
1
Wh i l e
t h e i r c on d i t i on s i n c e t h e
1980s ,
I h a ve m a d e a
r e l a t i ve l y
d e t a i l e d
h i s t or i c a l
e t h n ogr a ph y
of a n a s s oc i a t i on i n on e
vi l l a ge ,
Ga ol u o
(Jon e s , u n pu bl i s h e d
m a n u s c r i pt ).
Th e m a t e r i a l
pr e s e n t e d
be l ow i s a m e r e
s u m m a r y
of m or e
s u pe r fi c i a l
a n d br i e f
i n t e r vi e ws i n ove r a h u n d r e d
vi l l a ge s
i n a d oze n c ou n t i e s ,
ye t
I be l i e ve i t s h ows s om e
c on s i s t e n t
pa t t e r n s
wh i c h wi l l be r e fi n e d bu t n ot r e fu t e d
by
m or e
pr obi n g
fi e l d wor k.
Mv 1989 fi e l d wor k wi t h Xu e
Yi bi n g
on t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s wa s
r e fl e c t e d
i n a n
i n t r od u c t or y
a r t i c l e
(Jon e s
a n d Xu e
1991);
s e e a l s o Jon e s 1998:181-212. Fr om 1993 t o
1997,
a i d e d
by
a r e s e a r c h
gr a n t
fr om t h e Le ve r h u l m e
Tr u s t ,
I c ol l e c t e d d a t a on t h e a s s oc i a t i on s on a
pr oje c t
wi t h Xu e
Yi bi n g, Qi a o Ji a n zh on g,
a n d
Zh a n g
Zh e n t a o of t h e Mu s i c Re s e a r c h
In s t i t u t e
(MRI)
of t h e C h i n e s e
Ac a d e m y
of Ar t s i n
Be i ji n g,
t o a l l of wh om I a m m os t
gr a t e fu l .
In t h e
t e xt ,
"'we " r e fe r s t o t h i s t e a m . Sou r c e s a r e ou r
fi e l d n ot e s
s i n c e
1989, c opi e s
of
wh i c h a r e h e l d i n t h e
MRI;
s om e h a ve be e n
pu bl i s h e d
i n C h i n e s e i n
Zh on ggu o yi n yu e
n i a n ji a n 1994, 1995,
a n d 1996. Al s o i n
C h i n e s e ,
n ot e
Qi a o
e t a l . 1997 a n d
Zh a n g
1998.
2 Of
m a n y
fi n e s oc i a l s t u d i e s
by
We s t e r n
a u t h or s ,
i n wh i c h
e xpr e s s i ve
c u l t u r e
h a r d l y
fe a t u r e s ,
s e e
e .g.
t h e wor ks of Hi n t on a n d t h e
C r ooks ;
a n d m or e
r e c e n t l y, C h a n ,
Ma d s e n a n d
Un ge r 1992,
Fr i e d m a n
1991, Hu a n g
Sh u -m i n
1989, Se ybol t 1996,
a n d Ga o 1999.
3 For a
m a p
s e e Jon e s a n d Xu e 1991:5.
JONES C h i n e s e r i t u a l m u s i c u n d e r Ma o a n d
De n g
29
Fi gu r e
1 Th e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on of Ka i kou
vi l l a ge , Xi on gxi a n c ou n t y, pe r for m i n g
for a
t e m pl e
fa i r i n t h e
vi l l a ge ,
1995. Th i s a s s oc i a t i on r e s t or e d
on l y
i n
1994,
t o s e r ve t h e
vi l l a ge 's n e wl y
r e fu r bi s h e d
t e m pl e .
In t h e
c e n t r e ,
t wo fr a m e s of
yu n l u o, pl a ye d by
on e
m u s i c i a n .
Fi gu r e
2 Th e voc a l
l i t u r gi s t s
of t h e Ma t ou Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
pe r for m i n g
for a
fu n e r a l ,
1995. We i
Gu ol i a n g (c e n t r e , pl a yi n g
h a n d
be l l )
l e a r n t voc a l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l r i t u a l m u s i c
fr om t h e Da oi s t
pr i e s t s
of t h e Hou s h a n m ou n t a i n
t e m pl e
i n t h e
1930s ;
ot h e r s s t u d i e d
d u r i n g
bot h t h e Ma o a n d
De n g
e r a s .
pr ope r
r e l a t i on s wi t h t h e a n c e s t or s .
Th ou gh
s om e a s s oc i a t i on s c l a i m
"Bu d d h i s t " or "Da oi s t "
t r a n s m i s s i on ,
t h e i r
pa n t h e on s
a r e
s yn c r e t i c ,
a n d e ve n
t h e n a m e s Fo
("Bu d d h a ")
a n d Da o a r e oft e n u s e d
i n t e r c h a n ge a bl y. Im por t a n t
a r t e fa c t s of s u c h
gr ou ps
i n c l u d e
gon gc h e
s c or e s a n d r i t u a l
m a n u a l s ; pa n t h e on s
a n d ot h e r
god pa i n t i n gs ,
a s we l l a s d on or s '
l i s t s ,
a r e
d i s pl a ye d
for r i t u a l s .
In t h i s a r e a
t e m pl e s
a r e n ow r a r e
e xc e pt
i n t h e
l a r ge r
t own s .
Th ou gh
bot h t h e
m u s i c a n d r i t u a l h a ve
l on g
be e n a s s oc i a t e d wi t h
pr i e s t s ,
t h e r e h a ve be e n n o fu l l -
t i m e
pr i e s t s
i n t h e a r e a s i n c e t h e
1950s ,
a n d t h e a m a t e u r r i t u a l
pr a c t i t i on e r s
of t h e
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a r e n ow t h e m a i n i n t e r m e d i a r i e s wi t h t h e
s pi r i t u a l
wor l d of
god s , gh os t s
a n d a n c e s t or s . Th e r i t u a l a n d m u s i c h a ve a c e r t a i n l oc a l
pr e s t i ge ,
r e pr e s e n t i n g
t h e "ol d r u l e s "
(l a o gu i ju )
of "c i vi l i za t i on "
(we n m i n g),
bu t t h e
m u s i c i a n s a r e
or d i n a r y pe a s a n t s . Me m be r s h i p
h a s r e m a i n e d
e xc l u s i ve l y
m a l e .
Mos t Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s
h a ve ,
or s h ou l d
h a ve ,
t h r e e m a i n m u s i c a l
c om pon e n t s ,
c h u i -d a -n i a n :
wi n d
m u s i c , pe r c u s s i on m u s i c ,
a n d voc a l
l i t u r gy.
Apa r t
fr om voc a l
l i t u r gy,
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a r e fa m e d for t h e i r s ol e m n m u s i c
for a
l a r ge
wi n d a n d
pe r c u s s i on e n s e m bl e ,
oft e n kn own a s
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c
a ft e r i t s
l e a d i n g
i n s t r u m e n t s . An e n s e m bl e
c om m on l y
c on s i s t s of a r ou n d
t we n t y
m u s i c i a n s .Th e i n s t r u m e n t a t i on i s s t r i c t .
Apa r t
fr om
s h e n g (fr e e -r e e d
m ou t h -
or ga n )
a n d
gu a n (or gu a n zi ,
a s m a l l
pi pe
wi t h a
l a r ge d ou bl e -r e e d ),
t h e ot h e r
m e l od i c i n s t r u m e n t s a r e d i 4
(or d i zi ,
t r a n s ve r s e fl u t e wi t h
ka zoo-m e m br a n e )
a n d
yu n l u o (fr a m e
of t e n
pi t c h e d gon gs ).
Th e i r m e l od i e s a r e
a c c om pa n i e d by l a r ge
ba r r e l d r u m a n d s m a l l
c ym ba l s .
Th e m u s i c i a n s a l s o
pe r for m m a je s t i c
m u s i c for
pe r c u s s i on e n s e m bl e ,
l e d
by
t wo
t ype s
of
l a r ge c ym ba l s (bo
a n d
n a o)
a n d a l s o
u s i n g d a n gzi (s i n gl e gon g
i n
fr a m e ).
Vi l l a ge r s
h e r e u s e t h e wor d
yi n yu e (t h e
s t a n d a r d t e r m for
"m u s i c ")
t o r e fe r
n ot t o m u s i c
ge n e r a l l y,
bu t
s pe c i fi c a l l y
t o t h e
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c
pe r for m e d by
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a s a r i t u a l
d u t y
for fu n e r a l s a n d
god s ' d a ys .
In c on t r a s t t o
s om e ot h e r
t ype s
of
C h i n e s e
m u s i c ,
s u c h a s
fol k-s on g
a n d e ve n
ope r a ,
or s om e
m or e
you t h fu l
u r ba n e n t e r t a i n m e n t
ge n r e s ,
t h i s
pa r a -l i t u r gi c a l m u s i c ,
i n h e r i t e d
fr om t h e
t e m pl e s
of
i m pe r i a l t i m e s ,
a n d
s t r i c t l y
t r a n s m i t t e d
by
m e a n s of a n
u n va r yi n g
s c or e i n
gon gc h e n ot a t i on ,
r e s e m bl e s a c l a s s i c a l
t r a d i t i on
of a r t m u s i c .
Apa r t
fr om t h e s ol e m n a n d c on s e r va t i ve r i t u a l m u s i c of t h e Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on s ,
r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s h a ve e vol ve d i n s om e
vi l l a ge s
s i n c e
e a r l y
i n
t h e t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y,
wh i c h
pe r for m
a
s t yl e
c a l l e d "Sou t h e r n Mu s i c "
(Na n yu e ),
l e d
by
a
l a r ge r gu a n zi
oboe a n d a l s o
u s i n g
a s m a l l s h a wm a n d a bowe d
fi d d l e ,
a n d
pl a yi n g
m or e
popu l a r
m od e m
pi e c e s ,
oft e n ba s e d on
fol k-s on g
or l oc a l
ope r a .
Mos t h a ve r e m a i n e d
a m a t e u r , pe r for m i n g on l y
for fu n e r a l s a n d n ot for
we d d i n gs ,
l i ke t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s fr om wh i c h
t h e y
e vol ve d .
In m os t
vi l l a ge s
wi t h a r i t u a l e n s e m bl e t h e r e i s
on l y
on e
gr ou p,
wh i c h
pe r for m s
e i t h e r "Mu s i c " or Sou t h e r n Mu s i c . Som e c on ve r t e d fr om t h e
t r a d i t i on a l
s t yl e
t o Sou t h e r n Mu s i c be t we e n t h e 1920s a n d 1960s . Fe w
vi l l a ge s
h a ve m or e t h a n on e r i t u a l
a s s oc i a t i on , t h ou gh on e , Sh e n s h i zh u a n g,
h a s fou r
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a l l
pe r for m i n g
t h e m or e t r a d i t i on a l
s t yl e ,
a n d t h e
a d ja c e n t
vi l l a ge s
of Nor t h a n d Sou t h Ga ol u o e a c h h a ve bot h
t ype s .
4
Th r ou gh ou t
t h i s
a r e a ,
a s i n
Be i ji n g, m a n y
wor d s a r e r ou n d e d off wi t h a n
'r ',
t h u s
gu a n
a n d
d i s ou n d l i ke
gwa r
a n d d e e r .
JONES C h i n e s e r i t u a l m u s i c u n d e r Ma o a n d De n g 31
,
04,
Two..
7a
0.
-
- [.
Fi gu r e
3 Th e
pa n t h e on
of t h e
Li u ji n g
Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on ,
d i s pl a ye d
for c a l e n d r i c a l r i t u a l s .
To t h e
r i gh t
i s a
pa pe r e n ve l ope ,
l a t e r bu r n t i n or d e r t o be s e e c h
t h e
god d e s s Hou t u .
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'i
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1~1L . i
- ~ -?s r ? ~ d 9
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;f:
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:r
:l i
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Fi gu r e
4 Th e Te n
Ki n gs s c r ol l . Ma n y vi l l a ge s
i n t h e a r e a s t i l l
pr e s e r ve "pr e c i ou s
s c r ol l s "
(ba oju a n )
fr om t h e s e ve n t e e n t h t o n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s s u c h a s t h i s on e t o t h e
t e n
ki n gs
of t h e
u n d e r wor l d ,
r e c i t e d for fu n e r a l s .
Ot h e r
ge n r e s
a r e a l s o
pe r for m e d
i n t h e s a m e a r e a . Th e m os t c om m on
t ype
of i n s t r u m e n t a l e n s e m bl e
t h r ou gh ou t
r u r a l C h i n a i s t h e
wi n d -a n d -pe r c u s s i on
ba n d
(c h u i d a ba n )
of
"bl owe r s -a n d -d r u m m e r s "
(c h u i gu s h ou ),
wh o
pe r for m
s h a wm -a n d -pe r c u s s i on
m u s i c for a wi d e
r a n ge
of c e r e m on i a l
c on t e xt s ,
i n c l u d i n g
n ot
on l y
fu n e r a l s bu t a l s o
we d d i n gs ,
t a boo for t h e Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on s .
Th e y
a r e fu r t h e r
d i s t i n gu i s h e d
fr om t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s i n
t h a t
t h e y
a r e
pr ofe s s i on a l ; t h e y
oft e n
be l on g
t o a
s i n gl e fa m i l y.
Th e i r
r e pe r t or y
i n c l u d e s
m a n y
"c l a s s i c a l "
(Jon e s 1998:75-6)
m e l od i e s i n
l e n gt h y s u i t e s ,
bu t
t h e y
a r e l e s s l i m i t e d
by
t r a d i t i on t h a n t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a n d
i n c or por a t e
m od e m
pi e c e s fr e e l y. In d e e d ,
a s t r i c t s oc i a l
h i e r a r c h y
h a s be e n i n h e r i t e d fr om
i m pe r i a l
t i m e s : t h e
bl owe r s -a n d -d r u m m e r s ,
wi t h t h e i r
m e r c e n a r y
ou t l ook a n d
r e a d i n e s s t o
a d a pt ,
a r e oft e n s oc i a l
ou t c a s t s ,
wh i l e r i t u a l m u s i c i a n s a r e
c on s i d e r e d
s u pe r i or (Jon e s 1998:154ff.).
Al s o c om m on
t od a y
a r e ot h e r l e s s
e xpl i c i t l y
r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s for
a c t i vi t i e s s u c h a s
s t i l t -wa l ki n g, l i on -d a n c i n g, ya n gge d a n c i n g
a n d m a r t i a l a r t s .
Th e y pe r for m m a i n l y
for t h e Ne w
Ye a r ,
a n d
oc c a s i on a l l y
for ot h e r
c a l e n d r i c a l
fe s t i vi t i e s . Un t i l t h e
e a r l y
1960s
m a n y vi l l a ge s
i n t h e a r e a h a d a n a m a t e u r
t r ou pe pe r for m i n g
t h e l oc a l t r a d i t i on a l
ba n gzi ope r a ;
a ft e r a n i n t e r l u d e a s Ma o
Ze d on g Th ou gh t Pr opa ga n d a
Te a m s
d u r i n g
t h e C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on ,
fe w
t r ou pe s
we r e s u c c e s s fu l i n
r e vi vi n g
i n t h e 1980s . As t o l e s s for m a l m u s i c -
m a ki n g,
s ol o a n d
gr ou p s i n gi n g (s u c h
a s l ove
s on gs
or wor k
s on gs )
s e e m s t o
h a ve be e n
qu i t e
r a r e i n t h i s
a r e a ,
a n d
n a r r a t i ve -s i n ge r s r e c i t i n g
s t or i e s fr om
popu l a r
fi c t i on t o t h e
a c c om pa n i m e n t
of s a n xi a n
ba n jo
d e c l i n e d a ft e r t h e 1950s .
Th e m a i n s u r vi va l of
fol k-s on g
i n t h i s a r e a
m a y
be t h e r i t u a l
s on gs
of s h a m a n s .
Si n c e t h e m i d 1980s C h i n e s e
pop
m u s i c h a s be e n d om i n a n t i n
t own s
i n t h e
a r e a ,
a n d i n t h e
vi l l a ge s
i s h e a r d
d a i l y
on t e l e vi s i on .
1.2
Pe r s pe c t i ve s
So ou r foc u s h e r e i s t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c a n d voc a l
l i t u r gy
of t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a n d Bu d d h i s t Affa i r s As s oc i a t i on s . Th e s e
gr ou ps
h a ve
s e r ve d ,
m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r r e l e va n c e
t h r ou gh ,
or be e n i n s e n s i t i ve t o
i m pe r i a l , r e pu bl i c a n ,
c om m u n i s t a n d
c a pi t a l i s t s oc i e t i e s , s u r vi vi n g
t h e t r a u m a s
of
wa r l or d i s m , ba n d i t r y, Ja pa n e s e i n va s i on ,
c i vi l
wa r ,
Ma oi s t
c a m pa i gn s ,
t h e
n e w
c a pi t a l i s m ,
a n d e ve n vi s i t s fr om
m u s i c ol ogi s t s ,
wi t h l i t t l e
a ppa r e n t c h a n ge
i n e i t h e r c on t e xt or m u s i c a l s ou n d . Wh i l e
s oc i e t y,
a n d s om e ot h e r m u s i c a l
ge n r e s ,
h a ve be e n
c h a n gi n g qu i t e r a d i c a l l y,
t h e s e r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s h a ve
r e m a i n e d
i n t r i n s i c a l l y c on s e r va t i ve , m a i n t a i n i n g
t h e i r s oc i a l a n d m u s i c a l c or e -
i n
c on t e xt , i n s t r u m e n t a t i on ,
a n d
r e pe r t or y.
We
m a y
obs e r ve a c e r t a i n
*i m pove r i s h m e n t " (Ne t t l 1983:349-54),
a n d s om e
t e m por a r y a d a pt i ve
s t r a t e gi e s ,
bu t l i t t l e i n n ova t i on .
In l i n e wi t h
s i n ol ogy,
we n e e d t o "br e a k
t h r ou gh
t h e 1949 ba r r i e r "
(e .g.
Fr i e d m a n
1991:xvi i , c i t i n g
Pa u l
C oh e n ). St u d y
of l oc a l r e a l i t i e s
-
n ot
ju s t
pol i c y
d oc u m e n t s or
s t a t e -s pon s or e d
u r ba n
t r ou pe s
- i n "Re d C h i n a " (a n d
ot h e r c ou n t r i e s wh e r e a n
i m a ge
of s t a t e s oc i a l i s m
m a y
ove r s h a d ow
r e a l i t y)
m a y
c or r e c t s om e fa c i l e c on c l u s i on s . Tr a d i t i on a l r i t u a l a n d m u s i c a l c u l t u r e s
De n g
33
we r e n ot e r a d i c a t e d u n d e r Ma oi s m or
r e pl a c e d by
t h e
m od e m
s e c u l a r
"c on s e r va t or y s t yl e ".
Nor c a n we
a c c e pt
t h e bl a n d
c om pe t i n g pr opa ga n d a
t h a t
t ypi c a l l y
c l a i m s "a ft e r
Li be r a t i on ,
t h e C om m u n i s t
Pa r t y
e s t e e m e d fol k
m u s i c i a n s ,
wh o we r e a bl e t o t u r n ove r a n e w l e a f a n d c r e a t e n e w wor ks ".
Ge n r e s
s u r vi vi n g
or
r e vi vi n g
s i n c e t h e 1980s a r e n ot
"l i vi n g
fos s i l s "
m i r a c u l ou s l y
a n d
m a r gi n a l l y pr e s e r ve d
i n a
s oc i e t y
s om e h ow i s ol a t e d fr om
s oc i a l
c h a n ge
or c u s h i on e d fr om n e w a n d
"r e vol u t i on a r y" c u l t u r e ;
t h e
m u s i c i a n s h a ve t a ke n
pa r t a c t i ve l y
i n s oc i a l a n d
pol i t i c a l c a m pa i gn s .
Ye t
C om m u n i s t c u l t u r a l
pol i c y
a n d i t s u r ba n
pr ofe s s i on a l
e m bod i m e n t h a ve
r e m a i n e d
l a r ge l y
i r r e l e va n t t o t h e m u s i c i a n s a n d t h e i r a u d i e n c e s . Nor i s t h i s a
ki n d of i s ol a t e d
pr e s e r va t i on i s m (c f.
Ne t t l
1983:351-2),
s u c h a s h a s be e n
d e s c r i be d for
Ja pa n
a n d
Kor e a ,
wh e r e t h e c e n t r a l s t a t e
s t e ps
i n t o
pr e s e r ve
a n
a n c i e n t c u l t u r e u n d e r a r t i fi c i a l c on d i t i on s .
Ou r fi e l d wor k m a t e r i a l s h ows t h a t t h e a s s oc i a t i on s h a ve we a t h e r e d
d i ffe r e n t
pr obl e m s t h r ou gh ou t
a l l t h r e e
pe r i od s .
Th e
pr e -Li be r a t i on pe r i od
wa s
n o
gol d e n a ge
for
e xpr e s s i ve
c u l t u r e :
ba n d i t r y, wa r l or d i s m ,
i n va s i on a n d c i vi l
wa r t h r e a t e n e d s oc i a l
d i s i n t e gr a t i on . Du r i n g
t h e
fol l owi n g
Ma oi s t
pe r i od ,
d e s pi t e fr e qu e n t pol i t i c a l a s s a u l t s ,
r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s oft e n s u r vi ve d wi t h t h e
s u ppor t
of
vi l l a ge
c a d r e s a n d t h e
c om m u n i t y;
br i e f bu t
s i gn i fi c a n t
r e vi va l s
we r e
s t a ge d
s oon a ft e r Li be r a t i on a n d fr om 1962 t o
1964,
a n d t h e wor s t
e xc e s s e s of t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on we r e ove r
by
1970. For t h e r e for m
pe r i od
s i n c e
1980,
s u c h
gr ou ps m a y
be m or e
s e r i ou s l y
t h r e a t e n e d
by c a pi t a l i s m
t h a n
t h e y
we r e
by
Ma oi s m .
C om m u n i s m i s
wi d e l y
be l i e ve d t o h a ve
t r a n s for m e d c u l t u r e a s we l l a s
s oc i e t y.
Gi ve n t h e c l os e
i d e n t i fi c a t i on ,
r e ve a l e d
by
ou r
fi e l d wor k,
of t h e
vi l l a ge
e l i t e wi t h t h e i r Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s bot h be for e a n d s i n c e
Li be r a t i on ,
t h e
m e d i a t i on of t h e t e n s i on s be t we e n
m od e r n i zi n g l e a d e r s h i p
a n d t r a d i t i on a l
c u l t u r e i s r e m a r ka bl e . On e
a n a l ys i s
c om m e n t s
a ppos i t e l y:
Al t h ou gh
Pa r t y,
i n
t r yi n g
t o
i m pr ove l i fe ,
bot h
a d a pt e d
t o a n d t r a n s for m e d
pe a s a n t
va l u e s a n d s oc i a l
r e l a t i on s ,
C h i n e s e
vi l l a ge r s
-
i n c l u d i n g Pa r t y
m e m be r s
-
ke pt
t o t h e i r own
a ge n d a .
Eve n
wh e n t h e
Pa r t y br ou gh t
e c on om i c
ga i n
a n d c u l t u r a l
h e a l i n g,
c e n t r e a n d
h i n t e r l a n d we r e
fr e qu e n t l y
a t od d s ...
Vi l l a ge r s
a n d t h e i r a l l i e s a n d
pa t r on s a m on g
offi c i a l s a l s o
t r i e d ,
a s
t h e y
h a d for
m a n y ge n e r a t i on s
u n d e r va r i ou s
r e gi m e s ,
t o
d od ge , d e fl e c t ,
a n d bl u n t t h e
i m pa c t
of
d e m a n d s d e t r i m e n t a l t o l oc a l i n t e r e s t s a n d va l u e s . Th os e
n e ga t i ve
i m pa c t s gr a d u a l l y
e r od e d t h e n e w s t a t e 's
popu l a r l e gi t i m a c y.
(Fr i e d m a n 1991:xv)
If wi t h i n C h i n a i t i s s t i l l d i ffi c u l t t o
fr a n kl y
a s s e s s
pol i t i c a l ,
s oc i a l a n d
e c on om i c
pr obl e m s
u n d e r Ma oi s m
-
a pa r t
fr om t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on
-
s om e We s t e r n
h i s t or i a n s ,
wi t h d e t a i l e d
a n a l ys e s , por t r a y
t h e wh ol e
pe r i od
a s
on e of
u n r e l e n t i n g
t r a u m a a n d
s u ffe r i n g,
bot h
pe r s on a l
a n d
c ol l e c t i ve ,
wi t h
pol i t i c a l pe r s e c u t i on
a n d e c on om i c
d e pr i va t i on , i m pl i c i t l y
i n fl i c t e d
by
a n e vi l
a n d
a ppa r e n t l y
a l i e n s t a t e m a c h i n e
(Ji n g
Ju n 1996; c f.
Fr i e d m a n
1991,
C h a n
1992).
Su c h a n
i n t e r pr e t a t i on i m pl i e s
t r a u m a t i c c u l t u r a l
d i s r u pt i on : Ji n g's
s t u d y
of a C on fu c i a n
t e m pl e
i n Ga n s u
pr ovi n c e
s h ows
c on vi n c i n gl y
h ow
t r a d i t i on wa s
s ys t e m a t i c a l l y d e s t r oye d
t h e r e u n d e r Ma oi s m . He n c e s c h ol a r s
of m od e m C h i n a oft e n
qu a l i fy
t h e "r e vi va l " of t r a d i t i on s i n c e t h e r e for m s of
t h e 1980s a s a
r e -i m a gi n a t i on
of t h e
pr e -Ma oi s t pa s t
u n d e r t r a n s for m e d
s oc i a l c on d i t i on s .
Ou r m a t e r i a l
s u gge s t s
a s om e wh a t d i ffe r e n t s i t u a t i on . Ne i t h e r t h e m u s i c a l
for m n or t h e s oc i a l c on t e xt of t h e s e r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s we r e
e xt i n gu i s h e d
u n d e r Ma oi s m .
Ma n y
m u s i c i a n s s t r a d d l e d a l l t h r e e
pe r i od s ,
fr om t h e ol d
s oc i e t y t h r ou gh
Ma oi s m t o t h e
r e for m s , fa c i l i t a t i n g
a u t h e n t i c t r a n s i t i on .
Fu r t h e r ,
I
s u gge s t
t h a t t h e n a t u r e a n d fu n c t i on of t h e
fu n e r a r y
a n d c a l e n d r i c a l
r i t u a l s of t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s h a ve
c h a n ge d
l i t t l e
qu a l i t a t i ve l y
s i n c e a t
l e a s t t h e 1940s .
