Unit I

Frame relay Networks

Frame Relay often is described as a streamlined version of X.25, offering fewer of the
robust capabilities, such as windowing and retransmission of last data that are offered in
X.25.
Frame Relay Devices
Devices attached to a Frame Relay W! fall into the following two general categories"
# Data terminal e$uipment %D&'( # Data circuit)terminating e$uipment %D*'(
D&'s generally are considered to be terminating e$uipment for a specific networ+ and
typically are located on the premises of a customer. ,n fact, they may be owned by the
customer. '-amples of D&' devices are terminals, personal computers, routers, and
bridges.
D*'s are carrier)owned internetwor+ing devices. &he purpose of D*' e$uipment is to
provide cloc+ing and switching services in a networ+, which are the devices that actually
transmit data through the W!. ,n most cases, these are pac+et switches. Figure ./).
shows the relationship between the two categories of devices.
Standard Frame Relay Frame
0tandard Frame Relay frames consist of the fields illustrated in Figure ./)1.
Figure Five Fields *omprise the Frame Relay Frame
'ach frame relay 2D3 consists of the following fields"
.. Flag Field. &he flag is used to perform high level data lin+ synchroni4ation which
indicates the beginning and end of the frame with the uni$ue pattern /....../. &o
ensure that the /....../ pattern does not appear somewhere inside the frame, bit
stuffing and destuffing procedures are used.
2. ddress Field. 'ach address field may occupy either octet 2 to 5, octet 2 to 1, or
octet 2 to 5, depending on the range of the address in use. two)octet address
.
field comprising the '6DDR'00 F,'7D 'X&'!0,8! 9,&0 and the
*:R6*8;;!D:R'028!0' 9,&.
5. D7*,)Data 7in+ *onnection ,dentifier 9its. &he D7*, serves to identify the
virtual connection so that the receiving end +nows which information connection
a frame belongs to. !ote that this D7*, has only local significance. single
physical channel can multiple- several different virtual connections.
1. F'*!, 9'*!, D' bits. &hese bits report congestion"
o F'*!6Forward '-plicit *ongestion !otification bit
o 9'*!69ac+ward '-plicit *ongestion !otification bit
o D'6Discard 'ligibility bit
5. ,nformation Field. system parameter defines the ma-imum number of data
bytes that a host can pac+ into a frame. <osts may negotiate the actual ma-imum
frame length at call set)up time. &he standard specifies the ma-imum information
field si4e %supportable by any networ+( as at least 2=2 octets. 0ince end)to)end
protocols typically operate on the basis of larger information units, frame relay
recommends that the networ+ support the ma-imum value of at least .=// octets
in order to avoid the need for segmentation and reassembling by end)users.
Frame *hec+ 0e$uence %F*0( Field. 0ince one cannot completely ignore the bit error)
rate of the medium, each switching node needs to implement error detection to
avoid wasting bandwidth due to the transmission of erred frames. &he error
detection mechanism used in frame relay uses the cyclic redundancy check %*R*(
as its basis.
Congestion-Control Mechanisms
Frame Relay reduces networ+ overhead by implementing simple congestion)notification
mechanisms rather than e-plicit, per)virtual)circuit flow control. Frame Relay typically is
implemented on reliable networ+ media, so data integrity is not sacrificed because flow
control can be left to higher)layer protocols. Frame Relay implements two congestion)
notification mechanisms"
# Forward)e-plicit congestion notification %F'*!(
# 9ac+ward)e-plicit congestion notification %9'*!( F'*! and 9'*! each is
controlled by a single bit contained in the Frame Relay frame header. &he Frame Relay
frame header also contains a Discard 'ligibility %D'( bit, which is used to identify less
important traffic that can be dropped during periods of congestion.
Frame Relay versus X.25
&he design of X.25 aimed to provide error)free delivery over lin+s with high error)rates.
Frame relay ta+es advantage of the new lin+s with lower error)rates, enabling it to
eliminate many of the services provided by X.25. &he elimination of functions and fields,
combined with digital lin+s, enables frame relay to operate at speeds 2/ times greater
than X.25.
2
X.25 specifies processing at layers ., 2 and 5 of the 80, model, while frame relay
operates at layers . and 2 only. &his means that frame relay has significantly less
processing to do at each node, which improves throughput by an order of magnitude.
X.25 prepares and sends pac+ets, while frame relay prepares and sends frames. X.25
pac+ets contain several fields used for error and flow control, none of which frame relay
needs. &he frames in frame relay contain an e-panded address field that enables frame
relay nodes to direct frames to their destinations with minimal processing .
X.25 has a fi-ed bandwidth available. ,t uses or wastes portions of its bandwidth as the
load dictates. Frame relay can dynamically allocate bandwidth during call setup
negotiation at both the physical and logical channel level.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is an ,nternational &elecommunication 3nion)
&elecommunications 0tandards 0ection %,&3)&( standard for cell relay wherein
information for multiple service types, such as voice, video, or data, is conveyed in small,
fi-ed)si4e cells. &; networ+s are connection)oriented.