An obvi ou s
e xpl a n a t i on
for t h i s r e s i l i e n c e i s t h e
pe r s i s t e n c e (a ga i n ,
r a t h e r
t h a n
r e a ppe a r a n c e )
of t h e
s oc i a l ,
e c on om i c a n d
i d e ol ogi c a l
c on d i t i on s wh i c h
s u ppor t
t h e a s s oc i a t i on s . Ec on om i c c on d i t i on s h a ve
i m pr ove d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y
s i n c e t h e
1940s , n ot a bl y
s i n c e
1980,
bu t
t r a n s por t , s u ppl i e s
of
e l e c t r i c i t y
a n d
wa t e r , h e a l t h -c a r e ,
a n d
i n d u s t r y
r e m a i n ba c kwa r d i n r u r a l a r e a s .
Vi l l a ge s
h a ve
c on t i n u e d t o
d e pe n d
on
a gr i c u l t u r e
a n d t o
pe r c e i ve
t h e n e e d for
fu n e r a r y
a n d
r e l i gi ou s
obs e r va n c e s
ve n e r a t i n g
t h e a n c e s t or s a n d
s e e ki n g pe a c e
a n d
pr os pe r i t y.
If c e n t r a l
C h i n e s e
pol i c y
c l a i m s t h a t t h e s e c on d i t i on s h a ve be e n
t r a n s for m e d s i n c e Li be r a t i on
(ju s t
a s i t c l a i m s t h a t t r a d i t i on a l c u l t u r e h a s be e n
i m pr ove d "),
C h i n e s e offi c i a l s a s we l l a s ou t s i d e obs e r ve r s a r e we l l a bl e t o s e e
r e s pe c t s
i n wh i c h
t h e y
h a ve be e n u n a bl e t o
c h a n ge s oc i e t y.
Eve n Ma o's
d i s c l a i m e r t o Ni xon n ow s e e m s
qu i t e e xa gge r a t e d :
e ve n c om m u n i t i e s s o n e a r
Be i ji n g
r e m a i n e d u n t ou c h e d
by
t h e r e vol u t i on i n
s i gn i fi c a n t r e s pe c t s ,
bot h
e c on om i c a l l y
a n d
c u l t u r a l l y.
Th i s
m a y
be n e i t h e r
t ypi c a l
n or
a t ypi c a l
of ot h e r for m s of
e xpr e s s i ve
c u l t u r e u n d e r
Ma oi s m , r e gi on a l l y
a n d
n a t i on a l l y.
Ri t u a l h a s r e m a i n e d a
pe r va s i ve a s pe c t
of
e xpr e s s i ve
c u l t u r e i n r u r a l C h i n a . In s om e
pl a c e s
c u l t u r a l
i m pove r i s h m e n t
s e e m s t o h a ve be e n s e ve r e n ot
ju s t
fr om 1966 t o 1976 bu t fr om
a bou t 1956 t o
1980;
we e ve n h a ve t o e n t e r t a i n t h e
pos s i bi l i t y
t h a t s om e
pl a c e s
l os t t h e i r t r a d i t i on s
a br u pt l y
be for e
Li be r a t i on ,
n e ve r t o r e c l a i m
a n y e xpr e s s i ve
m e d i a a s t h e i r
own ,
bu t t h i s t oo wou l d n e e d
d e m on s t r a t i n g
i n d e t a i l .
In d e e d ,
s om e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s i n t h i s a r e a h a ve n e ve r r e vi ve d s i n c e t h e wa r fa r e of
t h e
1940s ; m a n y fol k-s i n ge r s , pe r for m e r s
of
n a r r a t i ve -s i n gi n g,
a n d
ope r a
gr ou ps
a l s o
ga ve u p
s oon a ft e r Li be r a t i on .
C on ve r s e l y, m a n y
m or e r e m ot e a r e a s
of s ou t h e r n C h i n a s e e m t o h a ve r e t a i n e d t h e i r t r a d i t i on s wi t h l e s s
d i s r u pt i on
t h a n h e r e . It
m a y t r a n s pi r e
fr om fu r t h e r r e s e a r c h t h a t s om e ot h e r
t ype s
of
m u s i c i a n i n
C h i n a ,
s u c h a s
n a r r a t i ve -s i n ge r s
a n d s h a wm
pl a ye r s , m a y
be m or e
"m a r gi n a l ",
l e s s
r e pr e s e n t e d
i n t h e
vi l l a ge powe r s t r u c t u r e ,
a n d t h u s bot h m or e
vu l n e r a bl e t o c e n t r a l d e c r e e s a n d m or e
t a n ge n t i a l
t o
m a jor e ve n t s ;
bu t t h e i r
h i s t or y
t oo wi l l be t h a t of m od e r n
C h i n a ,
wi t h a l l i t s
c om pl e xi t i e s . On l y
d e t a i l e d
m a t e r i a l wi l l e n a bl e u s t o
ju d ge .
De n g
35
2 Be for e C om m u n i s m
Be for e
s u r ve yi n g
t h e m od e m for t u n e s of t h e
He be i
r i t u a l
a s s oc i a t i on s ,
a
s u m m a r y
of m a t e r i a l on t h e i r
e a r l y h i s t or y
i s
a ppos i t e .
2.1
Ea r l y h i s t or y
a n d t r a n s m i s s i on
C l u e s t o t h e
e a r l y h i s t or y
of t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a r e
s pa r s e . Im pe r i a l
s ou r c e s
m e n t i on
vi l l a ge
a s s oc i a t i on s
l a r ge l y
i n t h e c on t e xt of fol k
r e l i gi ou s s e c t s ,
a n d
t h e n
on l y
wh e n
t h e y
we r e
pe r s e c u t e d
for
r e be l l i n g a ga i n s t
t h e
gove r n m e n t .
Th e
h i s t or y
of "Wh i t e Lot u s " s e c t s
(Na qu i n 1985)
s h ou l d be
h i gh l y r e l e va n t ,
bu t
pr ovi d e s
l i t t l e
s pe c i fi c
d a t a . In
ge n e r a l
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s d ou bt l e s s
r e pr e s e n t e d
a m or e
pu bl i c ,
c on for m i s t
vi l l a ge -wi d e or ga n i za t i on
t h a n t h e
"h e t e r od ox"
s e c t s ,
bu t l oc a l
r e a l i t y
wa s
c om pl e x.
Eve n t h e
i m pe r i a l pe r i od
be for e 1911 wa s n ot on e of
u n i n t e r r u pt e d pe a c e
for s u c h a s s oc i a t i on s . C i vi l u n r e s t wa s c om m on
t h r ou gh
t h e
Mi n g (1368-1644)
a n d
Qi n g (1644-1911) d yn a s t i e s .
Th e
Qu ji a yi n g
a s s oc i a t i on t e l l s of a c r i s i s i n
1853,
a n d t h e
Li u ji n g gr ou p
a l s o be c a m e
i n a c t i ve , h a vi n g
t o
r e l e a r n
fr om a
n e a r by vi l l a ge
on t h e e ve of t h e t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y.
Gove r n m e n t
pe r s e c u t i on
of
"h e t e r od ox" s e c t s wa s fi e r c e u n t i l t h e m i d n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y. Th ou gh
t h e s e
s e c t s c a n
r a r e l y
be i d e n t i fi e d
d i r e c t l y
wi t h t h e Mu s i c
r i t u a l
m a n u a l s a n d e ve n i n s t r u m e n t s m u s t h a ve h a d t o be
r e pl a c e d
a ft e r c on fi s c a t i on
(e .g.
Ma a n d
Ha n 1992:501-3, 542).
Vi l l a ge r s
d e s c r i be t wo c om m on m e a n s of t r a n s m i s s i on of t h e i r r i t u a l
s h e n g-
gu a n
l i t u r gy:
a
gr ou p
of wou l d -be m u s i c i a n s
l e a r n t
e i t h e r fr om
Bu d d h i s t or Da oi s t
pr i e s t s
i n l oc a l
t e m pl e s ,
or
by i n vi t i n g
a m u s i c i a n fr om
a n ot h e r
vi l l a ge
a s s oc i a t i on . An i n s t r u m e n t a l s c or e i n t h e t r a d i t i on a l
gon gc h e
s ol fe ggi o
wa s
u s u a l l y c opi e d
for t h e
a ppr e n t i c e
a s s oc i a t i on .
Fu l l -t i m e
pr i e s t s
h a ve be c om e fe we r s i n c e t h e n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y; l a ym e n
h a ve
l on g a c qu i r e d
a c e r t a i n r i t u a l
kn owl e d ge ,
bu t t h e
ve m a c u l a r i za t i on of
r i t u a l h a s be e n n e c e s s i t a t e d i n
m od e m
t i m e s
by
t h e
gr e a t e r e ffi c i e n c y
of for c e d
s e c u l a r i za t i on ,
s i n c e
e a r l y
i n t h e t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y
a n d
e s pe c i a l l y
s i n c e 1949.
Si n c e t h e 1950s
vi l l a ge r s
c ou l d
on l y
l e a r n
fr om
for m e r pr i e s t s ;
wi t h
vi l l a ge
t e m pl e s e m pt y, ve r y
fe w
pr i e s t s
i n t h e
r e m a i n i n g
t own
t e m pl e s
s t i l l
pl a y
t h e
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c .
Mos t l y
t h e m u s i c s e e m s t o h a ve
s pr e a d
s ou t h fr om t h e
t e m pl e s
of
Be i ji n g
a n d
Ti a n ji n ,
wh os e
r e pe r t or i e s ove r l a p s u bs t a n t i a l l y
wi t h t h os e of t h e
vi l l a ge
a s s oc i a t i on s . Wi t h m or e
d a t a ,
we c ou l d
d i s c e r n d i ffe r e n t l e ve l s of
t r a n s m i s s i on : fi r s t fr om t h e
m a jor t e m pl e s
of
Be i ji n g
a n d
Ti a n ji n
t o m i n or
t e m pl e s t h e r e ;
t h e n t o
l a r ge r t e m pl e s
i n
c ou n t y-t own s ;
t h e n t o
vi l l a ge s ,
a n d
fr om
vi l l a ge
t o
vi l l a ge .
Apa r t
fr om m u s i c a l c l u e s a n d or a l
t r a d i t i on s ,
s om e a s s oc i a t i on s
pr e s e r ve
d a t a bl e a r t e fa c t s . A fe w i n s t r u m e n t s s a i d t o be a r
Mi n g
d a t e s h a ve s u r vi ve d
(Gu o 1991:3, 5,
Zh a o
1987:49).
An ot h e r
t ype
of c l u e c om e s fr om s c or e s i n t h e
gon gc h e s ol fe ggi o-t ype n ot a t i on ,
wh i c h a r e oft e n d a t e d . Th e
gr e a t m a jor i t y
we
h a ve
i n s pe c t e d
we r e
c opi e d
s i n c e t h e
e a r l y
t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y,
bu t s om e ol d e r
s c or e s s u r vi ve
(Qi a o
e t a l .
1997).
Mos t c e l e br a t e d i s t h e 1694 s c or e of t h e
Zh i h u a
t e m pl e
i n
Be i ji n g (Jon e s 1998:304-5),
wh os e
r e pe r t or y ove r l a ps
s u bs t a n t i a l l y
wi t h t h a t of
vi l l a ge
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s . Se ve r a l
vi l l a ge
s c or e s i n
e a s t e r n
Xi on gxi a n
a t t r i bu t e t h e t r a n s m i s s i on of
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c t h e r e t o a
C h a n
(Ze n ) pr i e s t
c a l l e d "Won d r ou s Ton e s "
(Mi a oyi n )
i n 1787
(Fi gu r e 5).
De s pi t e
t h e
Qi n g gove r n m e n t 's h os t i l i t y
t o
s e c t s , vi l l a ge r s
oft e n
pos s e s s
fi r m t r a d i t i on s t h a t t h e i r Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on wa s fou n d e d or
s u ppor t e d by Qi n g
e m pe r or s .
We c a n n ot a s s u m e t h a t a l l s u c h c l a i m s a r e
s pu r i ou s , t h ou gh
s i n c e
1980 a fe w a s s oc i a t i on s h a ve be e n
fa br i c a t i n g
h i s t or i e s
a s
vi s i t i n g
fi e l d wor ke r s
i n fl u e n c e t h e m i n
s e e ki n g i m pr e s s i ve
h i s t or i c a l
pe d i gr e e s .
Se ve r a l Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on s c l a i m a t r a d i t i on t h a t t h e
Qi n g e m pe r or s Ka n gxi (r . 1662-1722)
or
Qi a n l on g (r . 1736-95)
fa vou r e d t h e m wi t h a
"d r a gon pl a c a r d "
(l on gpa i )
or a n
i m pe r i a l
d r a ft a ft e r
h e a r i n g
t h e m
pe r for m .
We c a n t r a c e s e ve r a l Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on s ba c k t o t h e m i d
e i gh t e e n t h c e n t u r y,
bu t t o
go
ba c k e ve n a s fa r a s
Ka n gxi 's r e i gn
i s s t i l l
s pe c u l a t i ve .
In
c on t r a s t t o ou r
r u d i m e n t a r y kn owl e d ge
of s e c t a r i a n or Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
a c t i vi t y
ove r s e ve r a l
c e n t u r i e s ,
t h e br i e f a n d
c a t a c l ys m i c
Boxe r
u pr i s i n g
of
190()
wa s
t h or ou gh l y
d oc u m e n t e d . Di s t i n c t i ve fe a t u r e s of t h e Boxe r m ove m e n t we r e
t h e i r
i n vu l n e r a bi l i t y r i t u a l s , s pi r i t -pos s e s s i on ,
a n d m a r t i a l a r t s . Non e of t h e s e i s
d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o t h e
pr a c t i c e s
of t h e
t ypi c a l vi l l a ge
r i t u a l
a s s oc i a t i on .
Howe ve r ,
m or e
ge n e r a l l y
t h e i r d om a i n
-
c om m u n i c a t i on wi t h t h e
god s
-
wa s
i d e n t i c a l ,
a n d bot h
pe r c e i ve d
t h e
for e i gn
i n t r u s i on of C a t h ol i c i s m a s a t h r e a t . In
on e
vi l l a ge
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on e ve n
pe r for m e d
a s t h e Boxe r s we n t i n t o
Fi gu r e
5
Pa ge
fr om t h e
gon gc h e
s c or e of We s t
An 'ge zh u a n g vi l l a ge , c opi e d
i n
1947,
wi t h a
h i s t or y
of
c opyi n g goi n g
ba c k t o 1787. Th i s i s t h e
ope n i n g
of t h e t h i r d
s u i t e ,
s h owi n g
t h e
pr e l u d e
He s i
qi a n pa i
a n d t h e
ope n i n g
of Qi Ya n h u i .
De n g
37
ba t t l e wi t h t h e Al l i e d
t r oops .
In Ga ol u o c on fl i c t be t we e n t h e C a t h ol i c
m i n or i t y
a n d t h e
vi l l a ge
r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on l e d t o t h e
ga t h e r i n g
of Boxe r s t o m a s s a c r e
C a t h ol i c s .
2.2 Aft e r t h e fa l l of
e m pi r e (1911-37)
We s t e r n s oc i a l s c i e n t i s t s a n d C h i n e s e s c h ol a r s a n d m u s i c i a n s a l i ke s u bs c r i be t o
t h e n ot i on t h a t t h e
pe r i od
be for e t h e 1949
Li be r a t i on ,
or be for e t h e 1937
Ja pa n e s e i n va s i on ,
wa s a
gol d e n a ge
for C h i n e s e fol k c u l t u r e . Gi ve n wh a t we
kn ow a bou t t h e
pe r i od ,
t h i s wou l d s e e m
i m pl a u s i bl e .
Th e h or r or s of t h e
l on g
pe r i od
of
a n a r c h y
be for e Li be r a t i on a r e
ge n u i n e l y
r e c a l l e d
by
ol d e r
vi l l a ge r s ,
a n d
r e c ogn i ze d by
C h i n e s e a n d We s t e r n s c h ol a r s . For m os t
poor e r vi l l a ge r s ,
t h e
e a r l y d a ys
of Li be r a t i on we r e
s u r e l y
c h a r a c t e r i ze d
by
a
fe e l i n g
of
r e l i e f,
a s
d u r i n g
t h e
pr e c e d i n g
d e c a d e s
i n s e c u r i t y
a n d c u l t u r a l
d i s i n t e gr a t i on
m u s t h a ve
be e n m or e
pr om i n e n t
t h a n
a n y
s e n s e of
pr os pe r i t y
or
fr e e d om ;
i n m os t
vi l l a ge s ,
pr om i s e s
of
m od e r n i zi n g
r a t i on a l i s m
a ga i n s t
t h e c h r on i c s oc i a l
pr obl e m s
wh i c h
t h e y
fa c e d we r e
l a r ge l y
a bs e n t u n t i l t h e C om m u n i s t s
br ou gh t h ope .
If i n t h e
1990s
pe opl e
i d e n t i fi e d
m i gr a t i on
a s a fa c t or i n
d i s c ou r a gi n g
t h e t r a n s m i s s i on
of t h e
m u s i c ,
for s e ve r a l d e c a d e s be for e Li be r a t i on t oo i t h a d be e n a c om m on
r e s pon s e
of
you n g
m e n
s e e ki n g
t o
e s c a pe ba n d i t r y, i n va s i on , ki d n a ppi n g,
c on s c r i pt i on ,
a n d fa m i n e .
Ye t we m u s t t a ke ol d e r
vi l l a ge r s ' n os t a l gi a s e r i ou s l y.
Ou r m a t e r i a l
gi ve s
r a t h e r r a r e
gl i m ps e s
of wh a t m u s t h a ve be e n a r i c h r i t u a l c u l t u r e
pu n c t u a t e d by
fr e qu e n t
c a l e n d r i c a l a n d
l i fe -c yc l e r i t u a l s ,
bu t d a t a fr om ot h e r a r e a s of C h i n a
r e ve a l t h e r i c h e s of r i t u a l c u l t u r e ba s e d on a
bu s y
a n n u a l
pr ogr a m m e
of
t e m pl e
fa i r s a n d
c u s t om a r y
obs e r va n c e s
(s e e e .g.
Joh n s on 1994 for
Sh a n xi ),
wh i c h
we r e n e ve r t o r e vi ve on s u c h a
l a r ge
s c a l e . Be for e 1949 c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i on s we r e
pe r h a ps
on e of t h e fe w a r e a s wh i c h offe r e d e m ba t t l e d
vi l l a ge r s a n y s t a bi l i t y.
Eve n i n t h e m i d s t of
c h a os ,
t h e r e we r e n o a l t e r n a t i ve s t o or
i d e ol ogi c a l
a t t a c ks
u pon
t r a d i t i on a l c u l t u r e :
vi l l a ge r s
r e m a i n e d c om m i t t e d t o t h e va l u e s wh i c h t h e
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
r e pr e s e n t e d ,
e ve n i f
t e m por a r y
c on d i t i on s m a d e t h e m
i m pr a c t i c a bl e .
Th e a s s oc i a t i on s we r e
pa r t
of a
c om pl e x
n e t wor k of
r e l i gi ou s
a n d
c u s t om a r y
l i fe .
Aft e r t wo m i l l e n i a of
i m pe r i a l
r u l e c a m e t o a n e n d i n
1911,
t h e
Re pu bl i c a n
pe r i od
wa s m a r ke d
by
s t a t e
a t t e m pt s
t o i n c r e a s e c on t r ol ove r l oc a l c om m u n i t i e s
(Du a r a 1988, 1991).
Bu t c e n t r a l
c a m pa i gn s
d i d n ot
a l wa ys
fi l t e r d own a s fa r a s
t h e
vi l l a ge s .
Th e
Ma y
Fou r t h Move m e n t of 1919 wa s a d e c i s i ve
a wa ke n i n g
of
u r ba n i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n fa vou r of
m od e r n i t y,
bu t
vi l l a ge r s
i n
Ga ol u o,
n ot fa r s ou t h
of
Be i ji n g,
n e ve r h e a r d of i t
-
t h e y
kn e w 1919
on l y
a s t h e
ye a r
of a s e r i ou s
e pi d e m i c
i n t h e
vi l l a ge .
St i l l ,
t h e c e n t r a l a t t a c k on t r a d i t i on a l
s ys t e m s m a y
h a ve
u n d e r m i n e d
vi l l a ge
a s s oc i a t i on s . Th i s wa s i n
l a r ge
m e a s u r e a
s t r u ggl e
for
pr ope r t y,
r e s ou r c e s a n d
powe r .
Fr om t h e 1920s t h e Na t i on a l i s t
gove r n m e n t a t t e m pt e d
s e ve r a l r u r a l
r e for m s wh i c h a ffe c t e d
l oc a l ,
a n d
e s pe c i a l l y r e l i gi ou s ,
c u l t u r e .
Re pu bl i c a n
c a m pa i gn s a ga i n s t ga m bl i n g
we r e i n
h a r m on y
wi t h t h e t r a d i t i on a l m or a l e t h i c
of
vi l l a ge
r i t u a l
a n d a r e r e fl e c t e d i n a n a m e
a d opt e d by
a t l e a s t on e
Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on , Ton gl e ji e d u
h u i
("Sh a r e d pl e a s u r e a n t i -ga m bl i n g
a s s oc i a t i on ").
Ot h e r
c a m pa i gn s , h owe ve r , pu t gove r n m e n t
i n
pot e n t i a l
c on fl i c t
wi t h r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s .
Re l i gi on
n ow c a m e u n d e r m or e s u s t a i n e d a t t a c k fr om
m od e r n i zi n g i d e ol ogu e s
t h a n fr om C on fu c i a n s u n d e r t h e
Qi n g e m pi r e , ju s t
a s
l a t e r u n d e r
C om m u n i s m , s u pe r s t i t i on
wa s vi e we d a s a
m a jor
obs t a c l e t o
m od e r n i za t i on a n d
pr ogr e s s . Te m pl e s
we r e c on ve r t e d i n t o
s c h ool s ,
offi c e s or
fa c t or i e s ,
or we r e d e m ol i s h e d .
Apa r t
fr om t h e
s t r u ggl e
be t we e n
vi l l a ge s
a n d t h e n e w i n va s i ve s t a t e
powe r ,
l oc a l wa r fa r e be t we e n r i va l wa r l or d s a n d
ba n d i t r y
m u s t h a ve a ffe c t e d
e xpr e s s i ve
c u l t u r e a n d
r e l i gi ou s pr a c t i c e .
In Yi xi a n
c ou n t y,
ba n d i t c h i e f Li u
Gu i t a n g ki d n a ppe d pe opl e
for r a n s om . Da oi s t
pr i e s t s
i n t h e Hou s h a n m ou n t a i n
t e m pl e
a n d
vi l l a ge r s
a t t h e foot of t h e m ou n t a i n we r e t h r e a t e n e d . Th e l os s of
r i t u a l m a n u a l s wa s n ot
a l wa ys pol i t i c a l :
i n
Be i h ou ,
t h e
vi l l a ge c opy
of t h e
Hou t u s c r ol l wa s l os t
d u r i n g
t h e t i m e of t h e ba n d i t s i n t h e
e a r l y
1930s .
C a t h ol i c m i s s i on a r i e s fr om
It a l y
a r r i ve d i n Yi xi a n i n 1926
s e e ki n g
t o r e -
e va n ge l i ze
t h e a r e a
(Ma r t i n a
a n d St e fa n i n i
1956).
At Ne w Ye a r
1931, t h e y
r e por t e d ,
a ft e r s e ve r a l
ye a r s
of
u n r e s t ,
wi t h
fi gh t i n g
be t we e n t h e
t r oops
of a
l oc a l
wa r l or d ,
t h e
Na t i on a l i s t s ,
a n d l oc a l
ba n d i t s , pa r a d e s
of
pe r for m i n g
a s s oc i a t i on s on c e
a ga i n e m e r ge d ,
s u c h a s h a d n ot be e n s e e n for
m a n y ye a r s
pr e vi ou s l y.
"In r e c e n t
ye a r s
t h e r e h a s be e n
wa r ,
wh i c h h a s
s u s pe n d e d
e ve r yt h i n g.
Now i t i s s om e t i m e s i n c e wa r h a s be e n
s poke n of,
a n d t h e ol d
t r a d i t i on s h a ve be e n a bl e t o be r e vi ve d "
(Pe r
i l Be n e
1931:113-15).
Bu t
by
1933 s ol d i e r s h a d
a ga i n
a r r i ve d i n Yi xi a n a n d
pe opl e
we r e a fr a i d .
Th e m i s s i on a r i e s r e m a i n e d for a t u r bu l e n t 20
ye a r s .
Ove r a l l
t h e y
fou n d i t
ve r y
h a r d t o
ga i n
a
foot i n g,
bu t i n
vi l l a ge s
wh e r e
t h e y
d i d s u c c e e d i n
e va n ge l i zi n g,
t h e
i m pa c t
on
i n d i ge n ou s r e l i gi ou s
c u l t u r e m u s t h a ve be e n
c on s i d e r a bl e . Th e i m m i n e n t
bu i l d i n g
of a
l a r ge
C a t h ol i c c h u r c h i n Sou t h
Ga ol u o,
s c e n e of a m a s s a c r e of C a t h ol i c s i n t h e 1900 Boxe r
u pr i s i n g, pr od u c e d
a d e fe n s i ve
fl u r r y
of
a c t i vi t y
i n t h e
vi l l a ge
r i t u a l
wh os e d on or s '
l i s t s fr om 1930 l i s t t h e
c om m i s s i on i n g
of n e w r i t u a l
pa i n t i n gs . De s pi t e
t h e i r
s u s pi c i on
of t h e
for e i gn r e l i gi on ,
t h e a s s oc i a t i on s s t i l l fou n d i t
a ppr opr i a t e
t o
bu i l d
d i pl om a t i c br i d ge s by pe r for m i n g for m a l l y
for t h e be n e d i c t i on of t h e
c h u r c h i n 1931. Th e
pe a c e fu l
n a t u r e of t h i s
r e l i gi ou s c om pe t i t i on
wa s s h or t -
l i ve d , h owe ve r ,
a s t h e C om m u n i s t s we r e e ve n m or e h os t i l e t owa r d s
C a t h ol i c i s m t h a n t owa r d s n a t i ve
"s u pe r s t i t i on ".
C h i n e s e C a t h ol i c s m a i n t a i n e d
t h e i r fa i t h
c l a n d e s t i n e l y t h r ou gh
Ma oi s t
pe r s e c u t i on ,
a n d h a ve r e vi ve d s i n c e t h e
1980s wh i l e
r e m a i n i n g
vu l n e r a bl e
(Ma d s e n 1998).
Be s i d e s
c a m pa i gn s ,
wa r l or d s a n d
ba n d i t s ,
n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s we r e
fr e qu e n t
a n d
d e bi l i t a t i n g.
Su m m e r fl ood s c ou l d be
c a t a s t r oph i c ,
bu t m or e c om m on wa s
d r ou gh t , n e c e s s i t a t i n g
r a i n
pr oc e s s i on s ,
i n wh i c h r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s
pa r t i c i pa t e d .
Se ve r e fa m i n e s t r u c k n or t h C h i n a i n 1920-21
(Fr i e d m a n 1991:10)
a n d r e c u r r e d
t h r ou gh ou t
t h e
Ja pa n e s e oc c u pa t i on .
Ri t u a l c on t a c t s we r e m a i n t a i n e d or
e xpa n d e d . Vi l l a ge r s
fr om Nor t h Ru h e
l e a r n t
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c s oon a ft e r t h e Boxe r
u pr i s i n g by i n vi t i n g
t h e Sou t h
Ga ol u o a s s oc i a t i on t o t e a c h t h e m .
By
t h e
1930s , m e m be r s h i p
wa s
d e c l i n i n g,
wi t h a l a c k of
r e gu l a r
n e w r e c r u i t s .
So, n ot
l on g
be for e t h e
Ja pa n e s e
i n va s i on i n
De n g 39
1937, t h e y t a u gh t
a s e c on d
ge n e r a t i on ,
t h e n
m os t l y t e e n a ge r s ; e i gh t
or t e n
s t a ye d
t h e c ou r s e . Se ve r a l a s s oc i a t i on s we r e fou n d e d i n t h e
e a r l y
t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y by l e a r n i n g
fr om a n ot h e r
vi l l a ge
or fr om a Bu d d h i s t or Da oi s t
pr i e s t .
A d i s t i n c t i ve n e w m u s i c a l fe a t u r e of t h e
Re pu bl i c a n pe r i od
wa s t h e r i s e of
t h e m or e
popu l a r s t yl e
of
s h e n g-gu a n
r i t u a l m u s i c c a l l e d Sou t h e r n Mu s i c .
Howe ve r ,
wh i l e s om e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s c on ve r t e d t o t h e n e w
s t yl e , m a n y
ot h e r s r e t a i n e d t h e i r t r a d i t i on a l
s t yl e
e ve n
t h r ou gh ou t
t h e
ye a r s
of
Ma oi s m ,
a n d
s t i l l d o s o
t od a y.
2.3 Th e wa r
a ga i n s t Ja pa n (1937-45)
Th e "7t h
Ju l y
i n c i d e n t " i n 1937
fi n a l l y
c on fi r m e d t h e fu l l -s c a l e
Ja pa n e s e
i n va s i on of C h i n a a n d t h e ou t br e a k of wa r . Th i s wa s a d e c i s i ve m om e n t i n
m od e m h i s t or y
for t h e wh ol e n a t i on . It wa s
d u r i n g
t h e wa r t h a t t h e C om m u n i s t s
ga i n e d s u ppor t t h r ou gh ou t
r u r a l n or t h e r n C h i n a . Wh i l e t h e t own s we r e
c on t e s t e d , by
1939 m os t
vi l l a ge s
i n ou r a r e a we r e u n d e r C om m u n i s t c on t r ol .
Th ou gh
t h e
Ja pa n e s e
m a d e
on l y
oc c a s i on a l
r a i d s ,
C h i n e s e c ol l a bor a t or s a n d
ba n d i t s
s t r u ggl e d
wi t h t h e
e m e r gi n g
C om m u n i s t
u n d e r gr ou n d ;
wi t h
ki d n a ppi n g
a n d
c on s c r i pt i on r i fe ,
a n
a t m os ph e r e
of fe a r
pr e va i l e d .
Vi l l a ge r s
oft e n
pe r i od i ze
t h e i r c u l t u r a l
i m pove r i s h m e n t by
t h e
Ja pa n e s e
i n va s i on i n
1937,
r a t h e r t h a n
by
"Li be r a t i on " s om e t e n
ye a r s
l a t e r .
Ma n y
Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on s s a i d t h a t r i t u a l a c t i vi t i e s be c a m e l e s s
fr e qu e n t ; e l d e r l y vi l l a ge r s
we r e
n os t a l gi c
a bou t t h e
d a ys
be for e t h e
i n va s i on .
Bu t wh e n
t h e y s a y
t h e i r
t r a d i t i on s we r e
d e s t r oye d
a ft e r t h e
i n va s i on ,
t h i s i s
s u r e l y
a t l e a s t
pa r t l y
a
d i s c r e e t
m e s s a ge i d e n t i fyi n g
t h e C om m u n i s t s a s offe n d e r s .
Ma n y r e l i gi ou s
bu i l d i n gs
a n d
pr a c t i c e s
we r e
d e s t r oye d
i n t h i s
pe r i od , pe r h a ps
l e s s
by
t h e
Na t i on a l i s t s a n d t h e
Ja pa n e s e
t h a n
by
t h e 8t h Rou t e
Ar m y
a n d t h e n e w
C om m u n i s t c a d r e s .
In s om e
pl a c e s
t h e l a s t
pr oc e s s i on s
t o
pr a y
for r a i n we r e h e l d i n
1938,
a ft e r
wh i c h s u c h
m a jor pu bl i c
obs e r va n c e s be c a m e
i m pos s i bl e
be c a u s e of t h e
fi gh t i n g. Pi l gr i m a ge s (for
r a i n or for
t e m pl e fa i r s ) c e r t a i n l y
be c a m e m or e
d i ffi c u l t :
m a n y r i t u a l
s t oppe d m a ki n g
t h e 3r d -m oon Hou s h a n
pi l gr i m a ge
a ft e r t h e
i n va s i on ,
a n d fe w r e s u m e d on c e t h e C om m u n i s t s
fi n a l l y
br ou gh t pe a c e ,
d u e t o
i d e ol ogi c a l
r e s t r i c t i on s .
Th e t e n r i t u a l t e n t s a n d l a n t e r n s of
Yi s h a n gyi n g,
of
gr e a t va l u e ,
we r e l os t
a ft e r t h e
Ja pa n e s e
i n va d e d . Be for e t h e
Ja pa n e s e
d e s c e n d e d
u pon Fu xi n ,
t h e
m u s i c i a n s
wr a ppe d
t h e i r i n s t r u m e n t s i n oi l s ki n
ba gs
a n d h i d t h e m d own t h e
we l l s . In on e
vi l l a ge t h e y
h a d t o d e m ol i s h t h e i r
t e m pl e
t o s e l l t h e wood t o m e e t
t h e d e m a n d s of t h e
Ja pa n e s e
a n d
c ol l a bor a t or s ; t e m pl e
be l l s we r e a l s o m e l t e d
d own t o m a ke
h a n d -gr e n a d e s .
Th e Sou t h
Yi 'a n
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on wa s fou n d e d
on l y
t wo
ye a r s
be for e a
n ot or i ou s m a s s a c r e i n 1937. Bu t
u s u a l l y
t h e
Ja pa n e s e on l y pa s s e d t h r ou gh ,
a n d
s e n i or
vi l l a ge r e pr e s e n t a t i ve s (oft e n i n c l u d i n g
t h e l e a d e r s of t h e Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on )
we r e a t
pa i n s
n ot t o offe n d t h e m .
Mor e ove r ,
t h e
Ja pa n e s e
r e s pe c t e d
t h e l oc a l
r i t u a l s , be i n g
Bu d d h i s t s t h e m s e l ve s . In Ea s t
Zh a n gfe n g
m u s i c i a n s s a i d t h e
Ja pa n e s e
h a d
a c t u a l l y or ga n i ze d
t h e c ol l e c t i on of d on a t i on s
t o r e s t or e t h e
vi l l a ge Dr a gon Ki n gs t e m pl e . Ja pa n e s e t r oops
e n t e r e d
Li h e zh u a n g
wh i l e t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on wa s
bu r n i n g
i n c e n s e a n d
pr a c t i s i n g s c or e -r e a d i n g.
On e of t h os e m e n
s t u d yi n g
t h e m u s i c r e c a l l e d :
"Th e y
we r e
ve r y pl e a s e d
we
we r e
l e a r n i n g
t h e
[r i t u a l ]
m u s i c a n d
wor s h i ppi n g
t h e Bu d d h a s ."
Som e
vi l l a ge r s joi n e d
t h e
r e s i s t a n c e ,
or we n t i n t o
h i d i n g. St i l l , m a n y
c l a i m e d t h a t m u s i c a l l i fe we n t on
l a r ge l y
u n d e t e r r e d
by
wa r fa r e . As s oc i a t i on s
t r a i n e d n e w m e m be r s i n t h e
e a r l y
1940s . Som e m u s i c i a n s e ve n
pr a c t i s e d
t h e i r
i n s t r u m e n t s i n t h e t u n n e l s bu i l t
by
t h e
gu e r r i l l a s
t o c om ba t t h e
Ja pa n e s e .
Vi l l a ge r s
c on c u r wi t h t h e offi c i a l c l a i m t h a t
m e m be r s h i p
of "s e c r e t " s e c t s
s u c h a s t h e
Da Foji a o
a n d
La oFom e n ,
s oon t o be br a n d e d a s
a n t i -C om m u n i s t ,
i n c r e a s e d
d u r i n g
t h i s
pe r i od
be c a u s e of t h e
i n s e c u r i t y
a n d n e e d for
pr ot e c t i on .
In d e e d ,
i n
t h e
gr e a t m a jor i t y
of t h e
popu l a t i on be l on ge d
t o s u c h
s e c t s . If
t h e y
we r e
u s u a l l y
d i s t i n c t fr om t h e m or e
pu bl i c , a s c r i pt i ve
r i t u a l s
wh i c h t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
s e r ve d ,
t h e d i s t i n c t i on m u s t s om e t i m e s h a ve be e n
l os t on ze a l ou s C om m u n i s t c a d r e s wi t h l i m i t e d l oc a l
kn owl e d ge .
In
Be i h ou
i n
1945,
t h e 8t h Rou t e
Ar m y
bu r n t a wh ol e s t a c k of
s c r i pt u r e s
a n d
pa i n t i n gs
be l on gi n g
t o t h e
vi l l a ge
Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on , be l i e vi n g
t h e m t o
be l on g
t o t h e
Da Foji a o
s e c t .
2.4 Th e c i vi l wa r a n d l a n d r e for m
(1946-8)
By
t h e t i m e of t h e
Ja pa n e s e
s u r r e n d e r i n
1945,
m os t
vi l l a ge s
i n t h e a r e a h a d
be e n u n d e r t h e c on t r ol of t h e C om m u n i s t s for s om e
ye a r s . By
c on t r a s t wi t h
pr opa ga n d a , m a n y vi l l a ge r s s i m pl y h ope d
t o
e s c a pe
wa r fa r e a n d
l on ge d
for a
qu i e t l i fe , h a vi n g
s c a n t
s ym pa t h y
for e i t h e r s i d e . An d a s i n
r e l i gi ou s wor s h i p,
vi l l a ge r s
a r e
by
n e c e s s i t y oppor t u n i s t i c , s e r vi n g
d i ffe r e n t m a s t e r s i n or d e r t o
s u r vi ve .
Howe ve r , m a n y
r i t u a l m u s i c i a n s we r e s t a u n c h
fi gh t e r s
for t h e C om m u n i s t
c a u s e . As a m a t e u r c h a r i t a bl e
or ga n i za t i on s ,
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s c l a i m t o s e r ve
a n ybod y
i n n e e d of
fu n e r a r y
r i t u a l .
Th e y
m u s t oft e n h a ve
pe r for m e d
for
r e l a t i ve l y
we l l -t o-d o
h ou s e h ol d s ,
wh o we r e l a t e r t o be c on s i d e r e d "c l a s s
e n e m i e s ";
bu t s i n c e
t h e m u s i c i a n s t h e m s e l ve s c a m e
m a i n l y
fr om
poor fa m i l i e s , t h e y m a y
h a ve h a d
c a u s e t o be
gr a t e fu l
t o t h e n e w
r e gi m e , ga i n i n g
fr om l a n d r e for m .
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s we r e
pe r i od i c a l l y
r e c r u i t e d for
pu bl i c c a m pa i gn s ,
a n d s om e t i m e s
pl a ye d ,
or we r e m a d e t o
pl a y,
"n e w
pi e c e s ", r i gh t
u n t i l
t od a y;
bu t t h i s wa s s o
s por a d i c
a s t o be
e n t i r e l y
i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e i r m a i n
a c t i vi t y.
In 1946 t h e Zh a obe i kou Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on wa s on e of s e ve r a l
s u m m on e d t o t h e
c ou n t y-t own
t o
pe r for m
a t a
bi g
Pe a c e
m e e t i n g
for t h e s h or t -
l i ve d C om m u n i s t -Na t i on a l i s t c ol l a bor a t i on .
Th e y pl a ye d
n e w
pi e c e s
s u c h a s
Th e Gr e a t Re a r
(Da h ou fa n g),
a n d
ga i n e d
a n a wa r d .
C om m u n i s t
s on gs
m a d e a
pa s s i n g
m a r k on s om e ot h e r a s s oc i a t i on s . In
Be i h ou
a ft e r t h e 8t h Rou t e
Ar m y
t ook ove r i n
1947-8, vi l l a ge r s
h e a r d t h e m
s i n gi n g "r e vol u t i on a r y s on gs ".
Mu s i c i a n
C h e n g
Yi
pi c ke d
t h e m
u p
on t h e
gu a n zi
a n d
t a u gh t
t h e m t o t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
by
m e a n s of t h e t r a d i t i on a l
gon gc h e s ol fe ggi o
- t h e n e w
c i ph e r
n ot a t i on
offi c i a l l y e s pou s e d
h a s n e ve r
t a ke n r oot .
De n g
41
As t h e C om m u n i s t s c on s ol i d a t e d t h e i r c on t r ol of
m a n y vi l l a ge s , t h e y
we r e
a bl e t o d e m a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i on of
t e m pl e s
a n d l a i c i za t i on of
pr i e s t s .
Th e
t e m pl e s
of
Ga oqi a o vi l l a ge
we r e
d e s t r oye d
i n t h e 1945-6
"C a m pa i gn
for t h e
e l i m i n a t i on of
s u pe r s t i t i on
i n t h e Li be r a t e d a r e a s ". Fol k
r e l i gi on
h a d
l on g
be e n
u n d e r
a t t a c k,
a n d
m a n y vi l l a ge t e m pl e s
we r e
d e c r e pi t
a n d
n e gl e c t e d ,
a l l t h e
m or e s o wi t h c h r on i c
wa r fa r e ; s t i l l ,
fa i t h r e m a i n e d
s t r on g,
a n d t h e r e n e we d
a ffr on t t o t r a d i t i on c a u s e d
a n xi e t y.
Th e C om m u n i s t s
be ga n
t o
i m pl e m e n t
t h e fi r s t
s t a ge
of l a n d r e for m
by
1946, or ga n i zi n g vi l l a ge r s
i n t o Pe a s a n t s ' As s oc i a t i on s . Bu t a s t h e Na t i on a l i s t
a r m i e s m a d e a br i e f s or t i e fr om
Be i ji n g,
l e a d e r s h i p
h a d t o
r e t r e a t ,
a n d
vi l l a ge r s
we r e l e ft t o fa c e l oc a l
gr ou ps
of "Re t u m -t o-t h e -Di s t r i c t
t r ou pe s " (Hu a n xi a n g t u a n ), or ga n i ze d by ve n ge fu l d i s pos s e s s e d
l a n d l or d s a n d
ot h e r s wi t h a
gr u d ge a ga i n s t
t h e C om m u n i s t s .
Two
n e i gh bou r i n g vi l l a ge s
wi t h Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s s u ffe r e d t r a u m a s .
Re t u r n -t o-t h e -Di s t r i c t
t r ou pe s
d e s c e n d e d on Nor t h Ba i ba o a n d ki l l e d 18 l e a d e r s
of t h e Pe a s a n t s '
wi t h t h e
s u ppor t
of t h e c ol l a bor a t i on i s t
gove r n m e n t .
In Sou t h
Ga ol u o,
C om m u n i s t r e s i s t a n c e l e a d e r a n d r i t u a l
s pe c i a l i s t
C a i
Fu xi a n g
wa s
s pi r i t u a l l y
br oke n wh e n h i s wh ol e
fa m i l y
wa s m u r d e r e d on t h e
or d e r s of a r i va l
vi l l a ge bu l l y,
wh o h a d
gon e
ove r t o t h e s i d e of t h e Re t u m -t o-
t h e -Di s t r i c t
t r ou pe s .
Aft e r
Li be r a t i on ,
C a i r e t r e a t e d fr om
pol i t i c a l l i fe , t h ou gh
h e c on t i n u e d
t a ki n g pa r t
i n t h e voc a l
l i t u r gy
of t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on .
La n d r e for m wa s a
l on g pr oc e s s ,
fr om a t l e a s t 1946 t o 1952. In 1951 i n
Ti a n h ou ,
Nor t h a n d Sou t h
vi l l a ge s
we r e c om bi n e d a n d t h e i r l a n d
s h a r e d ,
wh e r e u pon
t h e i r t wo Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a l s o
c om bi n e d ,
wi t h ove r 70
m e m be r s . Mos t a s s oc i a t i on s own e d s om e
l a n d ,
a s we l l a s
h i r i n g
ou t
e qu i pm e n t
s u c h a s
pot s
a n d
bowl s , t a r pa u l i n s
a n d a
wa l l -pou n d e r .
Su c h l a n d wa s n ot
c on fi s c a t e d for t h e c om m u n e u n t i l t h e 1958 Gr e a t
Le a p
For wa r d . In
m a n y
vi l l a ge s
r i t u a l m u s i c i a n s we r e on t h e l a n d r e for m c om m i t t e e .
As
vi l l a ge r s s ou gh t
t o fl e e
wa r fa r e , ki d n a ppi n g
for r a n s om a n d
c on s c r i pt i on ,
t h e r e wa s c on s i d e r a bl e
m obi l i t y.
Se ve r a l m u s i c i a n s
s ou gh t r e fu ge
i n u r ba n
t e m pl e s
wh e r e
t h e y
be c a m e fol k Da oi s t s
pe r for m i n g
for
r i t u a l s ,
r e t u r n i n g
t o t h e i r h om e
vi l l a ge s
a ft e r Li be r a t i on . In s u c h c a s e s
m i gr a t i on
c on s ol i d a t e d r i t u a l
e xpe r t i s e . Howe ve r ,
i n
Yi s h a n gyi n g
t h e ol d a s s oc i a t i on h e a d
Li u
Fu you ,
wh o l e a r n t t h e m u s i c i n
1935,
obs e r ve d t h a t i f h e h a d n ot
gon e
off t o
joi n
t h e
a r m y
i n
1938,
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on wou l d n ot h a ve l os t s o
m a n y
of
t h e i r ol d
s h e n g-gu a n
s u i t e s .
In Ga ol u o
fi gh t i n g
m a d e i t
i m pos s i bl e
t o obs e r ve t h e Ne w Ye a r 's r i t u a l s
fr om 1946 t o
1948,
bu t
m a n y
ot h e r
vi l l a ge
a s s oc i a t i on s r e m a i n e d a c t i ve . Th e
Zh a obe i kou a s s oc i a t i on c l a i m e d t o h a ve be e n
l a r ge l y
u n a ffe c t e d
by
e i t h e r t h e
wa r
a ga i n s t Ja pa n
or t h e c i vi l wa r . In Fu xi n t h e r e wa s n o ot h e r
e n t e r t a i n m e n t ,
a n d a l ot of
boys
wou l d c om e
a l on g
e ve n i f
t h e y
we r e n ot a l l owe d t o
s t u d y
t h e m u s i c .
In
Ma wu zh u a n g,
t h e
vi l l a ge or ga n i ze d
60 or 70
you n g
m e n t o t a ke
u p
t h e
r i t u a l
m u s i c i n
1945,
s i n c e
t h e y
we r e a fr a i d i t wou l d be l os t
-
t h e r e we r e s t i l l a
d oze n or s o s e n i or m a s t e r s t h e n .
An yon e
wh o wa n t e d t o l e a r n h a d t h e i r food
t a ke n c a r e
of,
a fu r t h e r i n c e n t i ve . Aft e r t h os e
wh o c ou l d n 't fi gu r e
t h e m u s i c ou t
("c ou l d n 't
c r a c k i t "
[ba i bu gu o],
a s
t h e y s a i d )
we r e l e t
go,
ove r 20 s t u d e n t s
s t a ye d
t h e c ou r s e .
Th e y
s t u d i e d t h e
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c for t h e fi r s t t h r e e
ye a r s ;
i n t h e fou r t h
ye a r t h e y
wou l d h a ve
gon e
on t o l e a r n t h e
s c r i pt u r e s ,
bu t t h e
pl a n
wa s
d i s r u pt e d by
t h e ou t br e a k of
m a jor fi gh t i n g
i n t h e a r e a .
Th e m u s i c i a n s '
n os t a l gi a
for t h i s t r a u m a t i c
pe r i od
s e e m s t o r e fl e c t a l l t h e
m or e on t h e r e s t r i c t i on s a ft e r Li be r a t i on . Fr om n ow
on ,
vi ol e n c e
a ga i n s t
t r a d i t i on a l c u l t u r e wa s t o be c on t i n u e d
by
ot h e r
m e a n s ; ye t
e ve n t h e s e n e w
for m s of vi ol e n c e we r e u n a bl e t o e r a d i c a t e r i t u a l t r a d i t i on s .
3 Ma oi s m
"Th e C om m u n i s t
Pa r t y
d oe s n 't be l i e ve i n He a ve n or Ea r t h ."
-
vi l l a ge r s
"Al t h ou gh
ou r m u s i c wa s n 't
s u pe r s t i t i ou s ,
i t wa s
t r e a d i n g
t h e s a m e
pa t h
a s
s u pe r s t i t i on ."
-
vi l l a ge
l e a d e r
d e s c r i bi n g
t h e
e a r l y
1950s
"Re l i gi ou s
l i fe wa s
e xa c t l y
t h e s a m e be for e a n d a ft e r Li be r a t i on ." -
vi l l a ge
m u s i c i a n s
"Th e r e i s a
pol i c y
bu t i t i s n 't
i m pl e m e n t e d ;
on e
e ye ope n ,
on e
e ye
c l os e d ." - c om m on
e xpr e s s i on s
3.1 Li be r a t i on
Th e C om m u n i s t r e vol u t i on of 1949
m a y
s e e m t o h a ve be e n a fu n d a m e n t a l
d i vi d i n g
l i n e i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i on of t r a d i t i on a l c u l t u r e i n C h i n a . Ye t t h e r e wa s
n o s u d d e n
c h a n ge
i n
1949,
a n d Li be r a t i on wa s
(i n d e e d , i s !)
a
l on g pr oc e s s :
t h e
C om m u n i s t s c on t r ol l e d
m a n y
a r e a s fr om
e a r l y
i n t h e
1940s ,
bu t s t i l l
s t r u ggl e d
t o
ga i n c om pl e t e
c on t r ol of ot h e r s i n t o t h e m i d
1950s .
St i l l m or e
ba s i c a l l y,
t h e
d e gr e e
of c on t r ol wa s
c on s t a n t l y n e got i a t e d
a t l oc a l l e ve l . Th e c i t a t i on s a bove
gi ve
a s u c c i n c t
i m pr e s s i on
of t h e
c om pl e xi t i e s
of t h e s i t u a t i on .
On e r e a s on
wh y vi l l a ge r s r a r e l y
d e s c r i be t h e
pe r i od
s oon a ft e r t h e offi c i a l
"Li be r a t i on " of 1949 a s on e wh e n t r a d i t i on s we r e
d e s t r oye d ,
i s
s u r e l y
be c a u s e
vi l l a ge s
h a d i n s om e s e n s e s
a l r e a d y
be e n i n t h e
pr oc e s s
of
t r a n s for m a t i on
s i n c e
a t l e a s t 1939.
In d e e d , d e s pi t e
c om m on
n os t a l gi a
for t h e
d a ys
be for e
Li be r a t i on ,
wh e n r i t u a l
pr a c t i c e
h a d c on t i n u e d
d e s pi t e
c on s t a n t
wa r fa r e ,
t h e m or e
pe a c e fu l
c on d i t i on s of t h e
e a r l y
1950s s e e m e d t o
m a n y
t o m a r k
s om e t h i n g
of a
r e s t or a t i on of t r a d i t i on .
St a bi l i t y e n c ou r a ge d
c u l t u r a l r e vi va l .
We
ga i n
a s e n s e of t h i s fr om t h e a c c ou n t s of bot h C h i n e s e a n d
for e i gn
obs e r ve r s . Be l d e n
ga ve
a
r os y pi c t u r e :
Th e
C om m u n i s t s ,
i n
e n c ou r a gi n g
t h e r e vi va l of
d a n c i n g,
s a t i s fi e d a
gr e a t
a n d h e a r t fe l t n e e d of t h e
pe opl e
for a r t i s t i c
e xpr e s s i on .
It i s a
c u r i ou s fa c t t h a t m os t
pe opl e , e s pe c i a l l y
i n t i m e s of
wor l d -s h a ki n g
De n g
43
d ou bt ,
h a ve a d e s i r e t o be
i n s pi r e d ,
t o s t a r t t h e i r l i ve s ove r
a ga i n ,
t o
be c om e
you n g
on c e m or e ... Th e
ye a r n i n g
t o
d a n c e ,
t o
s i n g,
t o
for ge t ,
t o
d r e a m ,
t o be c om e on c e m or e l i ke
c h i l d r e n ,
be c a m e a s m u c h a
pa r t
of
t h e r e vol u t i on a s d i d t h e l a n d r e for m .
(Be l d e n 1973:132)
Eve n s om e l e s s
r e vol u t i on a r y
c om m e n t a t or s h a ve c a l l e d i t a
h on e ym oon
pe r i od (Fr i e d m a n 1991:111-22; c f.
Jon e s
1998:42-3).
Th e c u l t u r a l r e vi va l wa s
ge n e r a l .
Aft e r
m a n y ye a r s
of
i n s e c u r i t y,
a m a t e u r
ba n gzi ope r a gr ou ps r e vi ve d ,
n ow
r e c r u i t i n g
s u bs t a n t i a l n u m be r s of wom e n .
Bot h t r a d i t i on a l a n d n e w
ope r a s
we r e
popu l a r
i n t h e
vi l l a ge s .
In
m a n y pl a c e s
ope r a
d e c l i n e d
s e ve r e l y by
t h e t i m e of t h e Gr e a t
Le a p For wa r d ,
t h ou gh
t h e Sou t h Ga ol u o
ope r a t r ou pe
we n t
a ga i n s t
t h e
pol i t i c a l
t i d e a n d
r e ve r t e d t o t h e t r a d i t i on a l
s t yl e
i n 195 8.