&; is a cell)switching and multiple-ing technology that combines the benefits of
circuit switching %guaranteed capacity and constant transmission delay( with those of
pac+et switching %fle-ibility and efficiency for intermittent traffic(. ,t provides scalable
bandwidth from a few megabits per second %;bps( to many gigabits per second %>bps(.
9ecause of its asynchronous nature, &; is more efficient than synchronous
technologies, such as time-division multiplexing (TDM).
With &D;, each user is assigned to a time slot, and no other station can send in that time
slot. ,f a station has much data to send, it can send only when its time slot comes up, even
if all other time slots are empty. <owever, if a station has nothing to transmit when its
time slot comes up, the time slot is sent empty and is wasted. 9ecause &; is
asynchronous, time slots are available on demand with information identifying the source
of the transmission contained in the header of each &; cell.
&; transfers information in fi-ed)si4e units called cells. 'ach cell consists of 55
octets, or bytes. &he first 5 bytes contain cell)header information, and the remaining 1?
contain the payload %user information(. 0mall, fi-ed)length cells are well suited to
transferring voice and video traffic because such traffic is intolerant of delays that result
from having to wait for a large data pac+et to download, among other things. Figure
illustrates the basic format of an &; cell. Figure "n &; *ell *onsists of a <eader
and 2ayload Data
5
ATM Protocol architecture:
&; is almost similar to cell relay and pac+ets witching using X.25and framerelay.li+e
pac+et switching and frame relay,&; involves the transfer of data in discrete
pieces.also,li+e pac+et switching and frame relay ,&; allows multiple logical
connections to multiple-ed over a single physical interface. in the case of &;,the
information flow on each logical connection is organised into fi-ed)si4e pac+ets, called
cells. &; is a streamlined protocol with minimal error and flow control capabilities "this
reduces the overhead of processing &; cells and reduces the number of overhead bits
re$uired with each cell, thus enabling &; to operate at high data rates.the use of fi-ed)
si4e cells simplifies the processing re$uired at each &; node,again supporting the use
of &; at high data rates. &he &; architecture uses a logical model to describe the
functionality that it supports. &; functionality corresponds to the physical layer and
part of the data lin+ layer of the 80, reference model. . the protocol referencce model
shown ma+es reference to three separate planes"
user plane provides for user information transfer ,along with associated controls
%e.g.,flow control ,error control(.
control plane performs call control and connection control functions.
management plane includes plane management ,which performs management function
related to a system as a whole and provides coordination between all the planes ,and layer
management which performs management functions relating to resource and parameters
residing in its protocol entities .
&he &; reference model is composed of the following &; layers"
# Physical layer@nalogous to the physical layer of the 80, reference model, the
&; physical layer manages the medium)dependent transmission.
# ATM layer@*ombined with the &; adaptation layer, the &; layer is roughly
analogous to the data lin+ layer of the 80, reference model. &he &; layer is responsible
for the simultaneous sharing of virtual circuits over a physical lin+ %cell multiple-ing(
and passing cells through the &; networ+ %cell relay(. &o do this, it uses the A2, and
A*, information in the header of each &; cell.
# ATM adaptation layer (AAL)@*ombined with the &; layer, the 7 is roughly
analogous to the data lin+ layer of the 80, model. &he 7 is responsible for isolating
higher)layer protocols from the details of the &; processes. &he adaptation layer
prepares user data for conversion into cells and segments the data into 1?)byte cell
payloads.
Finally, the higher layers residing above the 7 accept user data, arrange it into pac+ets,
and hand it to the 7. Figure "illustrates the &; reference model.
1
Structure of an ATM cell
n &; cell consists of a 5 byte header and a 1? byte payload. &he payload si4e of 1?
bytes was a compromise between the needs of voice telephony and pac+et networ+s,
obtained by a simple averaging of the 30 proposal of =1 bytes and 'uropean proposal of
52, said by some to be motivated by a 'uropean desire not to need echo)cancellers on
national trun+s.
&; defines two different cell formats" !!, %!etwor+)networ+ interface( and 3!,
%3ser)networ+ interface(. ;ost &; lin+s use 3!, cell format.
iagram o! the UNI ATM "ell
B 1 5 /
>F* A2,
A2, A*,
A*,
A*, 2& *72
<'*
2ayload %1? bytes(
iagram o! the NNI ATM "ell
B 1 5 /
A2,
A2, A*,
A*,
A*, 2& *72
<'*
2ayload %1? bytes(
5
>F* 6 >eneric Flow *ontrol %1 bits( %default" 1)4ero bits(
A2, 6 Airtual 2ath ,dentifier %? bits 3!,( or %.2 bits !!,(
A*, 6 Airtual channel identifier %.= bits(
2& 6 2ayload &ype %5 bits(
*72 6 *ell 7oss 2riority %.)bit(
<'* 6 <eader 'rror *orrection %?)bit *R*, polynomial 6 X
?