Ma n y vi l l a ge s
wi t h
e xi s t i n g
r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s e n r ol l e d n e w s t u d e n t s
a r ou n d 1950: a
l a r ge
n u m be r of s e n i or m u s i c i a n s
t od a y be ga n l e a r n i n g
t h e n . In
t h e wi n t e r of 1951 t h e Nor t h
Da ya n g a s s oc i a t i on ,
wh i c h h a d
s t oppe d
pe r for m i n g d u r i n g
t h e c on s t a n t wa r fa r e of t h e
pr e c e d i n g ye a r s ,
r e c r u i t e d ove r
30
boys
t o
s t u d y
t h e
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c . Bu t
by
1957 t h e a s s oc i a t i on h a d t o
s t op
u n d e r t h e
pr e s s u r e s
of c ol l e c t i vi za t i on . In Ti a n h ou t h e a s s oc i a t i on h a d
e i gh t
n e w
s h e n g m ou t h -or ga n s
m a d e .
Th e n ot a t e d
gon gc h e
s c or e s of
vi l l a ge
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s m a ke a n
i n t e r e s t i n g
i n d e x of t h e i r l i fe -for c e . Wh i l e we h a ve fou n d
m a n y
s c or e s fr om t h e
t r ou bl e d
Re pu bl i c a n pe r i od ,
we a l s o n ot e d t h e
gr e a t e n e r gy
s i n c e 1949 i n
m a i n t a i n i n g
t h e t r a d i t i on .
Ma n y
s c or e s we r e
r e c opi e d ,
i n t h e t e e t h of n e w
pr e s s u r e s ,
i n t h e
e a r l y '50s ,
t h e
e a r l y '60s ,
a n d
t h r ou gh ou t
t h e '80s a n d '90s .
Br i e f h i s t or i e s we r e e ve n
wr i t t e n ,
oft e n on d on or s ' l i s t s
c om m e m or a t i n g
vi l l a ge r s ' s u ppor t
for t h e
bu yi n g
of n e w i n s t r u m e n t s or r i t u a l
pa i n t i n gs .
If t h e
e a r l y
1950s we r e a
pe r i od
of
opt i m i s m
a n d r e n e wa l for s om e
a s s oc i a t i on s , m a n y
ot h e r s m u s t h a ve fa l l e n s i l e n t . Un d e r C om m u n i s t
i d e ol ogy,
t h e
s t a t u s of
vi l l a ge
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s wa s n ow a m bi va l e n t .
Ma n y s t a ye d
i n t a c t
i n
t h e
e a r l y 1950s ,
bu t
"t h ou gh
t h e m u s i c wa s n 't
s u pe r s t i t i ou s ,
i t wa s
t r e a d i n g
t h e
s a m e
pa t h
a s
s u pe r s t i t i on ",
s o
a c t i vi t y
wa s
a l wa ys
s e n s i t i ve . Ye t t h e
s u ppor t
of
vi l l a ge c om m u n i t i e s ,
a n d
vi l l a ge c a d r e s ,
oft e n d e fl e c t e d c e n t r a l
pol i c y.
Wh i c h r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s
s t oppe d pr a c t i s i n g,
or fa i l e d t o
r e vi ve ,
a ft e r
Li be r a t i on ,
a n d
wh y?
Mos t of t h os e s t i l l
pr a c t i s i n g n ow,
of
c ou r s e , ke pt goi n g
t h e n , on l y be i n g s e ve r e l y
r e s t r i c t e d fr om a bou t 1964 t o t h e l a t e 1970s . Eve n
wh e r e
vi l l a ge r s
wa n t e d t o
ke e p
t h e i r a s s oc i a t i on
goi n g,
i n t h e fa c e of t h e
pr e va i l i n g
e t h os of t h e n e w c e n t r a l
r e gi m e t h e y
s om e t i m e s fe l t u n a bl e t o d o s o.
Su c h r e s t r i c t i on s s i n c e 1949 a r e oft e n
e xpr e s s e d by
t h e t e r m "we d i d n 't d a r e
pl a y" (bu ga n c h u i ).
Not e t h e n a t u r a l
e xpr e s s i on
of c on fl i c t wi t h t h e c e n t r a l
a u t h or i t i e s - we h e a r d n o t r a c e of
a n y
r h e t or i c a bou t "n o
l on ge r wa n t i n g
t o
pr a c t i s e s u pe r s t i t i on
n ow t h a t t h e
Pa r t y
h a d l i be r a t e d
u s ",
s u c h a s on e fi n d s i n
offi c i a l s ou r c e s .
Som e a s s oc i a t i on s c e a s e d
pr a c t i s i n g
wi t h ou t
a n y s pe c i fi c pr oh i bi t i on .
Th e
d e c l i n e wa s s om e t i m e s c a s u a l or
pe r s on a l ,
n ot
e xpl i c i t l y pol i t i c a l .
Th e
Gu a n yi n
Ha l l a s s oc i a t i on of Sou t h Ga ol u o
s t oppe d pe r for m i n g
voc a l
l i t u r gy
n ot s o m u c h
be c a u s e of offi c i a l
d i s a ppr ova l ,
bu t r a t h e r be c a u s e t h e i r s e n i or r i t u a l
s pe c i a l i s t
d i e d i n 1950 be for e
you n gs t e r s
h a d h a d t i m e t o l e a r n
pr ope r l y.
In Ea s t
La opi n g
a ft e r 1950 n o on e i n t e r fe r e d wi t h
r i t u a l
a c t i vi t y,
bu t "l i fe wa s n o
good ",
s o
t h e y
d i d n 't fe e l l i ke i t
a n y
m or e . Th e
Li h e zh u a n g a s s oc i a t i on , d e s pi t e h a vi n g
a
ve n e r a bl e
h i s t or y goi n g
ba c k t o t h e
e i gh t e e n t h c e n t u r y
a n d s om e fi n e
m u s i c i a n s ,
c e a s e d
pr a c t i s i n g
for e ve r i n 1953:
d e s pi t e
s e n i or
vi l l a ge r s '
i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e a s s oc i a t i on wa s t h e
on l y
d i ve r s i on
(wa n yi 'e r )
i n t h e wh ol e
vi l l a ge (c f.
Jon e s
1998:59)
a n d t h a t
t h e y
m u s t n ot be t h e
ge n e r a t i on
t o l e t i t
d i e ,
t h e
vi l l a ge l e a d e r s , a l t h ou gh
n ot
a ga i n s t i t ,
fe l t u n a bl e t o r i s k
s u ppor t i n g
i t .
St i l l , m a n y
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s
pr a c t i s e d r e l a t i ve l y
u n t r ou bl e d u n t i l a bou t
1956. It i n e r a n t
s h e n g-r e pa i r e r Qi
You zh i c ou l d n ot fi n d
a n y
m or e wor k i n
Be i ji n g
a ft e r
1949,
s i n c e t h e
t e m pl e s
h a d a l l c l os e d d own a n d
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c wa s n ow r a r e
t h e r e ,
bu t h e s t i l l fou n d
pl e n t y
of wor k
m e n d i n g s h e n g
for
vi l l a ge
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s . Bu t wi t h
t e m pl e s
a n d s e c t s
d i s a ppe a r i n g,
t h e r i t u a l
a c t i vi t i e s of t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s we r e
i n c r e a s i n gl y
i s ol a t e d .
Te m pl e
l i fe wa s
be c om i n g
t e n u ou s a ft e r t h e m i d 1940s . As we
s a w, t e m pl e s
h a d
a l r e a d y
be e n u n d e r a t t a c k fr om
m a n y a n gl e s
for h a l f a
c e n t u r y,
a n d fr om t h e
C om m u n i s t s s i n c e a t l e a s t t h e l a t e 1930s . Pr i e s t s we r e
l a i c i ze d ,
s e l d om
wi l l i n gl y. C a m pa i gn s a ga i n s t
"s e c r e t "
s e c t s ,
fi e r c e i n
1950-51,
c on t i n u e d
i n t e r m i t t e n t l y t h r ou gh ou t
t h e
1950s ,
e ve n i n t o t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on . In s om e
vi l l a ge s u p
t o 80% of
pe opl e
we r e m e m be r s of
s e c t s ; r i n gl e a d e r s
we r e e xe c u t e d
or t a ke n off t o l a bou r
c a m ps ,
bu t fe w m u s i c i a n s or
or d i n a r y
m e m be r s s e e m t o
h a ve be e n
i m pl i c a t e d .
In
Ha n zh u a n g
i n t h e
e a r l y
1950s t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
pr a c t i s e d
wi t h ou t
pr obl e m s , s u ppor t e d by
t h e
vi l l a ge l e a d e r s h i p.
Xi e
Yon gxi a n g,
a s t a u n c h
Pa r t y
m e m be r a n d e d u c a t e d
vi l l a ge l e a d e r ,
h i m s e l f a m e m be r of bot h t h e Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on a n d t h e "Te a -l e a ve s
t e a c h i n gs " s e c t ,
t ook
r e s pon s i bi l i t y
for
ge t t i n g
t h e s e c t t o
s t op a c t i vi t y.
In m os t
vi l l a ge s pe opl e
r e a l i ze d
t h e y
h a d n o
c h oi c e ,
t h a t
"t h e n a i l wa s
pos i t i on e d
on t h e
pl a n k" (ba n s h a n g d i a n d i n g)
- a
pr ove r b
e xpr e s s i n g u n s poke n pol i t i c a l pr e s s u r e .
Vi l l a ge r s
r e m i n d u s t h a t t h e s e c t s d i d n ot
pe r for m
t h e s a m e r i t u a l a s t h e
vi l l a ge -wi d e a s s oc i a t i on s ;
t h e l os s of s e c t a r i a n l e a d e r s wa s n o l os s for t h e
pu bl i c
r i t u a l .
Howe ve r ,
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
wa s ,
a n d
i s ,
a n
i m por t a n t a ge n t
of
vi l l a ge
s ol i d a r i t y.
It h a d a s m u c h
popu l a r s u ppor t
i n t h e n e w
s oc i e t y
a s i n t h e
ol d :
m a n y
m e m be r s we r e s t a l wa r t s of t h e C om m u n i s t r e vol u t i on .
On e
s t r a n ge
s i d e -e ffe c t of t h e
pol i c i e s
of t h e
e a r l y 1950s
i s t h a t t h e
ve r y
fa c t of
c l os i n g
d own
t e m pl e s
a n d
r e t u r n i n g pr i e s t s
t o t h e
l a i t y
a c t e d a s a
s t i m u l u s t o t h e t r a n s m i s s i on of
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c a n d r i t u a l fr om
pr i e s t s
t o
l a y
vi l l a ge r s .
Se ve r a l Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s
we r e e s t a bl i s h e d
on l y
i n t h e
e a r l y 1950s ;
pr i e s t s
wh o h a d
pr e vi ou s l y
h e l d a l u c r a t i ve
m on opol y
ove r t h e voc a l
l i t u r gy
a n d
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c n ow fe l t
obl i ge d
t o h a n d t h e m on t o
or d i n a r y vi l l a ge r s .
Al l t oo s oon a ft e r
Li be r a t i on , d e s pi t e
t h e r e vi va l wh i c h
pe a c e fu l
c on d i t i on s
e n c ou r a ge d ,
s om e
vi l l a ge
m u s i c i a n s we r e
"vol u n t e e r e d "
t o s e r ve on t h e Kor e a n
Fr on t .
Ma n y
d e s e r t e d
l on g
be for e
t h e y a r r i ve d , bu t Li u
Zh e n ji a n g,
fr om t h e
Yi s h a n gyi n g a s s oc i a t i on , s t a ye d
t h e c ou r s e . Li ke
m a n y
n e w
s t u d e n t s ,
h e
on l y
De n g
45
s t a r t e d
l e a r n i n g
t h e m u s i c i n 1950. He n ow t ook h i s
gu a n zi
wi t h h i m t o t h e fr on t
s o h e c ou l d
pr a c t i s e ! Re l i gi ou s
be l i e f wa s e vi d e n t e ve n i n t h e n e w
Pe opl e 's
Li be r a t i on
Ar m y:
t h e l oc a l
god d e s s
Hou t u i s
wi d e l y
be l i e ve d t o h a ve r e s c u e d a
t r ou pe
i n t h e Kor e a n Wa r - a n d
a ga i n
l a t e r i n t h e Vi e t n a m Wa r .
3.2 C ol l e c t i vi za t i on a n d t h e Gr e a t
Le a p
For wa r d
(1954-9)
If t h e i n i t i a l
pe r i od
a ft e r Li be r a t i on h a d be e n
r e l a t i ve l y t r a n qu i l , by
t h e m i d
1950s c ol l e c t i vi za t i on l e d t o t h e e s t a bl i s h m e n t of
pe opl e 's c om m u n e s ,
a n d t o
t h e m i l i t a r i ze d l a bou r a n d c om m u n a l c a n t e e n s of t h e Gr e a t
Le a p
For wa r d .
Th e s e
c a m pa i gn s
s oon c a u s e d i m m e n s e s oc i a l
d i s r u pt i on .
As
c a m pa i gn s .
m a s s
m e e t i n gs
a n d for c e d l a bou r
i n t e n s i fi e d , pe opl e s i m pl y
h a d l e s s fr e e t i m e for
c u l t u r a l
pu r s u i t s .
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s we r e
s e ve r e l y d a m a ge d ;
s e ve r a l h a d t o
s u s pe n d
a c t i vi t y. Not wi t h s t a n d i n g
t h e br i e f
"h on e ym oon "
a ft e r
Li be r a t i on ,
a s
c ol l e c t i vi za t i on
be ga n
t o be
e n for c e d ,
c u l t u r a l l i fe wa s "wa t e r e d d own ".
Vi l l a ge r s c om m on l y a ppl y
t h i s
i m a ge
of d i l u t i on or
d e pr e s s i on
t o
pol i t i c a l l y
s e n s i t i ve
pe r i od s ;
ot h e r c om m on
d e s c r i pt i on s
of t h e i n fl u e n c e of
c ol l e c t i vi za t i on on c u l t u r e a r e "we
got by" (c ou h e )
a n d za ot a l e
(s om e t h i n g
l i ke
"t h i n gs
we n t t o t h e
d ogs "). C om pa r e
t h e c om m e n t of a
Bu l ga r i a n s h e ph e r d
r e c a l l i n g
h ow i n t h e 1950s h e n o
l on ge r pl a ye d
t h e fl u t e : "Th e r e i s n o
l i fe ,
l i t t l e
c ou s i n "
(Ri c e 1994:35);
i n t e r vi e ws wi t h
fol k-s i n ge r s
i n s ou t h e r n
Ji a n gs u
vi l l a ge s s u gge s t
a s i m i l a r
pi c t u r e (Sc h i m m e l pe n n i n c k 1997:135).
Ye t t h e
h i s t or y
of t h e He be i r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s i s m or e
c om pl e x. Th e y
s e e m
t o h a ve s u r vi ve d m or e
obs t i n a t e l y
t h a n s om e m or e
s e c u l a r , i n d i vi d u a l ,
a n d
e n t e r t a i n m e n t
t r a d i t i on s ,
s i n c e
t h e y
h a ve c on t i n u e d t o s e r ve a s oc i a l fu n c t i on
wh i c h h a s n e ve r be e n
r e pl a c e d .
On e ba s i c
c h a n ge
wa s i n
pa t r on a ge . Pr e vi ou s l y,
r i c h a s we l l a s
poor
h ou s e h ol d s h a d
s u ppor t e d
t h e r i t u a l
a s s oc i a t i on s ;
n ow t h e ol d l a n d l or d s h a d
be e n
pu r ge d ,
i t wa s
u p
t o t h e
"br i ga d e " (a s
t h e t e a m of c a d r e s
m a ki n g u p
t h e
vi l l a ge gove r n m e n t c om m i t t e e
wa s
kn own )
a n d i t s s u bor d i n a t e
pr od u c t i on
t e a m s t o
s t e p
i n t o
s u ppor t
t h e i r
vi l l a ge
a s s oc i a t i on s . Th i s
t h e y
oft e n
d i d ,
a s be s t
a s
t h e y
c ou l d .
Th r ou gh ou t
C om m u n i s t
h i s t or y
c a d r e s
r e s pon s i bl e
for
i m pl e m e n t i n g Pa r t y pol i c y
a t
vi l l a ge
l e ve l we r e oft e n c om m i t t e d t r a d i t i on a l i s t s
a n d t h u s s t a l wa r t s of t h e i r r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on .
Th u s i n Nor t h
Xi n zh u a n g
t h e
vi l l a ge l e a d e r s h i p s u ppor t e d
t h e Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on e ve r s i n c e i t s
fou n d i n g
i n
1951; d u r i n g c ol l e c t i vi za t i on ,
a s s oc i a t i on
m e m be r s ,
u n a bl e t o
ga i n wor k-poi n t s
wh i l e
pe r for m i n g
fu n e r a l s
a n d t h u s a bs e n t fr om
pr od u c t i on ,
we r e n on e t h e l e s s e a c h a wa r d e d a fu l l
d a y's
wor k-poi n t s
t o
gu a r a n t e e
t h e i r l i ve l i h ood . In s om e
vi l l a ge s
t h e
pr od u c t i on
t e a m s n ow
ga ve
t h e i r Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s om e
gr a i n
a n d fi r e wood t o
h e l p
t h e m s u r vi ve .
Th r ou gh
t h e
e a r l y 1950s ,
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s oft e n
ke pt
t h e
s m a l l a m ou n t of l a n d wh i c h
t h e y
h a d own e d be for e
Li be r a t i on ,
t h e
yi e l d
fr om wh i c h
h e l pe d pa y
for
e xpe n s e s ;
bu t
by
1958 s u c h l a n d wa s c on fi s c a t e d
for t h e c om m u n e .
If
vi l l a ge
l e a d e r s d i d t h e i r be s t t o be
s u ppor t i ve
of t h e i r l oc a l
t r a d i t i on ,
c a d r e s fr om ou t s i d e we r e oft e n h os t i l e . In Sou t h Ga ol u o a
gr ou p
of n e w
s t u d e n t s s t a r t e d t o l e a r n t h e
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c i n
1957,
bu t wh i l e
t h e y
we r e
h u m m i n g
t h e
gon gc h e s ol fe ggi o
of t h e s c or e
t oge t h e r
on e
n i gh t
a ft e r
fi n i s h i n g
wor k, t h e y
we r e ove r h e a r d
by
a c a d r e fr om t h e d i s t r i c t wor k-t e a m . He t ol d t h e m
t o s h u t
u p,
a n d s e n t t h e m off t o s h ove l m u d fr om t h e r i ve r for m a n u r e . Si x of t h e
e i gh t
n e w s t u d e n t s l a t e r
ga ve u p.
Bu t
d e s pi t e
t h e
i n c r e a s i n g pr e s s u r e s ,
s e ve r a l
ot h e r a s s oc i a t i on s t r a i n e d n e w m e m be r s i n 1956-7.
Ju s t a s
pe opl e
we r e
be i n g d e pr i ve d
of
pe r s on a l
l i be r t i e s i n t h e bl i n d
e c on om i c
r u s h ,
fu r t h e r m e a s u r e s we r e t a ke n
a ga i n s t s e c t s , Bu d d h i s t s , Da oi s t s
a n d C a t h ol i c s . Se c t s we r e n e ve r
e n t i r e l y s t a m pe d
ou t
by
t h e
c a m pa i gn s
of t h e
e a r l y 1950s ,
a n d
c a m pa i gn s
c on t i n u e d i n t o t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on .
De s pi t e
s om e
vi l l a ge r s '
c l a i m s t h a t
"r e l i gi ou s
l i fe wa s
e xa c t l y
t h e s a m e
be for e a n d a ft e r
Li be r a t i on ", t e m pl e
fa i r s we r e
be c om i n g fe we r ,
a n d we r e
c on d u c t e d on a m u c h s m a l l e r s c a l e t h a n be for e . Som e
vi l l a ge
a s s oc i a t i on s s t i l l
m a d e t h e Hou s h a n m ou n t a i n
pi l gr i m a ge
i n t h e 3r d
m oon ,
bu t i n d i vi d u a l
pi l gr i m s
we r e n ow m or e
c om m on , pr a yi n g
for t h e bi r t h of s on s or t o be c u r e d of
i l l n e s s .
Non e t h e l e s s , vi l l a ge r s
fe l t
m a n y
m or e bon d s wi t h
r e l i gi ou s
t r a d i t i on
be for e t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on . A Ma t ou
vi l l a ge r ga ve
a n
c om pa r i s on
wi t h t h e c u r r e n t
r e l i gi ou s "r e vi va l ", a s s e r t i n g
t h a t e ve n i n 1958
m or e
pe opl e
m a d e t h e
jou r n e y
t o Hou s h a n t h a n
t od a y,
wh e n ove r
100,000
pi l gr i m s r e gu l a r l y
a r r i ve for t h e 3r d m oon .
As we
s a w,
t h e
pr oc e s s
of
c on ve r t i n g
or
d e s t r oyi n g t e m pl e s
h a d
be gu n
i n
t h e l a t e
i m pe r i a l pe r i od ,
bu t wa s n ow
i n c r e a s i n gl y s u ppor t e d by
s e c u l a r
i d e ol ogy:
wi t h a n e e d for r a w m a t e r i a l s a n d
fu e l ,
wood a n d m e t a l fr om
t e m pl e s
we r e
pr i m e t a r ge t s ,
wh i l e offi c i a l
i d e ol ogy
a l s o
a ppl a u d e d
t h e d e s t r u c t i on of
fe u d a l
s u pe r s t i t i on . Ma n y t e m pl e s
we r e
d e s t r oye d
i n t h e Gr e a t
Le a p
For wa r d .
In Nor t h
Da ya n g
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on fou n d a
pa i n fu l c om pr om i s e : t h e y
pu l l e d
d own a
t e m pl e
a n d s ol d off i t s t i l e s i n or d e r t o
pa y
t o h a ve t h e i r
s h e n g
m ou t h -or ga n s
t u n e d .
In
vi l l a ge s
s u c h a s
Ha n ji a yi n g
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on 's own r oom wa s
d e s t r oye d
i n t h e fe r vou r for c om m u n i za t i on . Th i s wa s
i r on i c ,
s i n c e s u c h r oom s
a r e
c om m on l y
kn own a s
"pu bl i c bu i l d i n gs " (gu a n fa n gzi ),
a n d t h e a s s oc i a t i on s
s e r ve t h e
vi l l a ge
a s a
wh ol e ,
r a t h e r i n t h e
s pi r i t
of
c om m u n i s m , you m i gh t s a y.
In d e e d m u c h
pr i va t e pr ope r t y, i n c l u d i n g fa m i l y h om e s ,
wa s a l s o
d e s t r oye d
a t
t h a t
t i m e ,
on t h e
e m pt y pr e t e xt
t h a t n e w c om m u n a l d or m i t or i e s wou l d be bu i l t .
In t h e i n fa m ou s s t e e l
c a m pa i gn vi l l a ge r s ga ve u p
t h e i r
wa t e r c a r t s ,
woks a n d
d oor -h i n ge s
t o m e l t d own t o m a ke
s t e e l ,
wh i c h t u r n e d ou t t o be u s e l e s s . Th e
m e t a l of
i n s t r u m e n t s ,
s u c h a s t h e
pr e c i ou s yu n l u o gon g-fr a m e ,
wa s s om e t i m e s
s ol d off or s a c r i fi c e d t o t h e
c a m pa i gn .
Th a t t h i s wa s
qu i t e
r a r e s e e m s t o s h ow
t h a t
vi l l a ge r s
r e a l i ze d t h e i r
yu n l u o
we r e
i r r e pl a c e a bl e ,
wh e r e a s t h e i r m a t e r i a l
l i ve l i h ood c ou l d be
for e gon e
m or e
r e a d i l y.
Si n c e we h e a r d of n o a c t i ve
a s s oc i a t i on s wh i c h
ga ve u p
t h e i r
yu n l u o, pe r h a ps
m os t of t h os e t h a t d i d h a d
be e n i n a c t i ve for s om e
ye a r s .
In t h i s a r e a t h e
m a jor
m u s i c a l i n i t i a t i ve of t h e
pe r i od
wa s t h e offi c i a l
gl or i fi c a t i on
of Sou t h e r n
Mu s i c , n ow
pu bl i c i ze d
a s a s e c u l a r
"s on gs -for -wi n d s "
De n g
47
(c h u i ge )
i n t h e m od e l c ou n t i e s of
Xu s h u i
a n d
Di n gxi a n (Jon e s 1998:195-202).
As we
s a w,
t h i s
s t yl e
wa s
r e l a t i ve l y
m od e m a n d
a d a pt a bl e , h a vi n g
fi r s t be c om e
popu l a r
i n t h e 1920s .
Eve n a s t h e i r t r a d i t i on a l a c t i vi t i e s we r e
be i n g s e ve r e l y l i m i t e d ,
s om e Mu s i c
a s we l l a s Sou t h e r n Mu s i c
we r e r e c r u i t e d t o s e r ve
t h e
pom p
of t h e Gr e a t
Le a p
For wa r d . Pa r a d e s t o
"r e por t joy" (ba oxi ,
t h e t e r m
for t h e i n fl a t e d a n d
c om pu l s or y
a n n ou n c e m e n t s of e c on om i c
s u c c e s s e s )
we r e
n ow
fr e qu e n t .
Th e
Ha n zh u a n g
pl a ye d
for c om m u n e
m e e t i n gs
i n t h e Gr e a t
Le a p For wa r d ,
a n d for t h e 1s t
Ma y
wor ke r s ' fe s t i va l . Th e
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s of Nor t h a n d Sou t h Ga ol u o c om bi n e d t o
go
t o a
n e a r by
vi l l a ge
t o
s u ppor t
a
bi g pr od u c t i on
d r i ve . Th e a s s oc i a t i on s
pl a ye d
t h e i r u s u a l
i n s t r u m e n t s - t h a t wa s a l l
t h e y
h a d -
a n d m os t
pe r for m e d
t h e i r u s u a l
r e pe r t or y,
a l t h ou gh
s om e
pl a ye d
"n e w
pi e c e s ".
Th e m u s i c i a n s of t h e Da oi s t -t r a n s m i t t e d
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on i n
Li ji a wu
we r e
d e pu t e d
for a
pa r a d e
i n
Be i ji n g
i n
1959,
pl a yi n g "r e vol u t i on a r y s on gs "
s u c h a s Soc i a l i s m i s
good
a n d Th e
pe opl e
,
c om m u n e s a r e
good .
Ye t n e i t h e r t h e n e w c on t e xt s n or t h e n e w
pi e c e s
m a d e
a n y
l a s t i n g i m pa c t
on t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s .
Am a zi n gl y,
i n 1959 t h e m u s i c i a n s of t h e Nor t h
Xi n zh u a n g
Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on
got t oge t h e r
t o fi n d a
ph ot ogr a ph e r
t o t a ke a
gr ou p por t r a i t
wi t h
t h e i r
a ge d m a s t e r ,
t h e for m e r Bu d d h i s t
pr i e s t Da gu a n g,
wh o h a d
t a u gh t
t h e m
ju s t
a ft e r Li be r a t i on .
Th e y
fa c e t h e c a m e r a
pr ou d l y
i n t h e i r fi n e Bu d d h i s t r obe s
(Fi gu r e 6). Ha r d l y
l e s s
i n c r e d i bl y, t h e y m a n a ge d
t o
ke e p
t h e
ph ot o,
a n d e ve n
s om e of t h e
r obe s , t h r ou gh
Re vol u t i on ,
a n d a r e i n
gr e a t
d e m a n d for
fu n e r a l s
t od a y.
Fi gu r e
6 Th e Nor t h
Xi n zh u a n g
Mu s i c
1959. For m e r Bu d d h i s t
pr i e s t
Da gu a n g
s i t s i n t h e c e n t r e
a m on g
t h e
pu pi l s
h e
t a u gh t
r i t u a l m u s i c s oon a ft e r Li be r a t i on .
De s pi t e
t h e
wor s e n i n g c r i s i s , d a m a gi n g
c u l t u r e a n d
r e l i gi on
a s m u c h a s t h e
e c on om y,
s om e c u l t u r a l a u t h or i t i e s s t i l l
m a n a ge d
t o
or ga n i ze
m or e t r a d i t i on a l
a c t i vi t i e s ,
s u c h a s "fol k
fe s t i va l s ", u s u a l l y
h e l d i n
c ou n t y-t own s .
Som e of t h e s e
we r e e ve n
r e c or d e d , t h ou gh
I kn ow of n o
r e c or d i n gs
wh i c h s u r vi ve d t h e
C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on . In t h e
d e s pe r a t e
wi n t e r of 1959-60 t h e Nor t h
Lon gh u a
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on r e c or d e d t wo
pi e c e s
a t
Ga oya n g c ou n t y-t own
for t h e
c ou n t y
Pe opl e 's
Ra d i o St a t i on . Soon
a ft e r , t h e y
we n t t o
Ba od i n g
t o t a ke
pa r t
i n a n a r t s
fe s t i va l
a r r a n ge d by
t h e
Ba od i n g
Bu r e a u of
C u l t u r e , pl a yi n g
i n a t r u c k i n t h e
s n ow.
Tod a y
m u s i c i a n s r e m e m be r s u c h
e xc e pt i on a l
e ve n t s wi t h a ki n d of
n os t a l gi a ;
bu t a t t h a t
t i m e , m a n y
we r e
s t a r vi n g.
3.3 Th e Th r e e Ye a r s of
Ha r d s h i p,
a n d a l u l l
Th e s e ve r e fa m i n e s of 1959-61
t h r ou gh ou t
C h i n a h a ve s t i l l n ot be e n
wi d e l y
a c kn owl e d ge d (Be c ke r 1996).
Th e wh ol e
c ou n t r y
wa s
a ffe c t e d ,
wi t h t e n s of
m i l l i on s
d yi n g;
He n a n a n d An h u i
pr ovi n c e s
fu r t h e r s ou t h s u ffe r e d
wor s t ,
bu t
c e n t r a l He be i wa s
ba d l y
h i t t oo.
Be ggi n g
a n d
va gr a n c y
we r e c om m on i n
Ba xi a n
c ou n t y,
a n d
m a n y
s t a r ve d t o d e a t h i n t h e
vi l l a ge s
i n t h e m od e l
c ou n t y
of
Xu s h u i , d e s pi t e
i t s
s pe c i a l
s t a t u s
(Fr i e d m a n 1991:342).
Th e Zh a obe i kou
a s s oc i a t i on h a d t o
s t op pr a c t i s i n g d u r i n g
t h e t h r e e
ye a r s
of
h a r d s h i p.
"In
1960 we we r e s o
h u n gr y
we c ou l d n 't
m ove ;
m os t
pe opl e
we r e
s c a ve n gi n g
t h e
c ou n t r ys i d e ,
we h a d n o
e n e r gy
t o
pe r for m .
We s t i l l c ou l d n 't
ge t goi n g
a ga i n
i n
1961"
Wh i l e
m a n y pe opl e
we r e
d yi n g,
i t wa s a fu r t h e r d i s t r e s s for t h e s u r vi vor s t o
be u n a bl e t o
gi ve pr ope r
fu n e r a l s . Som e a s s oc i a t i on s
m a n a ge d
t o c on t i n u e
pe r for m i n g fu n e r a l s ,
bu t t h e
pe r i od
wa s s o
h or r i fi c
t h a t e ve n i f
t h e y
we r e
a c t i ve ,
t h e y pr e fe r
t o
for ge t .
In Sou t h
Ga ol u o,
fl a u t i s t He Yi h a s n e ve r be e n a bl e t o
for ge t
t h e d e a t h fr om s t a r va t i on of h i s m a s t e r
C a i Sh a n i n 1960: "He 'd t a ke n
s u c h t r ou bl e t o t e a c h
m e ,
a n d e ve n i f I c ou l d n 't fe e d
h i m ,
t h e l e a s t I s h ou l d 've
d on e wa s t o
pl a y
for h i s fu n e r a l ". In Yu a n m e n kou t h e
pr e s e n t
r i t u a l
s pe c i a l i s t s
h a d
on l y
l e a r n t a t h i r d of t h e r i t u a l m a n u a l s be for e a l l t h e i r ol d m a s t e r s s t a r ve d
t o d e a t h i n 1960.
Th r ou gh ou t
t h e
a r e a ,
a n d
pe r h a ps
i n m os t of
C h i n a ,
a s t h e e c on om i c
s i t u a t i on s h owe d
s i gn s
of
i m pr ovi n g
i n t h e
t e m por a r y
r e t r e a t fr om e xt r e m e
l e ft i s t
pol i c i e s ,
t h e r e wa s a br i e f r e vi va l of t r a d i t i on fr om l a t e 1961 or 1962
(c f.
Fr i e d m a n
1991:354;
Ma c ke r r a s
1975:168).
I
s u s pe c t s t r on gl y
t h a t t h e
t r a i n i n g
of t h e
ge n e r a t i on
wh i c h l e a r n t fr om 1962 t o 1964 i s
r e s pon s i bl e
for t h e
c on t i n u i t y t od a y;
h a d i t n ot be e n for t h a t
pe r i od ,
fe w wou l d h a ve l e a r n t
s h e n g-
gu a n
l i t u r gy for m a l l y
or
ope n l y
fr om a bou t 1957 u n t i l a t l e a s t
1977.
Vi l l a ge r s
s t r e s s e d t h a t i n t h e
d a ys
be for e t e l e vi s i on a n d
pop m u s i c ,
e ve n
u n d e r
Ma oi s m ,
t h e r e wa s
s i m pl y
n o ot h e r c u l t u r a l
l i fe ; t e e n a ge boys
l i ke d t o
l e a r n be c a u s e t h e r e wa s
n ot h i n g
e l s e t o
d o, pa r t i c u l a r l y
i n t h e
l on g
wi n t e r
e ve n i n gs
be for e Ne w Ye a r .
In Zh a obe i kou t h e a s s oc i a t i on r e s t or e d i n t h e s e c on d h a l f of
1962,
bu t t h e n
i n 1963 t h e r e wa s a fl ood -
t h e y
h a d t o r e s c u e t h e i n s t r u m e n t s
by pu t t i n g
t h e m
i n a boa t . Ga ol u o a l s o s u ffe r e d a fl ood i n
1963,
t h e
l a r ge s t
s i n c e 1917.
Ma n y
De n g
49
s u c h "n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s " we r e
br ou gh t
on
by poor
l a n d
m a n a ge m e n t d u r i n g
t h e
Gr e a t
Le a p
For wa r d .
Howe ve r m u c h s e c u l a r
pr e s s u r e
wa s
bu i l d i n g u p, a d ve r s i t y
m a d e
pe opl e
s e e k t h e
god s
t o r e s c u e t h e m fr om t h e i r
pl i gh t .
Th e
Yi s h a n gyi n g
m u s i c i a n s h a d
be e n t oo
bu s y
t o m a ke t h e Hou s h a n
pi l gr i m a ge d u r i n g
t h e
Le a p,
bu t
t h e y
m a n a ge d
t o
go
i n 1960 -
t h ou gh h u n gr y (n ot
t oo
m a n y
h a d s t a r ve d t o d e a t h i n
t h e i r
vi l l a ge ), t h e y
we r e
you n g e n ou gh
a n d c ou l d s t i l l "bl ow".
Th e y
l a s t m a d e
t h e
pi l gr i m a ge
i n 1964. Th e Xi a on i u a s s oc i a t i on
ke pt u p
t h e
pi l gr i m a ge
t oo i n
t h e
e a r l y 1960s ,
bu t i n a s m a l l e r
gr ou p,
a n d n ot
d a r i n g
t o
br i n g
t h e i r a s s oc i a t i on
pe n n a n t s
wi t h t h e m .
Se ve r a l
vi l l a ge s pe r for m e d
r i t u a l s a n d r e c i t e d
s c r i pt u r e s
t o a ve r t
fl ood i n g.
Mor e
fr e qu e n t
a
c a l a m i t y
wa s
d r ou gh t :
i n Ea s t
Ba i ji a n
t h e e l d e r s
pr a ye d
for r a i n
c l a n d e s t i n e l y
i n 1962 a n d e ve n i n
1964, by a gr e e m e n t
wi t h t h e
vi l l a ge br i ga d e ,
bu t
t h e y
d i d n ot d a r e
go pu bl i c by u s i n g s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c .
Mos t
m ovi n g
for m e i s t h e t e n u ou s t h r e a d
by
wh i c h t h e r i t u a l t r a d i t i on of
Sou t h Ga ol u o wa s
pr e s e r ve d .
In t h e wi n t e r s of
1962-4,
s i x
t e e n a ge r s
s t u d i e d t h e
voc a l
l i t u r gy, i n c l u d i n g
t h e be a u t i fu l Hou t u
s c r ol l ,
wi t h r i t u a l
s pe c i a l i s t
a n d
for m e r
C om m u n i s t
gu e r r i l l a
C a i
Fu xi a n g,
a s
pa r t
of t h e "m i n or r e s t or a t i on " of
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on . Fou r of t h os e s i x m e n n ow m a ke
u p
t h e r i t u a l
s pe c i a l i s t s
of t h e a s s oc i a t i on . Ove r 30
you n g vi l l a ge
m e n s t a r t e d
l e a r n i n g
t h e
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c t h a t wi n t e r
t oo,
a n d t h e
ope r a t r ou pe
r e vi ve d
s t r on gl y
wi t h t h e t r a d i t i on a l
r e pe r t or y
wh i c h i t h a d be e n
s e e ki n g
t o
pe r for m
s i n c e 1958.
Al s o
t ou c h i n g
i s t h e
t r a gi c opt i m i s m
of t h e Nor t h
Lon gh u a
Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on . Th e
pr e fa c e
t o t h e i r 1963
gon gc h e
s c or e s t a t e s t h a t t h e a s s oc i a t i on
wa s fou n d e d "ove r 200
ye a r s a go";
s om e i n s t r u m e n t s h a d be e n l os t
d u r i n g
t h e
Ja pa n e s e oc c u pa t i on ,
a n d t h e r e wa s
on l y
on e s c or e . For t h e Is t m oon of
1963,
"wi t h
c on d i t i on s
pe a c e fu l
a n d
pe opl e 's h e a r t s
a t
r e s t ", t h e y m i m e ogr a ph e d
20
c opi e s
of t h e s c or e for n e w m e m be r s t o
s t u d y. Al a s , t h e y s poke
t oo s oon .
In Ea s t
La opi n g,
m u s i c i a n Du Ji n h e we n t off t o
joi n
t h e
a r m y
i n
1956,
a n d
wh e n h e c a m e h om e i n 1961 wa s m a d e h e a d of t h e
vi l l a ge m i l i t i a , wh i c h ,
l i ke
ot h e r
i n s t i t u t i on s ,
wa s
ju s t be gi n n i n g
t o fu n c t i on a ft e r s om e
ye a r s
of c h a os . "I
u s e d t h e
oppor t u n i t y
of
t r a i n i n g
t h e m i l i t i a t o
s i n g r e vol u t i on a r y s on gs
a n d
s t u d y,
a n d t o
r e or ga n i ze
t h e
vi l l a ge 's
Bu d d h i s t Affa i r s As s oc i a t i on a n d Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on ! Th e r e we r e
pl e n t y
of ol d m a s t e r s fr om bot h a s s oc i a t i on s t h e n . For
t h e n e xt
c ou pl e
of
ye a r s
we
a ga i n
s e t
u p
t h e Ne w Ye a r 's l a n t e r n
t e n t , h a n gi n g
ou t t h e r i t u a l
pa i n t i n gs ,
bu t
by
n ow
pe opl e on l y
offe r e d
i n c e n s e ,
t h e r e wa s n o
i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c ."
Th e y
h a d t o
s t op pr a c t i s i n g
i n t h e
De s t r oy
t h e Fou r Ol d s
c a m pa i gn
i n
1966; on l y
t h e voc a l
l i t u r gy
h a s r e vi ve d i n r e c e n t
ye a r s .
Som e l oc a l c u l t u r a l a u t h or i t i e s c on t i n u e d t o m a ke t oke n
a t t e m pt s
t o
s u ppor t
fol k m u s i c . In t h e
e a r l y
1960s t h e
Xi on gxi a n c ou n t y
Bu r e a u of C u l t u r e
or ga n i ze d
a
c om pe t i t i on
for
n e a r l y
a d oze n Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a n d Sou t h e r n
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s .
De s pi t e s por a d i c
e c on om i c
pr ogr e s s ,
C h i n a wa s s t i l l
d e s pe r a t e l y poor .
On e
r a r e l y-m e n t i on e d c h a n ge
i n t h e
e a r l y
1960s m u s t h a ve t r a n s for m e d
vi l l a ge
l i fe :
t h e a d ve n t of
e l e c t r i c i t y. Al t h ou gh
s t i l l
r u d i m e n t a r y
a n d
s por a d i c t od a y,
i t m u s t
h a ve be e n a
gr e a t
e xc i t e m e n t . In a
vi l l a ge
wh os e
br i ga d e
i n s t a l l e d
e l e c t r i c i t y
i n
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on 's r oom a t
pu bl i c e xpe n s e ,
on e
pe r c e pt i ve
a m a t e u r
h i s t or i a n
s u gge s t e d
t h a t t h i s wa s a
m a jor
e l e m e n t i n t h e r e vi va l . Th e for c e d
r e t u r n
of
m a n y vi l l a ge r s
t o r e s c u e
a gr i c u l t u r e
m u s t a l s o h a ve
pl a ye d
a
pa r t :
a s
c a m pa i gn s t e m por a r i l y qu i e t e n e d d own ,
s on s a n d
gr a n d s on s
of s e n i or
a ga i n
a va i l a bl e t o
l e a r n
t h e t r a d i t i on .
3.4 Th e Fou r
C l e a n u ps
a n d t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on
(1965-76)
It i s
i m por t a n t
t o d i s c e r n
ph a s e s
i n t h e C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on ,
n ot t o c on s i d e r i t a s
a n u n d i ffe r e n t i a t e d bl a c k h ol e . Th e l i ve s of
vi l l a ge r s
we r e
d i s r u pt e d
m u c h l e s s
t h a n t h os e of e d u c a t e d u r ba n d we l l e r s
(Ga o 1999).
Mos t
vi l l a ge r s
h a d t o
s u s pe n d
r i t u a l
a c t i vi t y
a r ou n d 1965 wh e n t h e Fou r
C l e a n u ps (Si qi n g) c a m pa i gn
be ga n ,
a l l t oo s oon a ft e r t h e r e vi va l of 1962-4. Bu t t h e wor s t vi ol e n c e wa s ove r
by 1969,
a n d
vi l l a ge r s
c on s i d e r e d t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on t o h a ve e n d e d
by
t h e n ;
fu r t i ve r i t u a l
a c t i vi t y a ga i n
be c a m e
c om m on , r e ve r t i n g
t o t h e r ou t i n e
c u l t u r a l "d i l u t i on " wh i c h we n ot e d
c h a r a c t e r i zi n g
t h e wh ol e c om m u n e
pe r i od
fr om a bou t 1955 t o 1978.
Al t h ou gh m a n y r e l i gi ou s
a r t e fa c t s we r e
d e s t r oye d d u r i n g
t h e fi r s t d e c a d e s
of C om m u n i s t
r u l e ,
a r e m a r ka bl e a m ou n t h a d s u r vi ve d t o t h e 1960s . Bu t i n t h e
fi r s t
c ou pl e
of
ye a r s
of t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on e m bl e m s of t h e
h e r i t a ge
we r e
br u t a l l y d e s t r oye d .
In a l m os t
e ve r y vi l l a ge
we we r e t ol d h ow
l a r ge
c offe r s fu l l
of
s c r i pt u r e s
we r e t a ke n ou t a n d
bu r n t .
De s pi t e
t h e r e vi va l s i n c e t h e
1980s ,
m u s i c i a n s d ou bt t h a t on e i n t e n
s c r i pt u r e s
fr om t h e
e a r l y
1960s h a s be e n
r e s t or e d . Th e voc a l
l i t u r gy
wa s m or e vu l n e r a bl e t h a n t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l
m u s i c ,
s i n c e r i t u a l m a n u a l s we r e m or e
s u s pe c t
t h a n i n s t r u m e n t a l
s c or e s ; m or e ove r ,
voc a l
l i t u r gy
i s
pe r for m e d
wi t h t h e a i d of t h e r i t u a l
m a n u a l s ,
wh i l e
i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c i s
m e m or i ze d ,
t h e s c or e
fu n c t i on i n g on l y
a s a
l e a r n i n g
d e vi c e a n d a i d t o
m e m or y.
Th e
Ha n zh u a n g
a s s oc i a t i on h a d t o
s u s pe n d
a c t i vi t i e s wh e n t h e i r
i n s t r u m e n t s
we r e c on fi s c a t e d i n t h e Fou r
C l e a n u ps .
Xi e
Yon gxi a n g,
a s a
r e s pe c t e d Pa r t y m e m be r ,
wa s s u m m on e d
by
t h e d i s t r i c t wor k-t e a m t o a n s we r
qu e s t i on s ;
h e
m a n a ge d
t o
pa t c h t h i n gs u p,
a n d s om e i n s t r u m e n t s we r e
r e t u r n e d ,
bu t t h e a s s oc i a t i on r e m a i n e d i n a c t i ve
t h r ou gh
t h e
e a r l y ye a r s
of t h e
C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on .
Hon e d
by pa s t c a m pa i gn s , vi l l a ge r s
h a d
ga i n e d
s om e
c a n n y pol i t i c a l
s ki l l s .
In Sou t h Ga ol u o
pot e n t i a l l y s u s pe c t
m a n u a l s we r e h i d d e n wi t h
pe opl e
l e a s t
l i ke l y
t o h a ve t h e i r h ou s e s
r a i d e d ,
s u c h a s
"poor pe a s a n t "
C a i
Hu a n a n d
d e c r e pi t
on e -e ye d
r e s i s t a n c e ve t e r a n
Zh a n g
We n . El s e wh e r e fi n e
ope r a
c os t u m e s we r e
a l s o h i d d e n i n t h e h ou s e s of
"pol i t i c a l l y
c or r e c t "
poor pe a s a n t s .
Du r i n g
t h e Fou r
C l e a n u ps
t h e
Be i h ou
a s s oc i a t i on wa s
e n c ou r a ge d
t o
pl a y
n e w
pi e c e s
s u c h a s "Don 't
for ge t
t h e
bi t t e r n e s s
of c l a s s "
(Bu wa n g ji e ji ku );
a ga i n C h e n g
Yi t ook t h e
l e a d , t e a c h i n g by
m e a n s of t h e t r a d i t i on a l
gon gc h e
s ol fe ggi o.
At t h e s t a r t of t h e C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on , t h e y
we r e e ve n for c e d t o
pl a y
wh i l e t h e wor k-t e a m s bu r n t t h e i r r i t u a l m a n u a l s a n d
pa i n t i n gs ,
a
t e l l i n gl y
s a d i s t i c
i n d i gn i t y.
Th e a s s oc i a t i on m a n a ge d
t o
pr e s e r ve on l y
on e m a n u a l .
De n g
51
In
Li ji a fe n ,
fi ve
t e e n a ge boys
l e a r n t t h e voc a l
l i t u r gy
i n
1963,
wh e n t h e r e
we r e s t i l l
m a n y
s e n i or m e m be r s . Aft e r t h e Fou r
C l e a n u ps be ga n
i n 1965
t h e y
h a d t o
s t u d y
i n s e c r e t a t h om e . Th e Fu xi n a s s oc i a t i on d e s c r i be d
a c t i vi t y d u r i n g
t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on a s e ve n m or e "wa t e r e d d own " t h a n a ft e r
c ol l e c t i vi za t i on ; t h ou gh t h e y ke pt goi n g
i n s e c r e t wi t h i n t h e
vi l l a ge , t h e y
s t i l l
t a l ke d of
"r e vi vi n g"
i n 1978. In t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on
t h e y pa i n t e d
t h e i r
be a u t i fu l ol d d r u m
r e d , u s i n g
i t for
pr opa ga n d a ,
s o t h e Re d Gu a r d s wou l d n ot
h a ve a
pr e t e xt
t o
d e s t r oy
i t . In
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on m e m be r s t ook
pa r t
i n t h e n e w
Pr opa ga n d a
Te a m s .
In Ea s t
Yu zh u a n g
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
s u s pe n d e d a c t i vi t y
i n
1960,
r e s t or e d a ft e r t h e
fa m i n e s ,
a n d a ft e r t h e Fou r
C l e a n u ps c h a n ge d
t o a s e c u l a r
"c l u b"
(zh u l e bu ), m a i n l y pe r for m i n g
m od e l
ope r a s .
Bu t
t h e y got
on we l l wi t h
t h e
vi l l a ge
c a d r e s
t h r ou gh ou t
t h e
pe r i od ,
a n d
d u r i n g
t h e Fou r
C l e a n u ps
e ve n t h e
wor k-t e a m s fr om ou t s i d e d i d n ot i n t e r fe r e wh e n
t h e y
d i d fu n e r a l s .
Th e y
c on s i d e r e d t h e i r r e s t or a t i on -
s u ppor t e d by
t h e
vi l l a ge
a u t h or i t i e s
-
a s a
t r a d i t i on a l Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on t o d a t e fr om 1975.
In
Ga ozh u a n g n e a r by,
m u s i c i a n s c l a i m t h a t i n t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on t h e r e
we r e n o a t t a c ks on t h e
vi l l a ge a s s oc i a t i on ;
fe w
ke pt u p
t h e
s h e n g-gu a n m u s i c ,
bu t t h e voc a l
l i t u r gy
wa s a c t i ve
t h r ou gh ou t .
"Th e a s s oc i a t i on i s n 't
a ga i n s t
a n yt h i n g,
i t m a ke s n o
d e m a n d s ,
d oe s n 't h a r m
a n yon e ,
s o
e ve r yon e
be l i e ve s i n
i t ,
a n d i t 's n e ve r d i s ba n d e d ." As on e m u s i c i a n
obs e r ve d ,
"In t h e C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on t h e r e wa s n o ot h e r e n t e r t a i n m e n t
[yu l e ],
s o we s t i l l u s e d t o
pl a y
t h e
ol d
pi e c e s
a t Ne w
Ye a r .
Th e t h e n
s e c r e t a r y
d i d n 't i n t e r fe r e
[bu gu a n ],
h e d i d n 't
t h i n k i t wa s t h e
br i ga d e 's r e s pon s i bi l i t y
-
t h e y
we r e
a l wa ys qu i t e e n l i gh t e n e d
[ka i m i n g]. Th e c om m on pe opl e h a d a good i m pr e s s i on of t h e Mu s i c
we 'r e n ot
m e r c e n a r y,
we
pr a c t i s e good [xi n gs h a n ]."
In t h e Fou r
C l e a n u ps
t h e
Pa r t y Se c r e t a r y
of t h e d i s t r i c t c om m i t t e e
br ou gh t
a wor k-t e a m t o
Ga ozh u a n g, s t a yi n g
for ove r a
ye a r
u n t i l a ft e r t h e for m a l ou t br e a k of t h e
C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on . Th e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
pl a ye d
ol d
pi e c e s
for r e l a t i ve s of
t h e
a r m y,
s o t h e d i s t r i c t
Se c r e t a r y
d i d n ot i n t e r fe r e .
Mu s i c i a n s i n Ea s t
We n qu a n
a l s o c l a i m t h a t t h e i r Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
ke pt
pe r for m i n g t h r ou gh ou t
t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on . "Th e r i va l Re d Gu a r d
fa c t i on s we r e t oo
bu s y fi gh t i n g
i t ou t t o t a ke
a n y
n ot i c e -
a n d
a n ywa y
on e
fa c t i on l i ke d t h e m u s i c ." In Ea s t
Ba i ji a n , Wa n g Fe n gzh a n g,
t h e
pr e s e n t
l e a d
gu a n zi pl a ye r , be ga n
t o l e a r n t h e r i t u a l m u s i c fr om h i s fa t h e r i n
1961,
bu t
we n t off t o
joi n
t h e
a r m y
i n 1965. As t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on br oke
ou t ,
t h e
m u s i c i a n s bu r i e d t h e i r m e l od i c i n s t r u m e n t s for
s a fe -ke e pi n g,
s o a t fi r s t
t h e y
c ou l d
on l y pl a y
a bi t of
pe r c u s s i on
for fu n e r a l s . Bu t wh e n
Wa n g
c a m e ba c k t o
t h e
vi l l a ge
i n 1973 t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on wa s s t i l l
goi n g,
a n d h e c on t i n u e d
s t u d yi n g
wh e r e h e h a d l e ft
off.
In
Zh a obe i kou ,
m u s i c i a n s
poi n t e d
ou t t h a t t h e Fou r
C l e a n u ps c a m pa i gn
wa s
a ga i n s t c a d r e s ,
n ot
a ga i n s t
a s s oc i a t i on s . "In t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on we s t i l l
obs e r ve d t h e Ne w Ye a r
-
we
pl a ye d
t h e ol d
pi e c e s
a s we l l a s
s on gs , a d d i n g
a
l a r ge we n gzi [a
bowe d ba s s
fi d d l e ,
l i ke a
d a h u ]."
As s oon a s
pol i t i c a l
c on t r ol
l a ps e d
i n t h e
1970s , t h e y
d i s c a r d e d bot h t h e n e w
pi e c e s a n d t h e
we n gzi
a n d r e t u r n e d t o t h e u n a d u l t e r a t e d t r a d i t i on a l
s t yl e .