C X
2
C X C .(
&he 2& field is used to designate various special +inds of cells for 8peration and
;anagement %8;( purposes, and to delineate pac+et boundaries in some 7s.
0everal of &;Ds lin+ protocols use the <'* field to drive a *R*)9ased Framing
algorithm, which allows the position of the &; cells to be found with no overhead
re$uired beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection. &he ?)bit *R* is used to
correct single)bit header errors and detect multi)bit header errors. When multi)bit header
errors are detected, the current and subse$uent cells are dropped until a cell with no
header errors is found.
,n a 3!, cell the >F* field is reserved for a local flow control:submultiple-ing system
between users. &his was intended to allow several terminals to share a single networ+
connection, in the same way that two ,0D! phones can share a single basic rate ,0D!
connection. ll four >F* bits must be 4ero by default.&he !!, cell format is almost
identical to the 3!, format, e-cept that the 1)bit >F* field is re)allocated to the A2,
field, e-tending the A2, to .2 bits. &hus, a single !!, &; interconnection is capable of
addressing almost 2
.2
A2s of up to almost 2
.=
A*s each %in practice some of the A2 and
A* numbers are reserved(.
#irtual "hannel (#") denotes the transport of &; cells which have the same uni$ue
identifier, called the Airtual *hannel ,dentifier %A*,(. &his identifier is encoded in the
cell header. virtual channel represents the basic means of communication between two
end)points, and is analogous to an X.25 virtual circuit.
#irtual Path (#P) denotes the transport of &; cells belonging to virtual channels
which share a common identifier, called the Airtual 2ath ,dentifier %A2,(, which is also
=
encoded in the cell header. virtual path, in other words, is a grouping of virtual
channels which connect the same end)points. &his two layer approach results in improved
networ+ performance. 8nce a virtual path is set up, the addition:removal of virtual
channels is straightforward
ATM Classes of Services
ATM is connection oriented and allows the user to specify the resources required on a per-connection
basis (per SVC) dynamically. There are the fie classes of serice defined for ATM (as per ATM !orum
"#$ %.& specification). The 'oS parameters for these serice classes are summari(ed in Table 1.
$er%ice "lass &uality o! $er%ice Parameter
constant bit rate
%*9R(
&his class is used for emulating circuit switching. &he cell rate is
constant with time. *9R applications are $uite sensitive to cell)delay
variation. '-amples of applications that can use *9R are telephone
traffic %i.e., n-=1 +bps(, videoconferencing, and television.
variable bit rateE
non)real time
%A9RE!R&(
&his class allows users to send traffic at a rate that varies with time
depending on the availability of user information. 0tatistical
multiple-ing is provided to ma+e optimum use of networ+ resources.
;ultimedia e)mail is an e-ample of A9RE!R&.
variable bit rateE
real time %A9RE
R&(
&his class is similar to A9RE!R& but is designed for applications that
are sensitive to cell)delay variation. '-amples for real)time A9R are
voice with speech activity detection %0D( and interactive compressed
video.
available bit rate
%9R(
&his class of &; services provides rate)based flow control and is
aimed at data traffic such as file transfer and e)mail. lthough the
standard does not re$uire the cell transfer delay and cell)loss ratio to be
guaranteed or minimi4ed, it is desirable for switches to minimi4e delay
and loss as much as possible. Depending upon the state of congestion
in the networ+, the source is re$uired to control its rate. &he users are
allowed to declare a minimum cell rate, which is guaranteed to the
connection by the networ+.
unspecified bit
rate %39R(
&his class is the catch)all, other class and is widely used today for
&*2:,2.
Technical
Parameter
e!inition
cell loss ratio *7R is the percentage of cells not delivered at their destination
B
%*7R(
because they were lost in the networ+ due to congestion and
buffer overflow.
cell transfer
delay %*&D(
&he delay e-perienced by a cell between networ+ entry and e-it
points is called the *&D. ,t includes propagation delays,
$ueuing delays at various intermediate switches, and service
times at $ueuing points.
cell delay
variation
%*DA(
*DA is a measure of the variance of the cell transfer delay.
<igh variation implies larger buffering for delay)sensitive
traffic such as voice and video.
pea+ cell rate
%2*R(
&he ma-imum cell rate at which the user will transmit. 2*R is
the inverse of the minimum cell inter)arrival time.
sustained cell
rate %0*R(
&his is the average rate, as measured over a long interval, in the
order of the connection lifetime.
burst tolerance
%9&(
&his parameter determines the ma-imum burst that can be sent
at the pea+ rate. &his is the buc+et)si4e parameter for the
enforcement algorithm that is used to control the traffic
entering the networ+.