Th e Sou t h Ga ol u o a s s oc i a t i on s t i l l
m a n a ge d
t o
pl a y
t h e i r i n s t r u m e n t a l
m u s i c for fu n e r a l s fr om a t l e a s t
1968, h a vi n g
be e n s i l e n t for
on l y
a
c ou pl e
of
ye a r s ,
i f t h a t . As
e ve r , "wh e n
t h e a u t h or i t i e s
c on t r ol l e d
t h i n gs s t r i c t l y
we
ke pt
qu i e t ,
wh e n
t h i n gs
we r e m or e r e l a xe d we we n t t o
pl a y".
An d
t h e y
s t u c k t o t h e i r
s h e n g-gu a n r e pe r t or y, t h ou gh t h e y
n e ve r fe l t a bl e t o r i s k
pe r for m i n g
t h e voc a l
l i t u r gy
wh i c h t h e
t e e n a ge r s
h a d
l e a r n t
d u r i n g
t h e s h or t -l i ve d
r e s t or a t i on of 1962-4. Mu s i c i a n s
ke pt
t h e s m a l l e r
i n s t r u m e n t s ,
wh i l e t h e
l a r ge r
pe r c u s s i on
i n s t r u m e n t s we r e s t or e d a t t h e h ou s e of t h e for m i d a bl e l e a d e r He
Qi n g,
h i m s e l f a
ba c ks t a ge pol i t i c a l
a c t i vi s t .
Apa r t
fr om
fu n e r a l s , t h e y
a l s o t ook
ou t t h e
pe r c u s s i on
i n s t r u m e n t s t o c e l e br a t e t h e
s e n d i n g
of
you n g vi l l a ge r s
off t o
a r m y
s e r vi c e .
Ne w Ye a r t oo wa s s t i l l obs e r ve d i n a
t r a d i t i on a l ,
a l be i t
s i m pl i fi e d , wa y.
Th e
pa n t h e on
a n d ot h e r r i t u a l
pa i n t i n gs
we r e
ke pt
i n t h e h ou s e of
C a i
Yon gc h u n ,
r i t u a l
s pe c i a l i s t
a n d ve t e r a n
r e vol u t i on a r y.
Fr om a bou t 1969 h e
h u n g
t h e m ou t
a t Ne w Ye a r i n h i s h ou s e a n d
vi l l a ge r s fu r t i ve l y
c a m e t o offe r i n c e n s e be for e t h e
pa i n t i n gs ; m a ybe
s om e of t h e m u s i c i a n s e ve n
pl a ye d .
Th e n fr om 1971 He
Qi n g
t ook t h e
pa i n t i n gs ba c k,
a n d a t Ne w Ye a r
t h e y
on c e
a ga i n
a d or n e d
t h e ol d r i t u a l
bu i l d i n g.
Bu t t h e
d i a ogu a h a n gi n gs ,
wh i c h
t r a d i t i on a l l y
e m be l l i s h e d t h e
a l l e ys
a t Ne w
Ye a r ,
s t i l l
s t a ye d
h i d d e n
a wa y.
He
Qi n g
e ve n h a d t h e a s s oc i a t i on 's
d e c r e pi t
ol d s c or e
r e c opi e d d u r i n g
t h i s
pe r i od .
4 Th e r e for m e r a
Aft e r t h e d e a t h of Ma o a n d t h e fa l l of t h e
Ga n g
of Fou r i n
1976,
ove r t wo
d e c a d e s of Ma oi s t
pol i c i e s
we r e ove r t u r n e d :
De n g Xi a opi n g pr e s i d e d
ove r t h e
of t h e c om m u n e
s ys t e m
a n d t h e
i m pl e m e n t i n g
of m or e l i be r a l
e c on om i c
pol i c i e s .
As t h e s t a t e
wi t h d r e w,
t h e i n d i vi d u a l
fa m i l y
on c e
a ga i n
be c a m e t h e e c on om i c
u n i t , br i n gi n g a n xi e t y
a n d
pr e s s u r e
a s m u c h a s
r e l i e f.
Ma n y vi l l a ge r s
a r e n ow
n os t a l gi c
for t h e
s e c u r i t y
s ys t e m ,
bot h
e c on om i c a l l y
a n d
c u l t u r a l l y.
Ec on om i c
pr ogr e s s
h a d be e n
m a d e ,
bu t wa s
l i m i t e d
by popu l a t i on gr owt h .
As m a s s
m e e t i n gs
be c a m e a
m e m or y,
t h e
on l y
"h a r d " pol i c y
t o be
i m pl e m e n t e d
wa s t o be t h e c on t r ove r s i a l bi r t h -c on t r ol
pol i c y. Al t h ou gh s u pe r fi c i a l l y
t h e
of
Ma oi s m
e n a bl e d t r a d i t i on a l
c u l t u r e t o r e vi ve on a m or e s ol i d
foot i n g, r e l a t i ve l y
fr e e of
pol i t i c a l c on t r ol ,
t h e
r i t u a l
a s s oc i a t i on s h a ve fa c e d
ve r y
d i ffe r e n t
pr obl e m s
u n d e r t h e n e w
c a pi t a l i s m .
4.1 Th e r e vi va l
It i s
i m por t a n t
t o
r e c ogn i ze
t h e t h r e a d s
by
wh i c h r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s
c l u n g
on t o
t h e i r
t r a d i t i on s , e n a bl i n g
t h e r e vi va l of t h e 1980s : i t
t r a n s pi r e s
t h a t
m a n y
h a d
m a n a ge d
t o m a i n t a i n
a c t i vi t y
i n a fu r t i ve
wa y
e ve n
d u r i n g
Re vol u t i on ,
a t l e a s t s i n c e 1970 a s a c t i ve
pol i t i c a l
i n t e r fe r e n c e d i m i n i s h e d .
St i l l ,
pr a c t i c e
h a d
l on g
be e n s o d i l u t e d t h a t
t h e y
a l l
s poke
of
a
m a jor
r e vi va l a ft e r t h e
C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on c a m e t o a n e n d . Ye t fe w r i t u a l m u s i c i a n s
"poke d
t h e i r
h e a d s ou t " u n t i l a t l e a s t
1978,
a n d
m a n y
we r e s t i l l h e s i t a n t t o r e vi ve s u c h
De n g
53
s u s pe c t
a c t i vi t i e s t oo
ope n l y
i n t h e
e a r l y
'80s .
In d e e d ,
c u l t u r a l c a d r e s we r e
h i n d e r e d i n t h e i r wor k
m u s i c for t h e
n e wl y
c om m i s s i on e d
An t h ol ogy of
C h i n e s e
fol k-
m u s i c a t t h i s t i m e be c a u s e
ps yc h ol ogi c a l l y-s c a r r e d
s e n i or m u s i c i a n s
s u s pe c t e d
i t
m i gh t
be a r u s e t o "e n t i c e t h e s n a ke ou t of i t s l a i r ".
On e
s i gn
of t h e c u l t u r a l t h a w a ft e r t h e ove r t h r ow of t h e
Ga n g
of Fou r wa s
t h e
s h owi n g
on t e l e vi s i on of t h e
l on g-ou t l a we d
"ol d
ope r a s ", fi n a l l y
s a n c t i on e d
by
Ma o a n d h i s
pr ot e ge
Hu a
Gu ofe n g,
a ft e r a t e d i ou s
t e n -ye a r
d i e t of
e i gh t
m od e l
ope r a s .
Tr a d i t i on a l bu r i a l for fu n e r a l s a l s o be c a m e m or e
ope n .
Th e
pol i c y
of
c r e m a t i on ,
pr e s c r i be d d u r i n g
Re vol u t i on ,
h a d
a n ywa y
be e n
wi d e l y
r e s i s t e d : a s i n
m a n y a s pe c t s
of C h i n e s e l a w
t od a y,
"t h e r e i s
a
pol i c y
bu t i t i s n 't
i m pl e m e n t e d ".
Th i s
l a i s s e z-fa i r e
l oc a l a t t i t u d e t owa r d s
c e n t r a l
pol i c i e s
i s a l s o oft e n
e xpr e s s e d by
t h e
popu l a r t e r m ,
"on e
e ye ope n ,
on e
e ye
c l os e d ".
Wh a t n ow
c h a n ge d ,
i t
s e e m s ,
wa s t h a t
pe opl e
we r e n o
l on ge r
s o a fr a i d t o
fl ou t t h e l a w m or e
ope n l y.
As s oc i a t i on m e m be r s s a i d t h e r e vi va l of t r a d i t i on a l
fu n e r a l s wa s a n
i m por t a n t
i n c e n t i ve t o
r e s t or i n g
t h e i r
pe r c u s s i on ,
voc a l
l i t u r gy
a n d r i t u a l . Som e
vi l l a ge s
r e vi ve d t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l
m u s i c e a r l i e r t h a n t h e voc a l
l i t u r gy, a l t h ou gh
bot h c on t i n u e d t o s e r ve r i t u a l
on l y;
t h e
m u s i c a l l y ou t s t a n d i n g Ga oqi a o
a s s oc i a t i on s t a r t e d
pl a yi n g
t h e i r
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c for r i t u a l s
a ga i n
i n
1979,
bu t
on l y
r e s u m e d
s c r i pt u r e
r e c i t a t i on i n 1992.
Th i s wa s n ot t h e fi r s t
r e s t or a t i on ,
a ft e r a l l : Li be r a t i on i t s e l f h a d
gi ve n
r i s e t o
t e m por a r y opt i m i s m ,
a n d we s a w t h e s h or t -l i ve d e ffor t s of 1962-4.
Vi l l a ge r s
h a d h a d t h e i r
fi n ge r s
bu r n t t oo oft e n .
St i l l ,
t h e Nor t h
Lon gh u a
a s s oc i a t i on n ow
s t a r t e d
u p ye t a ga i n ,
a n d t o d a t e t h e i r fa i t h h a s n ot be e n c r u s h e d . Th e
pr e fa c e
of
t h e i r 1980
gon gc h e
s c or e d e c l a r e s :
Now we h a ve
pe a c e
a n d s oc i a l
c oh e s i on ,
ou r m u s i c h a s be e n r e s t or e d
for t wo
wi n t e r s ,
a n d we h a ve a bs or be d a
gr ou p
of n e w
s t u d e n t s ,
l e a r n i n g
ol d a n d n e w
pi e c e s ;
t h e r e a r e n ow ove r 40
m e m be r s ,
t h e
ol d e s t
81,
t h e
you n ge s t
17.
Th e fi n a l
pa r a gr a ph
i s a
t ou c h i n g s e l f-ju s t i fi c a t i on :
Wi t h t h e
gu i d a n c e
of t h e
Pa r t y,
ou r m u s i c i s n ow
d i s pl a yi n g
a
gl or i ou s
pr os pe c t ,
a n d t h e r e
gu s h
for t h
ou t s t a n d i n g c om pos i t i on s , e n r i c h i n g
t h e
pe opl e 's
c u l t u r a l
l i fe , pr ovi d i n g
e xa l t e d a n d
e xqu i s i t e
a r t i s t i c
a ppr e c i a t i on .
It c a n m a ke
pe opl e
bot h
h a ppy
a n d
s a d ,
a n d m a ke t h e m
fi r m
i n t h e i r
r e s ol ve , i n s t i l l i n g
h e r oi c
s pi r i t .
Su c h c on s c i ou s
pr i d e
i s e vi d e n t i n t h e fe w ot h e r Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s c or e s wh i c h
h a ve
pr e fa c e s ,
bu t i t i s m os t r a r e
a m on g
a s s oc i a t i on m e m be r s : s u c h offi c i a l
voc a bu l a r y
i s n e ve r h e a r d on t h e
l i ps
of fol k m u s i c i a n s . Not e a l s o t h a t n o n e w
c om pos i t i on s "gu s h e d
for t h ":
t h e y ke pt pl a yi n g
t h e t r a d i t i on a l
r e pe r t or y.
Ju s t a s a r ou n d Li be r a t i on 30
ye a r s e a r l i e r ,
wh i l e
m a n y vi l l a ge r s
s a i d t h a t
t h e y ju s t
c ou l d n ot a l l ow t h e t r a d i t i on t o be l os t for
e ve r ,
r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s we r e
s t i l l r e s t or e d wi t h
d i ffi c u l t y. Du r i n g pe r i od s
of
pol i t i c a l r e pr e s s i on ,
m u s i c i a n s
h a ve n o c h oi c e bu t t o l i e
l ow,
bu t e ve n on c e i t be c om e s
pos s i bl e
t o
pe r for m
ope n l y a ga i n , m a i n t a i n i n g
t h e t r a d i t i on s t i l l
r e qu i r e s
i n i t i a t i ve a n d e n t h u s i a s m .
An
i m por t a n t
t a s k i n t h e
e a r l y pe r i od
a ft e r t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on
(i n d e e d ,
i t s t i l l
goe s on )
wa s t h e
pa i n fu l pr oc e s s
of
r e c l a i m i n g
a r t e fa c t s s t ol e n or h i d d e n
d u r i n g
Re vol u t i on , i n c l u d i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , s c or e s , god -pa i n t i n gs
a n d c os t u m e s .
Th e fi r s t t a s k wa s t o
r e pl a c e
l os t or
d a m a ge d i n s t r u m e n t s ;
oft e n n e w on e s
we r e
bou gh t
wi t h t h e
h e l p
of t h e
vi l l a ge br i ga d e .
Th e Gu ol i kou a s s oc i a t i on
r e vi ve d s oon a ft e r t h e e n d of t h e C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on ,
bu t d i s ba n d e d
a ga i n
for
t wo
ye a r s
i n t h e
e a r l y
'80s . In a
d e ba t e ,
t h e m e m be r s
a gr e e d t h e y
c ou l d n ot
ju s t
l e t t h e t r a d i t i on
l a ps e
for
good ,
s o
e ve r yon e
c l u bbe d
t oge t h e r
t o
bu y
n e w
i n s t r u m e n t s .
Bu t n ot a l l Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s c ou l d t h e n r e vi ve
s i m pl y by ge t t i n g t oge t h e r
a n d
t r yi n g
t o r e m e m be r t h e ol d
r e pe r t or y. Ma n y
a s s oc i a t i on s h a d l os t t h e i r ol d
s c or e s a n d r i t u a l m a n u a l s i n t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on . If a n ol d s c or e
s u r vi ve d ,
i t
wa s oft e n
r e c opi e d
i n t h i s
pe r i od ;
i f
n ot ,
s e n i or m u s i c i a n s we r e oft e n a bl e t o
pool
t h e i r
kn owl e d ge
a n d wr i t e a n e w s c or e fr om
m e m or y.
Th i s
e n e r gy
i n
r e c opyi n g
ol d s c or e s i s r e m a r ka bl e . We h a ve fou n d fe w
s c or e s fr om be for e t h e t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y (i n
on e s e n s e
d i s a ppoi n t i n gl y,
i f we a r e
l ooki n g
for c l u e s a bou t
a n c e s t r y); qu i t e
a l ot fr om t h e
e a r l y
t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y;
s e ve r a l fr om t h e
e a r l y
1950s a n d
ve r y m a n y
fr om t h e 1980s a n d
e a r l y
1990s .
Th i s
i m pl i e s
n ot
on l y
t h a t t h e s c or e i s a n
i m por t a n t
a r t e fa c t i n t h e c on s t a n t
r e ge n e r a t i on
of t h e
t r a d i t i on ,
bu t m or e
ba s i c a l l y
t h a t t h e m u s i c i t s e l f i s a
l i vi n g
t r a d i t i on ,
n ot a n obs c u r e h i s t or i c a l
bywa y
wh i c h we a r e
s e e ki n g
t o r e c on s t r u c t .
In
Zh a n gzh u a n g,
wh e r e t h e a s s oc i a t i on wa s ke e n t o r e s t or e t h e r i t u a l a s we l l
a s t h e
a for m e r Da oi s t
pr i e s t (wh o t h ou gh h a vi n g
r e t u r n e d t o
t h e
l a i t y
i n 1952 h a d c on t i n u e d
pr a c t i s i n g
for fol k
r i t u a l s )
h a d t o r e wr i t e a s m u c h
a s
pos s i bl e
fr om
m e m or y
-
i t t ook h i m a wh ol e
ye a r
t o wr i t e ou t t h e a bs t r u s e t e xt
for t h e
Re l e a s i n g Fl a m i n g
Mou t h r i t u a l . Som e a s s oc i a t i on s h a d t o s e e k t e xt s
fr om ou t s i d e t h e i r
vi l l a ge .
Th i s be c a m e m or e
l i ke l y
t h e l a t e r t h e r e s t or a t i on
oc c u r r e d . Wh e n t h e
Da l i a n g
a s s oc i a t i on r e vi ve d i n
1990, t h e y c opi e d
a s c or e
fr om a for m e r Da oi s t i n a n ol d
pe opl e 's
h om e i n t h e
c ou n t y-t own .
Wh i l e a
h u ge
vol u m e of m a t e r i a l h a d be e n l os t for
e ve r , d e s t r oye d by
t h e
Re d
Gu a r d s ,
or
by
t h e m u s i c i a n s t h e m s e l ve s i n
fe a r , t h e y
a l s o
h ope d
t o fi n d
c on fi s c a t e d
good s
wh i c h
m i gh t
s t i l l s u r vi ve . Th e Nor t h
Xi n zh u a n g
a s s oc i a t i on
m a n a ge d
t o r e c l a i m s om e of i t s be a u t i fu l ol d r i t u a l
pa i n t i n gs
a n d
Bu d d h i s t r obe s .
Eve n i f t h e ol d s c or e a n d m a n u a l s c ou l d be
fou n d ,
s om e a s s oc i a t i on s n ow
l a c ke d a
s u i t a bl y
a u t h or i t a t i ve
m a s t e r .
Th e l os s of s e n i or m u s i c i a n s s i n c e t h e
1960s wa s a s e ve r e bl ow.
Ha vi n g
l e a r n t s o
t h or ou gh l y
be for e
Li be r a t i on , t h e y
n ow s e e m
i r r e pl a c e a bl e .
Th e
r e pe r t or y
wa s
s h r i n ki n g
- of
c ou r s e ,
t h e
c h a n gi n g
s oc i a l
c on t e xt ,
wi t h a bbr e vi a t e d
r i t u a l s ,
a l s o m a d e i t l e s s
n e c e s s a r y
for
m u s i c i a n s t o m a s t e r s u c h a
l a r ge r e pe r t or y.
In
Xi on gxi a n c ou n t y
for a t l e a s t 200
ye a r s
fr om
t h e
e i gh t e e n t h c e n t u r y
u n t i l t h e
1950s , a l l
13
gr e a t
s u i t e s e n s h r i n e d
i n
vi l l a ge
s c or e s h a d be e n
pl a ye d ,
bu t t h e
s u r vi vi n g ge n e r a t i on
c a n n ow
on l y
pl a y
t h r e e or fou r a t m os t .
De n g
55
Som e ot h e r t r a d i t i on s s u c h a s
n a r r a t i ve -s i n gi n g
h a d be e n
vi r t u a l l y
e r a s e d
i n t h i s a r e a s i n c e t h e 1940s . Bu t t h e r e s t or a t i on of r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s a r ou n d
1980 wa s n o
r e -i n ve n t i on ,
n o
pi e c i n g t oge t h e r
of c u l t u r a l
fr a gm e n t s :
t h e
t r a d i t i on h a d be e n
i m pove r i s h e d ,
bu t
m a n y
m u s i c i a n s wh o h a d l e a r n t fr om t h e
1940s t o t h e
e a r l y
1960s we r e a va i l a bl e t o t r a n s m i t t h e m u s i c t o t h e 1980s
ge n e r a t i on . Th e y
we r e
pe r fe c t l y
c l e a r h ow t o
pl a y
t h e
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c
wh i c h
t h e y ke pt
"i n t h e i r be l l i e s ".
Bu t i f t h e
pr e s s u r e s
of Ma oi s m h a d n ot
d e s t r oye d
t h e
a s s oc i a t i on s , t h e y
s oft e n e d t h e m
u p
for t h e
c om i n g
a s s a u l t s fr om
c a pi t a l i s m .
Th e
Kon gc u n
a s s oc i a t i on ,
a c t i ve u n t i l t h e Fou r
C l e a n u ps ,
r e vi ve d a ft e r t h e e n d of t h e C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on ; by
1979
t h e y
we r e
a ga i n pe r for m i n g
fu n e r a l s
i n
vi l l a ge s
i n t h e
d i s t r i c t . Bu t
by
1984
t h e y
we r e i n a c t i ve
a ga i n ;
a ft e r
pr i va t i za t i on
s a n k
i n ,
t h e r e
wa s n o c e n t r a l
a u t h or i t y,
n o s oc i a l
c oh e s i on ,
t h e
br i ga d e
d i d n ot
s u ppor t t h e m ,
a n d
t h e y
d i s ba n d e d .
Ou r l i s t of a c t i ve r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s
e xpa n d s
a l l t h e t i m e . In 1986
Be i ji n g
m u s i c ol ogi s t s
we r e a m a ze d t o l e a r n t h a t t h e r e wa s e ve n on e s u c h a s s oc i a t i on
s t i l l
pe r for m i n g
t h e
t h a t of
Qu ji a yi n g. By 1989,
a ft e r s om e
pr e l i m i n a r y fi e l d wor k,
we r e c kon e d t h e r e
m i gh t
be a bou t 50 a c t i ve
gr ou ps ;
n ow
we t h i n k t h e r e m u s t be a t l e a s t a
c ou pl e
of h u n d r e d .
Mos t
(bu t by
n o m e a n s
a l l ) vi l l a ge s m a y
h a ve h a d a c t i ve r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s
(for
"Mu s i c " or "Bu d d h i s t
Affa i r s ",
or
bot h )
be for e
t h e y
we r e c on s t r a i n e d
by
wa r fa r e a n d
pol i t i c a l
i n t e r fe r e n c e . On e s e n i or m u s i c i a n
t h ou gh t
t h a t m os t
vi l l a ge s
wh i c h h a d Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s be for e t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on h a d
r e vi ve d ,
bu t t h i s i s fa r t oo
r os y.
In
Xi on gxi a n c ou n t y,
of 31 Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s
kn own t o h a ve e xi s t e d i n t h e
1950s ,
we fou n d
on l y
s i x s t i l l a c t i ve
by
t h e 1990s .
In La i s h u i
c ou n t y
48 a s s oc i a t i on s we r e s a i d t o be a c t i ve i n
1934;
a 1982
s u r ve y
fou n d 17
gr ou ps
wh i c h h a d
r e c e n t l y
r e vi ve d a ft e r t h e C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on ; by
1998 we we r e s t i l l
l e a r n i n g
of
m or e , c e r t a i n l y
wh e n we d e fi n e t h e r i t u a l
a s s oc i a t i on t o i n c l u d e t h os e for "Bu d d h i s t Affa i r s " a s we l l a s "Mu s i c ".
Al t h ou gh
we
m a y
h a ve fou n d m os t of t h e
a c t i ve ,
a n d
i n a c t i ve , gr ou ps , c ou n t y
c u l t u r a l c a d r e s
m a y
be u n a wa r e of or u n a bl e t o r e a c h
vi l l a ge a s s oc i a t i on s ;
s om e
of t h os e wh os e r i t u a l i s m or e
i m por t a n t
t h a n t h e i r i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c
m a y
c on t i n u e t o be i m m u n e fr om t h e
i m pe r t i n e n t
vi s i t s of ou t s i d e r s .
Th e s i t u a t i on e ve n
t od a y
i s e ve r
c h a n gi n g.
Som e a s s oc i a t i on s r e vi ve d
e a r l y,
a r ou n d
1978;
ot h e r s a s l a t e a s
1985;
s om e h a ve
on l y
r e s t a r t e d i n t h e 1990s . As
we
s a w, m a n y
wh i c h t r i e d t o r e vi ve i n t h e
e a r l y
1980s t h e n
ga ve u p
a ft e r a fe w
ye a r s .
In t h e
1990s , ju s t
a s i n t h e Ma oi s t
pe r i od , m a n y
s t r u ggl i n g
t o
ke e p goi n g
u s e d t h e
e xpr e s s i on
c ou h e
"ge t t i n g by", r e fe r r i n g
t o
t h e i r
n u m be r s ,
t h e i r
a bi l i t y,
a n d t h e
qu a l i t y
of t h e i r
pe r for m a n c e
-
i m pl i c i t l y
c on t r a s t i n g h a ppi e r
t i m e s be for e
c ol l e c t i vi za t i on ,
be for e
Li be r a t i on ,
or be for e
t h e
Ja pa n e s e
i n va s i on .
It i s a l s o d i ffi c u l t t o a s s e s s l e ve l s of
a c t i vi t y.
Som e a s s oc i a t i on s
ju s t m a n a ge
t o
pe r for m
for t h e Ne w Ye a r
r i t u a l s ,
s om e
ba r e l y m a n a ge
t o
pe r for m
fu n e r a l s
wi t h r e d u c e d
pe r s on n e l ,
s om e
m e r e l y
h a ve a s m a l l
gr ou p
of ol d m e n wh o
ge t
t oge t h e r oc c a s i on a l l y
t o
pl a y
for fu n . Aft e r
a l l ,
i f n o on e
d i e s ,
t h e a s s oc i a t i on i s
n ot
r e qu i r e d
a t a l l
e xc e pt
for Ne w Ye a r . Wh e t h e r we a s s e s s a n a s s oc i a t i on a s
a c t i ve or
m or i bu n d
d e pe n d s l a r ge l y
on t h e i r r ol e i n
vi l l a ge
r i t u a l a n d t h e
m u s i c i a n s ' own a s s e s s m e n t of t h e i r
e n e r gy.
In s om e
vi l l a ge s
we fou n d
on l y
a
c ou pl e
of
e l d e r l y m u s i c i a n s ,
n ow u n a bl e
t o r e vi t a l i ze t h e t r a d i t i on . Of
c ou r s e ,
s u c h
m u s i c i a n s ,
e ve n i f n ow
i n a c t i ve , m a y
s t i l l
ke e p
t h e i r i n s t r u m e n t s a n d
s c or e s ,
a n d c a n s t i l l t e a c h u s a l ot a bou t t h e
h i s t or y
a n d for m e r
pr a c t i c e
of t h e As s oc i a t i on s . Fu r t h e r i n t e r vi e ws a r e n e e d e d
i n or d e r t o
pi e c e t oge t h e r
t h e
h i s t or y
of a l l t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s i n
a n y
on e
c ou n t y.
Wh o kn ows wh a t a n c i e n t s c or e s a n d m a n u a l s r e m a i n h i d d e n
a wa y
i n
vi l l a ge
c offe r s ?
Wh i l e
r e c on s t r u c t i on c ou l d be a n
i n t e r e s t i n g a ve n u e , m y
m a i n
c on c e r n h e r e i s t h e
l i vi n g
t r a d i t i on .
Th e
a ve r a ge m e m be r s h i p
of a Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
t od a y
i s a bou t 20
m u s i c i a n s .
Gu a n c h e n g
h a d 45 m e m be r s i n
1993,
bu t i t i s oft e n t h e s m a l l e r
wi t h a s fe w a s t e n a c t i ve
m e m be r s ,
wh i c h a r e m os t a d m i r e d
m u s i c a l l y,
s u c h a s
Ga oqi a o
a n d
Yi s h a n gyi n g.
Al l t h e s e a r e
opt i m u m
n u m be r s :
e s pe c i a l l y
i n r e c e n t
ye a r s , m a n y
m u s i c i a n s a r e
wor ki n g
a s l a bou r e r s ou t s i d e t h e
vi l l a ge , r e t u r n i n g on l y
for t h e Ne w Ye a r a n d t h e
bu s y a gr i c u l t u r a l pe r i od s .
An d
of c ou r s e n u m be r s
va r y
fr om
ye a r
t o
ye a r :
wh i l e n e w s t u d e n t s a r e
l e a r n i n g
t h e r e
m a y br i e fl y
be ove r 60 m e m be r s
(r e m e m be r
t h e r e we r e ove r 60 n e w r e c r u i t s i n
Ma wu zh u a n g
i n
1945),
a n d i f ol d m e m be r s d i e off be for e a n e w r e c r u i t m e n t h a s
t a ke n
pl a c e ,
t h e
gr ou p m a y
be
t e m por a r i l y d e pl e t e d .
Bu t i n
ge n e r a l ,
wh i l e t h e r e
h a s
a l wa ys
be e n c on s i d e r a bl e va r i a t i on i n t h e s i ze of
e n s e m bl e , m e m be r s h i p
m a y
be s m a l l e r
t od a y
t h a n i n t h e 1950s or e a r l i e r .
4.2 Th e
vi l l a ge br i ga d e
a n d n e w
m on e y
Rou t i n e d on a t i on s fr om
vi l l a ge r s , m a i n l y
be for e t h e Ne w
Ye a r 's r i t u a l s ,
c on t i n u e t o
pr ovi d e
m os t of t h e a s s oc i a t i on 's n e e d s . In Sou t h
Ga ol u o,
t h e Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on r e bu i l t i t s r i t u a l
bu i l d i n g
i n
1990, r e l yi n g e n t i r e l y
on d on a t i on s of
m on e y
a n d l a bou r fr om
vi l l a ge r s .
Apa r t
fr om t h e ba s i c
s u ppor t
of t h e
c om m u n i t y,
we s a w h ow i n t h e
1950s
t h e
vi l l a ge br i ga d e ,
or i t s s u bor d i n a t e
pr od u c t i on -t e a m s ,
h a d a s s u m e d i n for m a l
r e s pon s i bi l i t y
for
s u ppor t i n g
t h e i r Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on . Aft e r t h e e n d of t h e
C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on , d e s pi t e
t h e
s ys t e m ,
i t wa s
a ga i n
wi t h t h e m or a l a n d fi n a n c i a l
s u ppor t
of t h e
br i ga d e
t h a t m os t Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on s r e vi ve d
-
t h ou gh
s om e d i d s o wi t h n o offi c i a l
e n c ou r a ge m e n t ,
wh i l e ot h e r s we r e u n a bl e t o s u s t a i n t h e r e vi va l
d e s pi t e s u ppor t .
Th e
br i ga d e
h a s
a l wa ys
h a d a c l os e
r e l a t i on s h i p
wi t h t h e Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on ;
oft e n
vi l l a ge
c a d r e s t h e m s e l ve s
pe r for m
t h e m u s i c a n d r i t u a l . Th e
br i ga d e
offi c e
m a y
s e r ve a s t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on 's
ba s e , fu n c t i on i n g
n ot
on l y
a s r e h e a r s a l a n d
s t or a ge r oom ,
bu t e ve n a s a
t e m por a r y t e m pl e ,
a s for t h e fi ve -
d a y
fe s t i va l for t h e
god d e s s
Hou t u i n t h e 3r d m oon i n
Yi s h a n gyi n g.
Eve n wh i l e t h e c om m u n e
s ys t e m
wa s s t i l l i n
pl a c e ,
t h e
Ha n zh u a n g
Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on r e s t a r t e d a s
e a r l y
a s 1977 wi t h t h e
s u ppor t
of t h e
br i ga d e ,
wh o
ga ve
wor k-poi n t s
for t i m e
s pe n t l e a r n i n g
t h e m u s i c i n s t e a d of
wor ki n g.
In Nor t h
Ba i ba o t oo t h e r e vi va l of t h e a s s oc i a t i on wa s
or ga n i ze d by
t h e
br i ga d e , by
e n c ou r a gi n g you n gs t e r s
t o l e a r n
t oge t h e r
i n t h e
e ve n i n gs , a ga i n
for
wor k-poi n t s .
De n g
57
Th e Lowe r
Hu a n gh e
a s s oc i a t i on h a d r e vi ve d a ft e r t h e e n d of t h e C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on . Ar ou n d 1987 t h e
br i ga d e or ga n i ze d
a
gr ou p
of
you n g
m e n t o l e a r n
t h e
m u s i c , gi vi n g e ve r yon e
s i x m a o t o
s t u d y
on wi n t e r
e ve n i n gs ,
a n d
pr om i s i n g
t h r e e
ye a r s '-wor t h
of
m on e y.
Bu t t h e n e w s t u d e n t s c ou l d n ot l e a r n i t
pr ope r l y,
s a yi n g
i t wa s n ot
"good
t o l i s t e n t o". Th e
br i ga d e
r a n ou t of
m on e y,
t h e
m u s i c i a n s r a n ou t of
i n t e r e s t ,
a n d t h e e xe r c i s e
gr ou n d
t o a h a l t .
By
1993 n o on e
wou l d "l ook a ft e r "
(gu a n )
t h e
a s s oc i a t i on ,
a n d i t wa s d or m a n t .
By
t h e m i d 1990s t h e
s u ppor t
of t h e
br i ga d e
wa s c on s i d e r e d
h e l pfu l
bu t n ot
vi t a l : e ve n i f t h e
br i ga d e
d oe s n ot
gi ve
e c on om i c
s u ppor t ,
a t l e a s t i t s h ou l d n ot
i n t e r fe r e . Th e
vi l l a ge
a u t h or i t i e s h a ve be e n
l os i n g powe r
s i n c e t h e
r e for m s ,
a n d
a r e
we a k
fi n a n c i a l l y.
Wh i l e t h e n e w fr e e d om s h a ve be e n we l c om e
i n
m a n y r e s pe c t s , t h e y
h a ve a l s o
br ou gh t
a c e r t a i n
i n s e c u r i t y,
a n d t h e r e i s n ow
n o c e n t r a l
pa t r on
t o "l ook a ft e r " t h e a s s oc i a t i on .
As i n c om e d i ffe r e n t i a l s i n c r e a s e
a ga i n ,
s om e
e n t e r pr i s i n g
h a ve
r e c e n t l y ga i n e d pa t r on a ge
fr om
n ou ve a u -r i c h e
vi l l a ge e n t r e pr e n e u r s ,
r e i n for c i n g pe opl e 's
c on fi d e n c e i n t h e
c om pa t i bi l i t y
of t r a d i t i on wi t h
m od e r n i t y. Th ou gh
t h e
La n gwu zh u a n g
a s s oc i a t i on h a d d i s ba n d e d
ju s t
be for e
Re vol u t i on , by
t h e 1990s s om e of t h e ol d m e m be r s we r e
ge t t i n g
t oge t h e r
t o
pl a y
for
fu n , i n s pi r i n g
a
gr ou p
of
you n gs t e r s .
In 1995 t h e fa t h e r of
t h e
vi l l a ge fa c t or y
bos s
pr od u c e d 1,000 yu a n
of h i s
fa m i l y's
n e w-fou n d
we a l t h ,
t h e
fa c t or y ga ve 2,000 yu a n ,
a n d t h e r e s t of t h e m e m be r s c on t r i bu t e d
a fu r t h e r 600
yu a n ,
wi t h wh i c h t o
bu y
i n s t r u m e n t s a n d c os t u m e s .
Th e y s t u d y
t h e m u s i c
e ve r y e ve n i n g
a ft e r
kn oc ki n g
off fr om t h e
fa c t or y.
Th e Sou t h
Ga ol u o a s s oc i a t i on a l s o r e c e i ve d fu n d s fr om i t s n e w
fa c t or y. Si m i l a r l y,
t h e
r e l a t i ve n e w a ffl u e n c e of
Zh a n gzh u a n g
a n d
Ga oqi a o
h a s
h e l pe d s u ppor t
t h e i r
r i t u a l a s s oc i a t i on s .
4.3 Th e
ge n e r a t i on ga p
It i s i n e vi t a bl e i n ou r t a l ks wi t h m u s i c i a n s a n d
vi l l a ge
l e a d e r s t h a t we
ge t
t o
d i s c u s s i n g
t h e c u r r e n t
pr obl e m s
fa c e d
by
t h e Mu s i c
a n d t h e i r
fu t u r e .
Vi l l a ge r s
a r e i n t e r e s t e d t o h e a r wh a t we
t h i n k,
a n d h a ve t h e i r own vi e ws .
Aft e r
a l l , t h e y
wi l l fi n d e c on om i c
wa ys
of
c on t i n u i n g
i f t h e r e a r e s t i l l m u s i c i a n s
e n t h u s i a s t i c
e n ou gh ,
a n d i f t h e s oc i a l n e e d i n t h e
vi l l a ge
i s s t i l l fe l t . Th e ou t l ook
i s n ot a l l bl e a k:
you n g pe opl e
a r e s t i l l
be i n g r e c r u i t e d , vi l l a ge
l e a d e r s a r e
a ppr e c i a t i ve ,
a n d l oc a l be n e fa c t or s c om e for wa r d .
Vi l l a ge r s
s t i l l fe e l a n e e d for
t h e
pr ope r
obs e r va n c e of fu n e r a l s a n d t h e c om m u n a l r i t u a l s of Ne w Ye a r . Ye t a
n e w c r i s i s i s
wi d e l y pe r c e i ve d .
In a
poi gn a n t m e e t i n g
i n 1993
be t we e n t wo vi l l a ge r s
i n
Ha n zh u a n g,
on e a
pi l l a r
of t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on a n d for m e r
Se c r e t a r y
i n t h e
1950s ,
t h e ot h e r t h e
pr e s e n t , be l e a gu e r e d Se c r e t a r y,
t h e l a t t e r l a m e n t e d h ow m u c h m or e d i ffi c u l t i t
wa s "l ooki n g
a ft e r " t h e Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on n ow t h a n
i n
t h e 1950s . Th e
br i ga d e
s t i l l
s u ppor t s i t ,
a n d t h e a s s oc i a t i on c ol l e c t s d on a t i on s fr om t h e
vi l l a ge r s .
Bu t i t
i s d i ffi c u l t for t h e
l e a d e r s :
a
wi d e l y-c i t e d
l oc a l
s a vi n g goe s : "r a t h e r
m a n a ge
a
t h ou s a n d a r m i e s t h a n on e a s s oc i a t i on "
(n i n g gu a n qi a n ju n , bu gu a n yi h u i ).
Now
e ve r yon e i s t oo
bu s y m a ki n g m on e y,
a n d i t i s n o u s e t h e
br i ga d e ju s t gi vi n g
m on e y
t o
s t u d y
or
bu y
i n s t r u m e n t s . An d a s a n a s s oc i a t i on h e a d
you
c a n n ot be
t oo s oft or t oo h a r d wi t h t h e
m e m be r s ,
a s Li Ju n l a n obs e r ve d i n Nor t h Ga ol u o:
you
h a ve t o
c a jol e
t h e m i n t o
t a ki n g pa r t ,
bu t m u s t n ot a l i e n a t e t h e m .
So a s
pol i t i c a l
fa c t or s i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e t r a d i t i on
r e c e d e , h u m a n ,
c c on om i c
a n d s oc i a l fa c t or s r e m a i n
i m por t a n t .
C r u c i a l
t od a y
a r e t h e i n d i vi d u a l
e n t h u s i a s m of ol d a n d
you n g m u s i c i a n s ,
t h e l oc a l
pr e s t i ge
of t h e
t r a d i t i on ,
a n d
t h e m or a l a n d e c on om i c
s u ppor t
of t h e
c om m u n i t y.
Ec on om i c
s u ppor t ,
t o
s t u d y
t h e m u s i c or
bu y i n s t r u m e n t s ,
wa s n ot
e n ou gh
i n i t s e l f: m os t a bl e
you n g
m e n we r e
a wa y
fr om t h e
vi l l a ge m a ki n g m on e y,
a n d
a n ywa y
m or e i n t e r e s t e d i n
pop
m u s i c . In Sou t h Ga ol u o i n
1990,
t h e
br i ga d e
d on a t e d a t on of c oa l t o h e a t t h e r e h e a r s a l ve n u e
d u r i n g
t h e
wi n t e r ,
bu t n o
you n g
pe opl e
wa n t e d t o l e a r n .
By
1994 t h e a s s oc i a t i on h a d a fe w
you n g s t u d e n t s ,
wh i c h t h e m u s i c i a n s a t t r i bu t e
s i n c e r e l y
t o t h e i n c r e a s e d
pr e s t i ge
of t h e
a s s oc i a t i on s i n c e ou r
vi s i t s ,
bu t e ve n t h i s wa s n ot
e n ou gh
t o
pr om pt
a
m a jor
r e c r u i t m e n t .
Of ove r 100 Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s vi s i t e d
by
ou r t e a m s i n c e
1986, Zh a n g
Zh e n t a o (1998)
h a s
c om pi l e d
a l i s t of 50
gr ou ps
vi s i t e d fr om 1993 t o
1995,
fr om wh i c h h e
a n a l ys e d
t h e
a ge s
of t h e
1,022
m u s i c i a n s t h e n l i s t e d . 26%
we r e
i n t h e i r
60s :
m u s i c i a n s ove r 70
(13%)
a r e a l s o
i m por t a n t (bot h
a s
fi gu r e h e a d s
for t h e a s s oc i a t i on a n d i n for m a n t s for
u s ).,
e ve n i f
t h e y
a r e oft e n l e s s fi t a n d
a c t i ve t od a y.
Vi l l a ge r s
c om m on l y
d i s c u s s t h r e e
ge n e r a t i on s ,
wh i c h
Zh a n g
h a s
a n a l yze d
a s : ove r 60
(39%),
40-60
(33%)
a n d 20-40
(23% pe r c e n t ).
Fi gu r e
7 Nor t h Sh a kou Mu s i c
1993. Se n i or m u s i c i a n s on
gu a n zi
a n d
s h e n g h e l p 7-ye a r -ol d
Li u
Sh e n gku n
wh i l e h e l e a r n s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l
m e l od y by s i n gi n g
t h e
gon gc h e s ol fe ggi o.
De n g
59
In d e e d ,
13% we r e u n d e r 30. Th e
l a r ge
n u m be r of t h e
you n ge r ge n e r a t i on
wa s
s u r pr i s i n g, s u gge s t i n g
t h a t t h e r e i s n o r e c e n t c r i s i s of t r a n s m i s s i on .
Tr a i n i n g
t h e n e w
ge n e r a t i on
h a s be e n a c on s t a n t
c on c e r n
t h r ou gh
a l l t h r e e
pe r i od s
of m od e m
h i s t or y.
Bu t I
s u s pe c t
t h e s u c c e s s i n
r e c r u i t i n g you n g
m u s i c i a n s i n t h e
e a r l y
1980s wa s
on l y t e m por a r y:
fe we r h a ve
l e a r n t
s i n c e t h e n .
Th u s
m a n y
d ou bt t h e
a bi l i t y
of t h e
you n ge r ge n e r a t i on
t o c on t i n u e t h e
h e r i t a ge .
Of
c ou r s e ,
t h i s h a s be e n a c on s t a n t t h e m e i n t h e wor l d 's m u s i c s s i n c e
t h e
be gi n n i n gs
of
e t h n om u s i c ol ogy.
Bu t t h e m os t
i m por t a n t s i n gl e
i n fl u e n c e on
t h e
c on t i n u i n g e n e r gy
of Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s
m a y
be t h e
m i gr a t i on
of m e n t o
t own s i n s e a r c h of wor k.
Vi l l a ge r s
h a d be e n
fr e qu e n t l y
a bs e n t
d u r i n g
t h e
wa r fa r e of t h e
1940s ,
bu t m u s i c a l t r a n s m i s s i on c on t i n u e d
e ffe c t i ve l y; m i gr a t i on
wa s c on t r ol l e d i n t h e
ye a r s
a ft e r
1949, t h ou gh
t h e r e t u r n t o t h e
vi l l a ge s
a ft e r t h e
fa m i n e s fr om 1961 s e e m s t o h a ve be e n a
m a jor
e l e m e n t i n t h e s h or t -l i ve d
r e s t or a t i on t h e n .
Now e ve n e n t h u s i a s t i c
e xpe r i e n c e d
m u s i c i a n s a r e oft e n a bs e n t m os t of t h e
ye a r ;
t h u s
m a n y
on l y
fi e l d a fu l l e n s e m bl e for t h e Ne w Ye a r 's
r i t u a l s . Pot e n t i a l
you n g
r e c r u i t s t o a n a s s oc i a t i on s e l d om
s t a y l on g
i n t h e i r
vi l l a ge . Th e y
a r e n ot
on l y bu s y,
bu t l e s s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e ol d c u l t u r e wh i c h t h e
r e pr e s e n t s ,
a l i e n a t e d fr om i t
by
t h e n e w c u l t u r e
t h e y
s e e on
t e l e vi s i on a n d h e a r on
t a pe s
a n d s t r e e t br oa d c a s t s or i n ka r a oke ba r s .
Bu t i t i s n ot
ju s t
a
qu e s t i on
of
you n g pe opl e 's d wi n d l i n g
e n t h u s i a s m for
t r a d i t i on a l c u l t u r e u n d e r t h e
on s l a u gh t
of
m od e r n i t y.
Sc h ool a t t e n d a n c e i s n ow
h i gh
i n m os t
vi l l a ge s
i n t h i s
a r e a ,
t h e c u r r i c u l u m i s
d e m a n d i n g,
a n d
t e e n a ge
boys r e a l l y
h a ve l e s s t i m e a n d
e n e r gy
t o l e a r n t h e
m u s i c ,
e ve n i f
t h e y
h a ve t h e
i n c l i n a t i on .
Tod a y's e l d e r l y
h a ppy
t o l e a r n t h e m u s i c wh e n
you n g
be for e
Li be r a t i on ,
be c a u s e t h e r e we r e n o ot h e r c u l t u r a l
a c t i vi t i e s ,
a n d
t h e y
we r e
gi ve n
fr e e food . In fa c t l e s s l i t e r a t e c h i l d r e n we r e m or e
l i ke l y
t o l e a r n
t h e m u s i c t h a n t h os e wh o we n t t o s i s h u
pr i va t e s c h ool ,
a n d t h i s s t i l l s e e m s t o
a ppl y t od a y.
In 1996 a t Ga ol u o we m e t t wo
t e e n a ge boys
fr om
good fa m i l i e s ,
wh o l i ke d t h e
r i t u a l
m u s i c a n d
r e s pe c t e d
t h e
vi l l a ge h e r i t a ge
a n d t h e i r fa m i l i e s '
own
pa r t
i n i t . Bu t
pr e c i s e l y
be c a u s e
t h e y
we r e
i n t e l l i ge n t , t h e y
h a d t o wor k
h a r d t o
ge t good gr a d e s
a n d be t t e r t h e i r
l ot ,
a n d h a d n o t i m e t o
l e a r n t h e
m u s i c ;
s u c h
pe opl e
t oo a r e
u n l i ke l y
t o
s t a y l on g
i n t h e
vi l l a ge .
Th u s i t s e e m s
d ou bt fu l
wh e t h e r t h e r e i s
e n ou gh s u ppor t a m on g
t h e
you n ge r
ge n e r a t i on
t o
ke e p m a n y
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s a l i ve a ft e r t h e i r s e n i or s d i e . Th a t
ge n e r a t i on
i s t h e l a s t wh i c h s t u d i e d be for e Li be r a t i on a n d s t i l l r e c a l l s h ow
t h i n gs
we r e d on e
t h e n ,
t h e l a s t t o h a ve
pe r for m e d
i n e n s e m bl e wi t h
pr i e s t s . St i l l ,
t h a t 's
a
s t u ffy vi e w,
I t h i n k:
t h i n gs c h a n ge ,
a n d t h e r e a r e s t i l l
gr e a t e l d e r l y
a n d
m i d d l e -a ge d
m a s t e r s a r ou n d for
you n ge r
m u s i c i a n s t o r e m e m be r wh e n
t h e y
t oo
gr ow
ol d . Wi t h ou t
d e n yi n g
t h e fu n d a m e n t a l r e vol u t i on i n
s oc i e t y
u n d e r
C om m u n i s m ,
a n d
h a vi n g ju s t
l a m e n t e d t h e
pa s s i n g
of m a s t e r s wh o
l e a r n t
be for e
Li be r a t i on ,
we
m i gh t ju s t
a s we l l
go
ba c k t o t h e
1950s ,
a n d l a m e n t t h e
l os s of m a s t e r s wh o
l e a r n t
u n d e r t h e
Qi n g d yn a s t y;
or
i m a gi n e
s t i l l e a r l i e r
c h a n ge s . Looki n g
a t
br i gh t you n ge r
m u s i c i a n s
t od a y,
I c a n 't s e e
wh y t h e y
s h ou l d h a ve l e s s ve n e r a t i on for t h e
vi l l a ge h e r i t a ge
t h a n t h e i r fa t h e r s a n d
gr a n d fa t h e r s
h a d . Ri t u a l a n d i t s m u s i c a r e s t i l l n e e d e d . Th e
pr a c t i c e
s e e m s t o be
n o l e s s
ge n e r a l l y
e s t e e m e d i n t h e
vi l l a ge by
n on -m e m be r s : t h e Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on r e m a i n s
pr e s t i gi ou s ,
a n d i t s m e m be r s a r e i n fl u e n t i a l .
Eve r y
d e a t h of
a s e n i or m u s i c i a n i s a
bl ow,
bu t n e w m u s i c i a n s h a ve
ke pt c om i n g
for wa r d u n d e r
u n l i ke l y
c i r c u m s t a n c e s for t h e
pa s t h a l f-c e n t u r y.
It wi l l be
t ou gh
for
a n y
fu r t h e r a s s oc i a t i on s s t i l l
i n t e n d i n g
t o r e vi ve t o d o s o
a ft e r a
ga p
of ove r 30
ye a r s . St i l l ,
i t wi l l be
t o r e vi s i t t h e a r e a ove r
t i m e . Aft e r
a l l , vi l l a ge s m a y
e ve n l e a r n fr om
s c r a t c h ,
a s
m a n y
d i d e a r l i e r i n t h e
t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y.
It i s wor t h
s t r e s s i n g a ga i n
t h a t t h e
r e pe r t or y
r e m a i n s
h i gh l y
r e s i s t a n t t o
c h a n ge :
e n s e m bl e s l os e
pi e c e s
r a t h e r t h a n
m od i fyi n g
t h e
r e pe r t or y.
4.4 Pol i t i c a l
pr e s s u r e
As we
s a w,
Ma oi s t
pol i c i e s i m pove r i s h e d
t h i s r i t u a l c u l t u r e bu t we r e u n a bl e t o
e r a d i c a t e i t . Si n c e t h e
a ba n d on i n g
of Ma oi s m i n t h e
1980s , pol i t i c a l
l i be r a l i za t i on h a s a l l owe d t r a d i t i on a l obs e r va n c e s t o be
r e s t or e d ,
bu t t h e n e w
e c on om i c a n d
i d e ol ogi c a l
c l i m a t e
m a y
be
we a ke n i n g
c on c e pt s
s t i l l
m or e t h a n u n d e r Ma oi s m . Re a s on s for t h e d e c l i n e h a ve n ow be c om e m or e
e c on om i c a n d s oc i a l t h a n
pol i t i c a l ,
bu t l e t u s a l s o n ot e
ve s t i gi a l pol i t i c a l
a s pe c t s .
Th e
d a ys
of m a s s
m e e t i n gs
a n d wor k-t e a m s a r e
l a r ge l y ove r ,
bu t
a l on g
wi t h
t h i s fr e e d om fr om c on s t r a i n t c om e s a c e r t a i n
a n a r c h y.
Th e
on l y r e m a i n i n g
"h a r d "
pol i c y
i s t h e bi r t h -c on t r ol
pr ogr a m m e ,
wh i c h
m a n y vi l l a ge
l e a d e r s a d m i t
i s
90%
of t h e i r d u t i e s ,
a n d a
d e s pe r a t e l y
d i ffi c u l t on e . Offi c i a l
c or r u pt i on
a n d
i l l e ga l
e xa c t i on s a r e m u c h
r e s e n t e d ,
a n d
h a ve be e n
wi t h h ol d i n g
gr a i n
t a x.
Re l i gi on
a n d s e c t s h a ve r e vi ve d
s i gn i fi c a n t l y
e ve n i n t h i s
r e l a t i ve l y t i gh t l y
c on t r ol l e d a r e a .
C a m pa i gn s a ga i n s t
fe u d a l
s u pe r s t i t i on
a n d
e xpl oi t a t i on
h a ve
be e n
wa ge d ,
bu t
r a r e l y
s e e m t o a ffe c t t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s .
Un d e r gr ou n d
C a t h ol i c s a n d s h a m a n s h a ve be e n u n d e r r e n e we d a t t a c k fr om
pol i c e
s i n c e 1989.
Bu t t h e i r
vu l n e r a bi l i t y
c on t r a s t s wi t h t h e Mu s i c
wh o n ow s e e m t o
h a ve l i t t l e t o fe a r . Wh i l e c r e m a t i on i s s t i l l a n offi c i a l
pol i c y,
a n d i s
c om m on l y
obs e r ve d i n t h e
t own s ,
i t i s
i gn or e d
i n t h e
vi l l a ge s ;
bu t
pe r h a ps
t h e
pa r t
of t h e
Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s i n a n
offi c i a l l y i l l e ga l a c t i vi t y
s u c h a s bu r i a l s t i l l m a ke s
pr a c t i c e
a l i t t l e s e n s i t i ve .
Si n c e 1990
c ou n t y
a u t h or i t i e s s u c h a s
Xi on gxi a n
h a ve be e n s e e n a s ove r -
ze a l ou s i n
i m pl e m e n t i n g
t h e n a t i on a l
c a m pa i gn oppos i n g e xt r a va ga n c e
i n
we d d i n gs
a n d fu n e r a l s . Th i s
pos e s
a c e r t a i n t h r e a t t o t h e Mu s i c
a l t h ou gh pr oba bl y
m or e s o t o t h e
pr ofe s s i on a l
s h a wm ba n d s . Th e
c a m pa i gn
wa s
be i n g a ppl i e d
i n Gu 'a n i n
1994,
bu t
pa t c h i l y.