'ene!its o! ATM
&he benefits of &; are the following"
high performance via hardware switching
dynamic bandwidth for bursty traffic
class)of)service support for multimedia
scalability in speed and networ+ si4e
common 7!:W! architecture
opportunities for simplification via A* architecture
international standards compliance
ATM Adaptation Layers (AAL)
&he use of synchronous &ransfer ;ode %&;( technology and services creates the need
for an adaptation layer in order to support information transfer protocols, which are not
based on &;. &his adaptation layer defines how to segment and reassemble higher)layer
pac+ets into &; cells, and how to handle various transmission aspects in the &; layer.
'-amples of services that need adaptations are >igabit 'thernet, ,2, Frame Relay,
08!'&:0D<, 3;&0:Wireless, etc.
&he main services provided by 7 %&; daptation 7ayer( are"
0egmentation and reassembly
?
<andling of transmission errors
<andling of lost and misinserted cell conditions
&iming and flow control
&he following &; daptation 7ayer protocols %7s( have been defined by the ,&3)&.
,t is meant that these 7s will meet a variety of needs. &he classification is based on
whether a timing relationship must be maintained between source and destination,
whether the application re$uires a constant bit rate, and whether the transfer is connection
oriented or connectionless.
AAL Type ( supports constant bit rate %*9R(, synchronous, connection oriented
traffic. '-amples include &. %D0.(, '., and -=1 +bit:s emulation.
AAL Type ) supports time)dependent Aariable 9it Rate %A9R)R&( of connection)
oriented, synchronous traffic. '-amples include Aoice over &;. 72 is also
widely used in wireless applications due to the capability of multiple-ing voice
pac+ets from different users on a single &; connection.
AAL Type *+, supports A9R, data traffic, connection)oriented, asynchronous
traffic %e.g. X.25 data( or connectionless pac+et data %e.g. 0;D0 traffic( with an
additional 1)byte header in the information payload of the cell. '-amples include
Frame Relay and X.25.
AAL Type - is similar to 7 5:1 with a simplified information header scheme.
&his 7 assumes that the data is se$uential from the end user and uses the
2ayload &ype ,ndicator %2&,( bit to indicate the last cell in a transmission.
'-amples of services that use 7 5 are classic ,2 over &;, 'thernet 8ver
&;, 0;D0, and 7! 'mulation %7!'(. 7 5 is a widely used &;
adaptation layer protocol. &his protocol was intended to provide a streamlined
transport facility for higher)layer protocols that are connection oriented.
7 5 was introduced to"
reduce protocol processing overhead.
reduce transmission overhead.
ensure adaptability to e-isting transport protocols.
& AAL1 PDU
&he structure of the 7. 2D3 is given in the following illustration"
S# S#)
CS$ SC C*C +)C SA* )," )ayload
. bit 5 bits 5 bits . bit
1B bytes
AAL1 PD
F
S#
0e$uence number. !umbers the stream of 0R 2D3s of a *2*0 2D3 %modulo .=(. &he
se$uence number is comprised of the *0, and the 0!.
CS$
*onvergence sublayer indicator. 3sed for residual time stamp for cloc+ing.
SC
0e$uence count. &he se$uence number for the entire *0 2D3, which is generated by the
*onvergence 0ublayer.
S#)
0e$uence number protection. *omprised of the *R* and the '2*.
C*C
*yclic redundancy chec+ calculated over the 0R header.
+)C
'ven parity chec+ calculated over the *R*.
SA* )," payload
1B)byte user information field.
AAL
72 provides bandwidth)efficient transmission of low)rate, short and variable pac+ets
in delay sensitive applications. ,t supports A9R and *9R. 72 also provides for
variable payload within cells and across cells. 7 type 2 is subdivided into the
*ommon 2art 0ublayer %*20 ( and the 0ervice 0pecific *onvergence 0ublayer %00*0 (.
AAL CPS Pac!et
&he *20 pac+et consists of a 5 octet header followed by a payload. &he structure of the
72 *20 pac+et is shown in the following illustration.
*,D 7, 33, <'* ,nformation payload
? bits = bits 5 bits 5 bits .)15:=1 bytes
AAL! "P# pac$et
*,D *hannelidentification.
7,
7ength indicator. &his is the length of the pac+et payload associated with each individual
user. Aalue is one less than the pac+et payload and has a default value of 15 bytes %may
be set to =1 bytes(.
33,
3ser)to)user indication. 2rovides a lin+ between the *20 and an appropriate 00*0 that
satisfies the higher layer application
./
<'*
<eader error control.
72
&he structure of the 72 0R 2D3 is given in the following illustration.
0tart field *20)2D3 payload

80F 0! 2 72 2D3 payload 2D
= bits . bit . bit /)1B bytes
AAL! "P# PD
80F
8ffset field. ,dentifies the location of the start of the ne-t *20 pac+et within the *20)
2D3.
0!
0e$uence number. 2rotects data integrity.
2
2arity. 2rotects the start field from errors.
0R 2D3 payload
,nformation field of the 0R 2D3.
2D
2adding.
AAL) $$"$ Packet
&he 00*0 conveys narrowband calls consisting of voice, voiceband data or circuit mode
data. 00*0 pac+ets are transported as *20 pac+ets over 72 connections. &he *20
pac+et contains a 00*0 payload. &here are 5 00*0 pac+et types.
&ype . 3nprotectedG this is used by default.
&ype 2 2artially protected.
&ype 5 Fully protected" the entire payload is protected by a ./)bit *R* which is
computed as for 8; cells. &he remaining 2 bits of the 2)octet trailer consist of the
message type field.
AAL) $$"$ Type * Packets.
&he type 5 pac+ets are used for the following"
Dialled digits
..
*hannel associated signalling bits
Facsimile demodulated control data
larms
3ser state control operations.
&he following illustration gives the general sturcture of 72 00*0 &ype 5 2D3s. &he
format varies and each message has its own format according to the actual message type.
Redundancy &ime
stamp
;essage
dependant
information
;essage
type
*R*)./
2 .1 .= = ./ bits
AAL! ##"# Type % PD
Redundancy
2ac+ets are sent 5 times to ensure error correction. &he value in this field signifies the
transmission number.
&ime stamp
*ounters pac+et delay variation and allows a receiver to accurately reproduce the relative
timing of successive events separated by a short interval.
;essage dependant information
2ac+et content that varies, depending on the message type.
;essage type
&he message type code.
*R*)./
&he ./)bit *R*.
AAL*+,
75:1 consists of message and streaming modes. ,t provides for point)to)point and
point)to)multipoint %&; layer( connections. &he *onvergence 0ublayer %*0( of the
&; daptation 7ayer %7( is divided into two parts" service specific %00*0 ( and
common part %*2*0 (. &his is illustrated in the following diagram"
75:1 pac+ets are used to carry computer data, mainly 0;D0 traffic.
AAL*+, "P"$ PU
&he functions of the 75:1 *2*0 include connectionless networ+ layer %*lass D(,
meaning no need for an 00*0G and frame relaying telecommunication service in *lass *.
&he *2*0 2D3 is composed of the following fields"
.2
<eader ,nfo &railer
*2, 9tag 9asi4e *2*0
0D3
2ad / 'tag 7ength
. . 2 /)=5555 /)5 . . 2 bytes
AAL%&' "P"# PD
*2,
;essage type. 0et to 4ero when the 9si4e and 7ength fields are encoded in bytes.
9tag
9eginning tag. &his is an identifier for the pac+et. ,t is repeated as the 'tag.
9si4e
9uffer allocation si4e. 0i4e %in bytes( that the receiver has to allocate to capture all the
data.
*2*0 0D3
Aariable information field up to =5555 bytes.
2D
2adding field which is used to achieve 52)bit alignment of the length of the pac+et.
/
ll)4ero.
'tag
'nd tag. ;ust be the same as 9tag.
7ength
;ust be the same as 90i4e.
AAL*+, $A/ PU
&he structure of the 75:1 0R 2D3 is illustrated below"
0& 0! ;,D ,nformation 7, *R*
2 1 ./ 552 = ./ bits
2)byte header 11 bytes 2)byte trailer
1? bytes
.5
AAL%&' #A( PD
0&
0egment type. Aalues may be as follows"
0!
0e$uence number. !umbers the stream of 0R 2D3s of a *2*0 2D3 %modulo .=(.
;,D
;ultiple-ing identification. &his is used for multiple-ing several 75:1 connections
over one &; lin+.
,nformation
&his field has a fi-ed length of 11 bytes and contains parts of *2*0 2D3.
7,
7ength indication. *ontains the length of the 0R 0D3 in bytes, as follows"
*R*
*yclic redundancy chec+.
Functions of 75:1 0R include identification of 0R 0D3sG error indication and
handlingG 0R 0D3 se$uence continuityG multiple-ing and demultiple-ing.
AAL- &he type 5 adaptation layer is a simplified version of 75:1. ,t also consists of
message and streaming modes, with the *0 divided into the service specific and common
part. 75 provides point)to)point and point)to)multipoint %&; layer( connections.
75 is used to carry computer data such as &*2:,2. ,t is the most popular 7 and is
sometimes referred to as 0'7 %simple and easy adaptation layer(.
AAL- "P"$ PU
&he 75 *2*0 2D3 is composed of the following fields"
,nfo &railer
*2*0 payload 2ad 33 *2, 7ength *R*
/)=5555 /)1B . . 2 1 bytes
AAL) "P"# PD
*2*0
&he actual information that is sent by the user. !ote that the information comes before
any length indication %as opposed to 75:1 where the amount of memory re$uired is
+nown in advance(.
.1
2ad
2adding bytes to ma+e the entire pac+et %including control and *R*( fit into a 1?)byte
boundary.
33
*2*0 user)to)user indication to transfer one byte of user information.