In a n
a n a r c h i c
fr e e m a r ke t
s oc i e t y
s u c h
c a m pa i gn s
a r e s h or t -l i ve d a n d d o n ot
a ppe a r
t o
d e t e r
vi l l a ge r s .
In 1991 t h e
La n gfa n g
Bu r e a u of
C u l t u r e
i s s u e d "fol k m u s i c i a n
pe r m i t s "
for
"pe a s a n t
m u s i c
m a s t e r s ", a u t h or i zi n g
t h e h ol d e r s t o t a ke
m on e y
for
pe r for m i n g.
Se ve r a l
vi l l a ge
m u s i c i a n s s h owe d u s s u c h
pe r m i t s . Th e y m i gh t
be s e e n a s
l e gi t i m i zi n g m u s i c i a n s ,
a s
pr ot e c t i n g
t h e m fr om
pol i c e r a i d s ,
bu t t h e i r
n e ga t i ve
e ffe c t wor r i e s t h e m u s i c i a n s m or e :
t h e y
a r e n ow
d e pe n d e n t
on t h e
gove r n m e n t
De n g
61
for
l e gi t i m a c y,
a n d a l l t h e m or e vu l n e r a bl e wi t h ou t a
pe r m i t . Th e y
fu r t h e r r e s e n t
t h e
m on e y
i t c os t s -
ye t
a n ot h e r
a r bi t r a r y
t a x of d u bi ou s
l e gi t i m a c y
- a n d t h e
i n t e r fe r e n c e i n t h e i r l i ve s . Bu t s u c h
r e gi s t r a t i on
wa s
r a r e ,
a n d
a n y
s u c h t r ou bl e s
e n c ou n t e r e d
by
t h r ou gh ou t
t h e
pl a i n
s i n c e 1980 we r e
on l y
s h or t -t e r m h i t c h e s : ot h e r e l e m e n t s
pl a ye d
a fa r m or e
i m por t a n t pa r t
i n t h e d e c l i n e .
4.5
Ad a pt a t i on
a n d s e l f-a wa r e n e s s
Th e c on s e r va t i ve Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s c on t i n u e t o
pr i d e
t h e m s e l ve s on n ot
c h a n gi n g
wi t h t h e
t i m e s ,
u n l i ke t h e m or e fl e xi bl e Sou t h e r n Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s .
Howe ve r ,
i f
t h e y l a r ge l y
s u c c e e d e d i n
r e s i s t i n g c h a n ge
u n d e r
Ma oi s m ,
s om e
d i ffe r e n t
pr e s s u r e s
t o
i n n ova t e ,
bot h
m u s i c a l l y
a n d
c on t e xt u a l l y,
s u r fa c e d i n t h e
m od e m a t m os ph e r e
of t h e 1980s .
In n or t h C h i n a t h e r e i s a t r a d i t i on a l s c h i s m be t we e n
pr e s t i gi ou s
a m a t e u r
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c a n d l ow-c l a s s
m e r c e n a r y
s h a wm
ba n d s ;
m u s i c i a n s c ou l d be
e xpe l l e d
fr om a Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on for
pl a yi n g
wi t h a s h a wm ba n d . Th i s s c h i s m
h a s be e n
c h a l l e n ge d
s i n c e t h e 1980s . Mos t
you n ge r
m u s i c i a n s wh o
joi n
a Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on
a c c e pt
t h e c on s e r va t i s m of i t s
r e pe r t or y;
i f
t h e y
wa n t t o
pl a y pop
m u s i c or e a r n
m on e y t h e y
wi l l fi n d a
s h a wm
ba n d i n s t e a d . Bu t s om e
you n ge r
m u s i c i a n s n ow t a ke
pa r t
i n
bot h ,
a n d e ve n
t r y
t o i n t r od u c e m or e
popu l a r pi e c e s
i n t o t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on
r e pe r t or y.
Sou t h Ga ol u o n e ve r h a d a s h a wm ba n d u n t i l s om e of t h e
you n ge r
Mu s i c
As s oc i a t i on m e m be r s for m e d on e i n t h e
e a r l y
1980s . Th e t wo we r e
ke pt s t r i c t l y
s e pa r a t e :
t h e s h a wm ba n d e a r n e d
m on e y
a t
we d d i n gs
a s we l l a s
fu n e r a l s ,
wh i l e
t h e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on h a s r e m a i n e d
a m a t e u r , pe r for m i n g on l y
for fu n e r a l s a n d
c a l e n d r i c a l r i t u a l s . Th e s h a wm ba n d
pl a ye d
n e w
pi e c e s ,
t h e a s s oc i a t i on ol d
pi e c e s . Th ou gh
i n r e c e n t
ye a r s
a
ge n e r a t i on a l
t e n s i on be c a m e
a ppa r e n t ,
t h e "ol d
r u l e s ' of t h e a s s oc i a t i on h a ve h e l d fa s t e ve n a ft e r t h e d e a t h of for m i d a bl e l e a d e r
He
Qi n g
i n
1995;
"n e w c on s e r va t i ve s " h a ve
e m e r ge d .
In 1998 t h e i d e a of
c h a r gi n g m on e y,
l i ke t h e s h a wm
ba n d s ,
wa s a l s o m oot e d
i n t h e Ga ol u o a s s oc i a t i on . Bu t
t h i s ,
m u s i c i a n s s oon
c on c l u d e d ,
wou l d e n t a i l a
r a d i c a l t r a n s for m a t i on of t h e i r wh ol e e t h os . "Th e a s s oc i a t i on e xi s t s on t h e
r e pu t a t i on
of
u pr i gh t n e s s
-
you
c a n 't
d e s t r oy pe opl e 's
be l i e f i n i t ." To
c h a r ge
for
r i t u a l
d u t y
wa s
t h ou gh t
t o offe n d t h e
god s , r i s ki n g
d i vi n e
pu n i s h m e n t .
Si m i l a r l y,
a s c h ol a r
s u s c e pt i bl e
t o C om m u n i s t r h e t or i c
m i gh t s u ppos e
t h a t
wom e n
m i gh t
n ow be m or e we l c om e t o t a ke
pa r t , pa r t l y
u n d e r t h e i n fl u e n c e of
a
pr oc l a i m e d i d e ol ogy
of
ge n d e r e qu a l i t y,
a n d a l s o s i n c e fe we r
you n g
m e n
r e m a i n i n t h e
vi l l a ge s ;
bu t t h e i d e a r e m a i n s u n t h i n ka bl e .
An ot h e r
t ype
of i n n ova t i on s i n c e t h e 1980s c a m e fr om
gr e a t e r
s e l f-
a wa r e n e s s .
Vi l l a ge s be ga n
t o h a ve
gr e a t e r
c on t a c t wi t h t h e ou t s i d e
wor l d ,
i n c l u d i n g
t e l e vi s i on . Wi t h t h e
m a jor
i n i t i a t i ve of t h e
An t h ol ogy
fi e l d wor k
pr oje c t ,
c u l t u r a l c a d r e s vi s i t e d fr om t h e
c ou n t y
a n d t h e
pr ovi n c e ,
i n a
h a ph a za r d
wa y,
a n d t h e n fr om
1986,
t h e Mu s i c Re s e a r c h In s t i t u t e s t a r t e d
t oo;
I
joi n e d
i n
1987. Som e Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s h a ve wr i t t e n br i e f
h i s t or i e s , a d opt i n g qu a s i -
offi c i a l
voc a bu l a r y.
Th e
c on c e pt
of
"c u l t u r a l h e r i t a ge " m a y
h a ve be e n l e a r n t
fr om t e l e vi s i on .
Som e
gr ou ps
h a ve m od i fi e d t o a m or e
wi d e -r a n gi n g fu n c t i on , c r e a t i n g
a
m or e s e c u l a r fr on t . Th e c a s e of t h e
Qu ji a yi n g
a s s oc i a t i on i s
u n i qu e .
It h a s
ke pt
i t s e l f i n t h e
s pot l i gh t
of
pu bl i c i t y
s i n c e i t s
"d i s c ove r y"
i n
1986,
wi t h
h i gh -
pr ofi l e
r a d i o a n d t e l e vi s i on br oa d c a s t s a n d s e c u l a r
pe r for m a n c e s
i n
Be i ji n g
a n d
fu r t h e r a fi e l d .
De s pi t e
t h i s s u bs t a n t i a l a d d i t i on t o i t s
pe r for m i n g c on t e xt s ,
i t s
r e pe r t or y
a n d
s t yl e
h a ve r e m a i n e d
u n c h a n ge d .
Som e ot h e r Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on s
h a ve m a d e oc c a s i on a l vi s i t s t o
pe r for m
or r e c or d i n
Be i ji n g
u n d e r va r i ou s
offi c i a l
a u s pi c e s .
Se ve r a l a s s oc i a t i on s
s ou gh t
t o t r a n s m i t t h e i r m u s i c
(bot h
t h e
voc a l
l i t u r gy
a n d t h e
s h e n g-gu a n m u s i c ) by m a ki n g pr i va t e
c a s s e t t e s for
t e a c h i n g pu r pos e s
i n t h e
vi l l a ge .
Bu t s u c h
s t r a t e gi e s
a r e
e xc e pt i on a l .
Vi s i t s fr om
c a d r e s ,
or vi s i t s t o
pe r for m
i n
c ou n t y-t own s , ge n e r a l l y
t a ke
u p
on e or t wo a ft e r n oon s of
vi l l a ge
m u s i c i a n s '
wh ol e l i ve s .
Vi l l a ge
r i t u a l r e m a i n s t h e r ou t i n e bu s i n e s s of t h e a s s oc i a t i on s .
5 C on c l u s i on s
So
d e s pi t e
a c e r t a i n
i m pove r i s h m e n t ,
t h i s m u s i c s e e m s t o h a ve r e m a i n e d r a t h e r
s t a bl e ,
u n d e r s oc i a l c on d i t i on s r e n own e d for t h e i r r a d i c a l
i m pos e d
m od e r n i za t i on a n d s e c u l a r i za t i on . We n ot e d
s oc i a l , pol i t i c a l
a n d e c on om i c
fa c t or s i n t h e
l os s , pr e s e r va t i on
or m od i fi c a t i on of
t r a d i t i on , s t r e s s i n g
t h e
e n d u r i n g popu l a r s u ppor t
for a c on s t a n t
pe r c e i ve d
n e e d
t h r ou gh ou t
t h r e e
d i s t i n c t
t ype s
of a s s a u l t .
Pe r s on a l fa c t or s a r e a l s o
s i gn i fi c a n t :
t h e i n d i vi d u a l e n t h u s i a s m of s e n i or
m e m be r s a n d n e w
r e c r u i t s .
Th e a s s oc i a t i on s a r e m a d e
u p
of t h e
c on t i n u i n g
pr a c t i c e s
of
m u s i c i a n s ; h e r i t a ge
i s n ot
a u t om a t i c ,
bu t i s
pe r pe t u a t e d t h r ou gh
t h e
c on t i n u i n g
e ffor t s of
pe opl e (Fi n n e ga n 1989).
Mu s i c
m a y
be bot h
pe r pe t u a t e d
a n d t h r e a t e n e d
by
t h e
pe r s on a l i t i e s
of i t s
pr a c t i t i on e r s .
For s om e m u s i c i a n s s i n c e
t h e
1920s ,
Sou t h e r n Mu s i c s e e m e d t o be a l l t h e
r a ge ,
wh i l e for
ot h e r s ,
t r a d i t i on
a n d "c i vi l i za t i on " for ba d e t h e
c h a n gi n g
of t h e
h e r i t a ge .
Un d e r
pr e s s u r e ,
s om e
ju s t ga ve u p,
wh i l e ot h e r s h a ve
obs t i n a t e l y
i n s i s t e d on t h e i r t r a d i t i on s .
To
s u r ve y
t h e Ma oi s t
pe r i od a ga i n , t h ou gh
t h i s r i t u a l m u s i c s e e m s t o h a ve
be e n m or e r e s i s t a n t t o d e c l i n e t h a n
m a n y
ot h e r a r t
for m s ,
on e m u s t a d m i t t h a t a
l ot wa s l os t .
Obje c t i ve a ppr a i s a l
of t h e s e c on d h a l f of t h e t we n t i e t h
c e n t u r y
s u r e l y s u ppor t s
t h e
vi l l a ge r s ' d e pr e s s e d
vi e w of t h e i r c u l t u r e
be i n g
"wa t e r e d
d own ",
h ow
"t h i n gs
we n t t o t h e
d ogs "
a n d
t h e y
h a d t o "m a ke d o". Fe we r
gr ou ps
a r e
pr a c t i s i n g,
a n d of t h os e s t i l l
a c t i ve , r e pe r t or i e s
h a ve be e n
i m pove r i s h e d
a s r i t u a l s h a ve be c om e
s i m pl i fi e d . Tod a y
t h e
a ve r a ge a ge
of
m u s i c i a n s i s
h i gh : a pa r t
fr om br i e f
e n e r gy
i n t h e
e a r l y
1960s a n d
e a r l y 1980s ,
fe w h a ve l e a r n t s i n c e Li be r a t i on .
Howe ve r ,
t h e Ma oi s t
pe r i od
wa s n ot on e of s i l e n c e : m u s i c i a n s i n s i s t t h a t
t h e t r a d i t i on wa s m a i n t a i n e d . Th e t a i n t of fe u d a l
s u pe r s t i t i on ,
e xh a u s t i on fr om
c a m pa i gn s ,
a n d a l ow s e n s e of s e l f-va l u e
i n t e r m i t t e n t l y c on s pi r e d
t o
d e pr e s s
t h e
bu t t h e m u s i c i a n s , a n d t h e
vi l l a ge r s ,
r e m a i n e d a wa r e of
r e pr e s e n t i n g
a
h e r i t a ge
t h a t c ou l d n ot be l os t .
Re vol u t i on a r y
n e w m u s i c wa s
e m bod i e d i n t h e n e w bu t n ot
u bi qu i t ou s fol k-s on gs ,
a n d i n s om e
ope r a t r ou pe s ,
JONES
C h i n e s e r i t u a l m u s i c u n d e r Ma o a n d
De n g
63
bu t ot h e r
a s pe c t s
of offi c i a l c u l t u r e r e m a i n e d
m a r gi n a l
t o
vi l l a ge r s '
l i ve s . Wi t h
fu n e r a l t r a d i t i on s s t i l l
e n t r e n c h e d , s h e n g-gu a n
l i t u r gy
h a d l i t t l e
t o
c om pe t e
wi t h .
Th e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on i t s e l f s e e m s t o h a ve a ffe c t e d t h e t r a n s m i s s i on of
t h e m u s i c l e s s t h a n on e
m i gh t e xpe c t .
In Sou t h
Ga ol u o,
m u s i c i a n s of t h e m i d d l e
ge n e r a t i on ,
wh o c a m e of
a ge
i n t h e C u l t u r a l
Re vol u t i on , pr e c i s e l y
t h os e wh om
on e
m i gh t e xpe c t
t o be m os t a l i e n a t e d fr om t r a d i t i on a l
c u l t u r e ,
a r e n ow t h e
ba c kbon e of t h e a s s oc i a t i on .
Th e y
l e a r n t t h e r i t u a l m u s i c bot h
s h or t l y
be for e
a n d
s h or t l y
a ft e r t h e C u l t u r a l Re vol u t i on . As s oc i a t i on m e m be r s we r e
pr om i n e n t
a c t or s i n t h e wh ol e
h i s t or y
of t h e
r e vol u t i on ,
a n d i n t h e
on goi n g pr oc e s s
of
m od i fyi n g d a i l y
l i fe .
Th e y
a l l kn ow
"r e vol u t i on a r y" s on gs
-
t h ou gh
t h e s e h a ve
n ow be c om e
qu a i n t a n t i qu e s ,
wi t h l i t t l e
fu n c t i on ,
wh i l e
s t r a n ge l y
t h e ol d
s h e n g-
gu a n
m u s i c r e m a i n s fu n c t i on a l .
Vi l l a ge ope r a t r ou pe s
h a d n o r e s e r va t i on s a bou t
m od e r n i zi n g
a ft e r Li be r a t i on -
t h ou gh
n ot e t h a t t h i s s e e m s n ot t o
a ppl y
t o a l l
C h i n e s e
vi l l a ge ope r a :
s om e r i t u a l
ope r a
i n s ou t h e r n
C h i n a
wa s
ju s t
a s
obs t i n a t e l y
c on s e r va t i ve a s t h e
s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c wa s h e r e . In Ga ol u o
m a n y
of
t h e s a m e m u s i c i a n s h a ve be e n c or e m e m be r s of bot h t h e
pr ogr e s s i ve vi l l a ge
ope r a t r ou pe
a n d t h e c on s e r va t i ve Mu s i c As s oc i a t i on .
Th u s l oc a l t r a d i t i on s we r e n ot
e r a s e d ; pa s s i ve c on s u m pt i on
of c e n t r a l
pr od u c t s
a n d
i d e ol ogy
wa s n ot t h e r u l e . We s h ou l d be c a u t i ou s i n
a s s u m i n g
c e n t r a l c on t r ol of c u l t u r a l l i fe : t h e
a u t on om y
a n d
d i ve r s i t y
of "m u s i c u n d e r
Ma o" wa s c on s i d e r a bl e . Eve n
d u r i n g
t h e
i n t e r m i t t e n t m od e r n i za t i on of t h e i r
ope r a t r ou pe s ,
He be i
vi l l a ge r s
h a ve r e t a i n e d t h e i r own l oc a l s t a n c e :
t h e y
d o n ot
pe r for m Be i ji n g ope r a ,
a n d
pe r for m
for l oc a l r a t h e r t h a n offi c i a l
oc c a s i on s ,
for gi n g
t h e i r own
s t yl e .
Wh e t h e r on e fi n d s
d i s r u pt i on
or
c on t i n u i t y
u n d e r Ma oi s m a l s o h a s d i ffe r e n t
i m pl i c a t i on s
for t h e r e vi va l of t h e 1980s . Wh e r e t r a d i t i on s we r e
t h or ou gh l y
u pr oot e d
u n d e r Ma oi s m
(Ji n g 1996),
t h e r e vi va l
m a y i m pl y
a s u bs t a n t i a l r e -
i n ve n t i on .
Fu r t h e r ,
s u c h r e vi va l s
m a y
s e e m t o d e r i ve fr om a
r e a ppe a r a n c e
of
s oc i a l c on d i t i on s
pr e d a t i n g
Ma oi s m . Bu t He l e n
Si u ,
i n a
s t i m u l a t i n g a n a l ys i s
of
c h a n gi n g
r i t u a l
pr a c t i c e
i n a s ou t h -e a s t e r n C h i n e s e
t own ,
h a s
i n t e r pr e t e d
c u r r e n t
r i t u a l s a s n e w r e c on s t r u c t i on s of c u l t u r a l r e m n a n t s wh os e
m e a n i n gs
a r e r e l a t e d
t o n e w
pe r c e pt i on s
of
powe r
r e l a t i on s i n r u r a l
s oc i e t y.
Si u
t h u s s e e s t h e r e vi ve d
r i t u a l
pr a c t i c e s
a s
r e fl e c t i n g
a n e w a c c om m od a t i on be t we e n s t a t e a n d
s oc i e t y.
"In s t e a d of
a r gu i n g
t h a t t r a d i t i on a l
pr a c t i c e s
a r e
be i n g
r e vi ve d a n d a r e
c h a l l e n gi n g
t h e s oc i a l i s t
i d e ol ogy,
t h i s
c h a pt e r
m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e
r i t u a l s
t od a y
a r e r e c on s t i t u t e d
by
a d i ffe r e n t c a s t of
pe r for m e r s
a n d t h a t t h e
pr oc e s s
r e pr od u c e s
a m u c h t r a n s for m e d r u r a l
s oc i e t y
i n wh i c h t h e
powe r
of t h e s oc i a l i s t
s t a t e h a s
l on g
be e n t a ke n for
gr a n t e d " (Si u 1989:123).
Ri t u a l s a r e s a i d t o r e fl e c t
s oc i a l
powe r r e l a t i on s ,
wh i c h h a ve be e n
t r a n s for m e d ;
t h e r e for e t h e
m e a n i n gs
of
r i t u a l s t oo h a ve
c h a n ge d . Os t e n t a t i on , Si u 's
i n for m a n t s
c om m e n t ,
h a s
r e pl a c e d
r i t u a l
e xpe r t i s e .
On t h e He be i
pl a i n t od a y, vi l l a ge r s ' pol i t i c a l pe r c e pt i on s
a n d s oc i a l
r e l a t i on s
m a y
be
ve r y
d i ffe r e n t fr om i n t h e
d a ys
be for e Li be r a t i on or u n d e r
Ma oi s m . Of c ou r s e t h e r e h a d be e n a s s a u l t s on t h e
vi l l a ge r s '
c u l t u r a l
i d e n t i t y.
Som e ot h e r t r a d i t i on s s u c h a s
l i n e a ge
obs e r va n c e s we r e ba n i s h e d u n d e r
Ma oi s m ,
a n d s om e s u c h a s e xor c i s m s a n d r a i n
pr oc e s s i on s
we r e s o r e s t r i c t e d a s
t o h a ve be c om e
qu i t e
r a r e
t od a y.
Th e r e vi va l of t h e a s s oc i a t i on s wa s
s i gn i fi c a n t
a ft e r t h e
d e pr e s s i on
s ys t e m ,
a n d wa s
u n d ou bt e d l y
"bl e n d e d
wi t h c u l t u r a l
i n ve n t i on s , s h a pe d by
t h e l oc a l
e xpe r i e n c e
of
Ma oi s m ,
a n d
pe r m e a t e d
wi t h
c on t e m por a r y
c on c e r n s "
(Ji n g 1996:12).
Th e r i t u a l s of t h e
t od a y m a y
be l e s s
c om pr e h e n s i ve
a n d t h e i r s oc i a l fu n c t i on
l e s s
pr e s s i n g.
Som e
e l d e r l y vi l l a ge r s
c a n i n d e e d
pe r c e i ve
a c e r t a i n d i l u t i on of
t h e
l i fe -c yc l e
a n d c a l e n d r i c a l r i t u a l s
pr a c t i s e d by
t h e a s s oc i a t i on s . Ri t u a l s a r e
fe we r a n d s om e wh a t m or e
c on d e n s e d ,
a n d os t e n t a t i on i s i n d e e d
ga i n i n g gr ou n d
ove r t h e
s c r u pu l ou s
obs e r va n c e of t h e "ol d r u l e s ".
Bu t i t i s h a r d t o s e e h ow t h e
r i t u a l s ,
or t h e i r
m e a n i n gs ,
h a ve
c h a n ge d
qu a l i t a t i ve l y.
Th e s e
vi l l a ge s
h a d l i m i t e d a c c e s s t o bot h
e xpe r t i s e
a n d os t e n t a t i on
be for e
Li be r a t i on ,
a n d t h e
n e c e s s i t y
of
pr ope r
fu n e r a l r i t u a l wa s n e ve r r e n d e r e d
obs ol e t e
by
Ma oi s t s oc i a l r e vol u t i on . Th e
offi c i a l l y pr e s c r i be d
s e c u l a r
"m e m or i a l
m e e t i n g"
h a s r e m a i n e d u n kn own i n t h e
vi l l a ge s .
Fu n e r a l
pr opr i e t i e s
pa r a m ou n t ,
fr om t h e
kowt owi n g
of t h e d e c e a s e d 's
fa m i l y
t o t h e
s e qu e n c e
of voc a l
l i t u r gy, s h e n g-gu a n
m u s i c a n d
pe r c u s s i on
be for e t h e c offi n .
Th e s e h a ve n ot be e n r e c on s t i t u t e d a ft e r a
l on g ga p
bu t m a i n t a i n e d
c on s t a n t l y.
Th e
pa r t i c i pa t i on
of t h e a s s oc i a t i on s h a s n e ve r be e n
c h a l l e n ge d
a s a
pr e s t i gi ou s
a s pe c t
of t h e
fa m i l y's
r i t u a l d e m on s t r a t i on of
r e s pe c t
for t h e a n c e s t or s .
Si m i l a r l y,
t h e
pe r c e i ve d
n e e d for t h e a s s oc i a t i on s t o
pe r for m
t h e Ne w Ye a r 's r i t u a l s h a s
pe r s i s t e d : n ow,
a s
t h e n ,
i t
r e pr e s e n t s
a
s i gn i fi c a n t e xpr e s s i on
of
vi l l a ge r s ' h ope s
for t h e
s e c u r i t y
of t h e i r
fa m i l y
a n d t h e wh ol e
vi l l a ge .
Th e c a s t of
pe r for m e r s
a n d
"c on s u m e r s ",
a n d t h e i r m ot i va t i on s a n d
powe r r e l a t i on s ,
l a r ge l y
u n c h a n ge d
i n t h e
s pe c i fi c
a r e a of t h e a s s oc i a t i on 's
pr a c t i c e .
Al l t h i s
pr ovi d e s
a c a ve a t t o a vi e w wh i c h
pos i t s
a
s i m pl e
a n d
a br u pt
d e c l i n e i n t r a d i t i on a l C h i n e s e c u l t u r e s i n c e 1949. Su c h r i t u a l
gr ou ps
h a ve n ot
s u r vi ve d
m i r a c u l ou s l y
a s s om e ki n d of
"l i vi n g fos s i l ", i n d e pe n d e n t
of
pol i t i c a l
t r a n s for m a t i on s ;
t h e m u s i c i a n s a r e n ot
fu d d y-d u d d y a n t i qu a r i a n s c l i n gi n g
on t o
s om e we i r d r e l i c . Th e
popu l a r s on g
"Wi t h ou t t h e C om m u n i s t
Pa r t y,
t h e r e wou l d
be n o Ne w C h i n a " s t a t e s a n
i m por t a n t
t r u t h : we c a n n ot l e a ve t h e C om m u n i s t
Pa r t y
ou t of ou r
pi c t u r e
of C h i n e s e c u l t u r e
t od a y,
bu t
gr a s s -r oot s
r e a l i t i e s
m a y
be
ve r y
d i ffe r e n t fr om c e n t r a l
pol i c y
a n d i t s e ffe c t s on u r ba n i n s t i t u t i on s .
Re fe r e n c e s
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(u n pu bl i s h e d m a n u s c r i pt )
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Spe c i a l
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l i vi n g
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De pa r t m e n t
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Mu s i c ,
Sc h ool of Or i e n t a l a n d Afr i c a n
St u d i e s , Un i ve r s i t y
of
Lon d on ,
Th or n h a u gh St r e e t ,
Ru s s e l l
Squ a r e ,
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OXG,
Un i t e d
Ki n gd om ;
e -
m a i l :
s j15@s oa s .a c .u k.

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