*2,
*ommon part indicator is a filling byte %of value /(. &his field is to be used in the future
for layer management message indication.
7ength
7ength of the user information without the 2ad.
*R*
*R*)52. 3sed to allow identification of corrupted transmission.
AAL- $A/ PU &he structure of the 75 *0 2D3 is as follows"
,nformation 2D 33 *2, 7ength *R*)52
.)1? /)1B . . 2 1 bytes

?)byte trailer
AAL) #A( PD
0igh1$peed LANs
2mergence o! 0igh1$peed LANs
2 0ignificant trends
E *omputing power of 2*s continues to grow rapidly
E !etwor+ computing
'-amples of re$uirements
E *entrali4ed server farms
E 2ower wor+groups
E <igh)speed local bac+bone
"lassical 2thernet
9us topology 7!
./ ;bps
*0;:*D medium access control protocol
2 problems"
E transmission from any station can be received by all stations
E <ow to regulate transmission
0olution to First 2roblem
Data transmitted in bloc+s called frames"
E 3ser data
E Frame header containing uni$ue address of destination station
.5
*0;:*D
*arrier 0ense ;ultiple ccess: *arrier Detection
,f the medium is idle, transmit.
,f the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle, then transmit
immediately.
,f a collision is detected during transmission, immediately cease transmitting.
fter a collision, wait a random amount of time, then attempt to transmit again
%repeat from step .(.
;edium 8ptions at ./;bps
Hdata rateI Hsignaling methodI Hma- lengthI
./9ase5
E ./ ;bps
E 5/)ohm coa-ial cable bus
E ;a-imum segment length 5// meters
./9ase)&
E &wisted pair, ma-imum length .// meters
.=
E 0tar topology %hub or multipoint repeater at central point(
<ubs and 0witches
<ub
&ransmission from a station received by central hub and retransmitted on all
outgoing lines
8nly one transmission at a time
7ayer 2 0witch
,ncoming frame switched to one outgoing line
;any transmissions at same time
.B
9ridge
Frame handling done in software
naly4e and forward one frame at a time
0tore)and)forward
7ayer 2 0witch
Frame handling done in hardware
;ultiple data paths and can handle multiple frames at a time
*an do cut)through
7ayer 2 0witches
Flat address space
9roadcast storm
8nly one path between any 2 devices
0olution ." subnetwor+s connected by routers
0olution 2" layer 5 switching, pac+et)forwarding logic in hardware
.?
9enefits of ./ >bps 'thernet over &;
!o e-pensive, bandwidth consuming conversion between 'thernet pac+ets and
&; cells
!etwor+ is 'thernet, end to end
,2 plus 'thernet offers Jo0 and traffic policing capabilities approach that of
&;
Wide variety of standard optical interfaces for ./ >bps 'thernet
Fibre *hannel
2 methods of communication with processor"
E ,:8 channel
E !etwor+ communications
Fibre channel combines both
E 0implicity and speed of channel communications
E Fle-ibility and interconnectivity of networ+ communications
.F
,:8 channel
<ardware based, high)speed, short distance
Direct point)to)point or multipoint communications lin+
Data type $ualifiers for routing payload
7in+)level constructs for individual ,:8 operations
2rotocol specific specifications to support e.g. 0*0,
2/
Fibre *hannel !etwor+)8riented Facilities
Full multiple-ing between multiple destinations
2eer)to)peer connectivity between any pair of ports
,nternetwor+ing with other connection technologies
Fibre *hannel Re$uirements
Full duple- lin+s with 2 fibres:lin+
.// ;bps E ?// ;bps
Distances up to ./ +m
0mall connectors
high)capacity
>reater connectivity than e-isting multidrop channels
9road availability
0upport for multiple cost:performance levels
0upport for multiple e-isting interface command sets
Fibre *hannel 2rotocol rchitecture
F*)/ 2hysical ;edia
F*). &ransmission 2rotocol
F*)2 Framing 2rotocol
F*)5 *ommon 0ervices
F*)1 ;apping
3ireless LAN /e4uirements
&hroughput
!umber of nodes
*onnection to bac+bone
0ervice area
9attery power consumption
&ransmission robustness and security
*ollocated networ+ operation
7icense)free operation
<andoff:roaming
Dynamic configuration
,''' ?/2... 0ervices
ssociation
Reassociation
Disassociation
uthentication
2rivacy
2.
22
Unit II
Jueing analysis
,n $ueueing theory, a 4ueueing model is used to appro-imate a real $ueueing
situation or system, so the $ueueing behaviour can be analysed mathematically.
Jueueing models allow a number of useful steady state performance measures
to be determined, including"
the average number in the $ueue, or the system,
the average time spent in the $ueue, or the system,
the statistical distribution of those numbers or times,
the probability the $ueue is full, or empty, and
the probability of finding the system in a particular state.
&hese performance measures are important as issues or problems caused by
$ueueing situations are often related to customer dissatisfaction with service or
may be the root cause of economic losses in a business. nalysis of the
relevant $ueueing models allows the cause of $ueueing issues to be identified
and the impact of any changes that might be wanted to be assessed.
Notation
&ueueing models can be represented using KendallDs notation"
:9:0:K:!:Disc
where"
is the interarrival time distribution
9 is the service time distribution
0 is the number of servers
K is the system capacity
! is the calling population
Disc is the service discipline assumed
0ome standard notation for distributions % or 9( are"
; for a ;ar+ovian %e-ponential( distribution
'L for an 'rlang distribution with L phases
D for Deterministic %constant(
> for >eneral distribution
2< for a 2hase)type distribution
Models
Constr"ction and analysis
Jueueing models are generally constructed to represent the steady state of a
$ueueing system, that is, the typical, long run or average state of the system.
25
s a conse$uence, these are stochastic models that represent the probability
that a $ueueing system will be found in a particular configuration or state.
general procedure for constructing and analysing such $ueueing models is"
.. ,dentify the parameters of the system, such as the arrival rate, service time,
Jueue capacity, and perhaps draw a diagram of the system.
2. ,dentify the system states. % state will generally represent the integer number
of customers, people, Mobs, calls, messages, etc. in the system and may or may
not be limited.(
5. Draw a state transition diagram that represents the possible system states and
identify the rates to enter and leave each state. &his diagram is a representation
of a ;ar+ov chain.
1. 9ecause the state transition diagram represents the steady state situation
between state there is a balanced flow between states so the probabilities of
being in adMacent states can be related mathematically in terms of the arrival
and service rates and state probabilities.
5. '-press all the state probabilities in terms of the empty state probability, using
the inter)state transition relationships.
=. Determine the empty state probability by using the fact that all state
probabilities always sum to ..
Whereas specific problems that have small finite state models are often able to
be analysed numerically, analysis of more general models, using calculus,
yields useful formulae that can be applied to whole classes of problems.
Single-server #"e"e
0ingle)server $ueues are, perhaps, the most commonly encountered $ueueing
situation in real life. 8ne encounters a $ueue with a single server in many
situations, including business %e.g. sales cler+(, industry %e.g. a production
line(, transport %e.g. a bus, a ta-i ran+, an intersection(, telecommunications
%e.g. &elephone line(, computing %e.g. processor sharing(. 'ven where there are
multiple servers handling the situation it is possible to consider each server
individually as part of the larger system, in many cases. %e.g supermar+et
chec+out has several single server $ueues that the customer can select from.(
*onse$uently, being able to model and analyse a single server $ueueDs
behaviour is a particularly useful thing to do.
Poisson arri%als and ser%ice
M+M+(+5+5 represents a single server that has unlimited $ueue capacity and
infinite calling population, both arrivals and service are 2oisson %or random(
processes, meaning the statistical distribution of both the inter)arrival times
and the service times follow the e-ponential distribution. 9ecause of the
mathematical nature of the e-ponential distribution, a number of $uite simple
relationships are able to be derived for several performance measures based on
+nowing the arrival rate and service rate.
21
&his is fortunate because, an ;:;:. $ueuing model can be used to
appro-imate many $ueuing situations.
Poisson arri%als and general ser%ice
M+6+(+5+5 represents a single server that has unlimited $ueue capacity and
infinite calling population, while the arrival is still 2oisson process, meaning
the statistical distribution of the inter)arrival times still follow the e-ponential
distribution, the distribution of the service time does not. &he distribution of
the service time may follow any general statistical distribution, not Must
e-ponential. Relationships are still able to be derived for a %limited( number of
performance measures if one +nows the arrival rate and the mean and variance
of the service rate. <owever the derivations a generally more comple-.
number of special cases of ;:>:. provide specific solutions that give broad
insights into the best model to choose for specific $ueueing situations because
they permit the comparison of those solutions to the performance of an ;:;:.
model.
M"lti$le-servers #"e"e
;ultiple %identical()servers $ueue situations are fre$uently encountered in
telecommunications or a customer service environment. When modelling these
situations care is needed to ensure that it is a multiple servers $ueue, not a
networ+ of single server $ueues, because results may differ depending on how
the $ueuing model behaves.
8ne observational insight provided by comparing $ueuing models is that a
single $ueue with multiple servers performs better than each server having
their own $ueue and that a single large pool of servers performs better than two
or more smaller pools, even though there are the same total number of servers
in the system.
8ne simple e-ample to prove the above fact is as follows" *onsider a system
having ? input lines, single $ueue and ? servers.&he output line has a capacity
of =1 +bit:s. *onsidering the arrival rate at each input as 2 pac+ets:s. 0o, the
total arrival rate is .= pac+ets:s. With an average of 2/// bits per pac+et, the
service rate is =1 +bit:s:2///b 6 52 pac+ets:s. <ence, the average response
time of the system is .:%N)O( 6 .:%52).=( 6 /./==B sec. !ow, consider a second
system with ? $ueues, one for each server. 'ach of the ? output lines has a
capacity of ? +bit:s. &he calculation yields the response time as .:%N)O( 6 .:%1)
2( 6 /.5 sec. nd the average waiting time in the $ueue in the first case is P:%.)
P(N 6 /.25, while in the second case is /./5.25.
%nfinitely many servers
While never e-actly encountered in reality, an infinite-servers %e.g. M+M+5(
model is a convenient theoretical model for situations that involve storage or
delay, such as par+ing lots, warehouses and even atomic transitions. ,n these
25
models there is no $ueue, as such, instead each arriving customer receives
service. When viewed from the outside, the model appears to delay or store
each customer for some time.
ueuein! System "lassification
With 7ittleDs &heorem, we have developed some basic understanding of a
$ueueing system. &o further our understanding we will have to dig deeper into
characteristics of a $ueueing system that impact its performance. For e-ample,
$ueueing re$uirements of a restaurant will depend upon factors li+e"
<ow do customers arrive in the restaurantQ re customer arrivals more during
lunch and dinner time %a regular restaurant(Q 8r is the customer traffic more
uniformly distributed %a cafe(Q
<ow much time do customers spend in the restaurantQ Do customers typically
leave the restaurant in a fi-ed amount of timeQ Does the customer service time
vary with the type of customerQ
<ow many tables does the restaurant have for servicing customersQ
&he above three points correspond to the most important characteristics of a
$ueueing system. &hey are e-plained below"
Arri%al Process &he probability density distribution that determines
the customer arrivals in the system.
,n a messaging system, this refers to the message
arrival probability distribution.
$er%ice Process &he probability density distribution that determines
the customer service times in the system.
,n a messaging system, this refers to the message
transmission time distribution. 0ince message
transmission is directly proportional to the length of
the message, this parameter indirectly refers to the
message length distribution.
Num7er o!
$er%ers
!umber of servers available to service the
customers.
,n a messaging system, this refers to the number of
lin+s between the source and destination nodes.
9ased on the above characteristics, $ueueing systems can be classified by the
following convention"
A+$+n
Where is the arrival process, 0 is the service process and n is the number of
servers. and 0 are can be any of the following"
2=
; %;ar+ov( '-ponential probability density
D %Deterministic( ll customers have the same value
> %>eneral( ny arbitrary probability distribution

'-amples of $ueueing systems that can be defined with this convention are"
M+M+(. &his is the simplest $ueueing system to analy4e. <ere the arrival and
service time are negative e-ponentially distributed %poisson process(. &he
system consists of only one server. &his $ueueing system can be applied to a
wide variety of problems as any system with a very large number of
independent customers can be appro-imated as a 2oisson process. 3sing a
2oisson process for service time however is not applicable in many
applications and is only a crude appro-imation. Refer to ;:;:. Jueueing
0ystem for details.
M++n. <ere the arrival process is poisson and the service time distribution is
deterministic. &he system has n servers. %e.g. a tic+et boo+ing counter with n
cashiers.( <ere the service time can be assumed to be same for all customers(
6+6+n. &his is the most general $ueueing system where the arrival and service
time processes are both arbitrary. &he system has n servers. !o analytical
solution is +nown for this $ueueing system.
;ar+ovian arrival processes
,n $ueuing theory, Marko%ian arri%al processes are used to model the arrival
customers to $ueue.
0ome of the most common include the Poisson process, Mar$ovian arrival
process and the *atch Mar$ovian arrival process.
;ar+ovian arrival processes has two processes. continuous)time ;ar+ov
process +%t(, a ;ar+ov process which is generated by a generator or rate
matrix, ,. &he other process is a counting process -%t(, which has state space
%where is the set of all natural numbers(. -%t( increases
every time there is a transition in +%t( which mar+ed.
Poisson #rocess
&he 2oisson arrival process or 2oisson process counts the number of arrivals,
each of which has a e-ponentially distributed time between arrival. ,n the most
general case this can be represented by the rate matri-,
Mar$ov arrival #rocess
&he Marko% arri%al process %MAP( is a generalisation of the 2oisson process
by having non)e-ponential distribution soMourn between arrivals. &he
homogeneous case has rate matri-,
2B
7ittleDs law
,n $ueueing theory, Little8s result, theorem, lemma, or law says"
&he average number of customers in a stable system %over some time interval(,
!, is e$ual to their average arrival rate, O, multiplied by their average time in
the system, &, or"
lthough it loo+s intuitively reasonable, itDs a $uite remar+able result, as it
implies that this behavior is entirely independent of any of the detailed
probability distributions involved, and hence re$uires no assumptions about the
schedule according to which customers arrive or are serviced, or whether they
are served in the order in which they arrive.
,t is also a comparatively recent result ) it was first proved by Rohn 7ittle, an
,nstitute 2rofessor and the *hair of ;anagement 0cience at the ;,& 0loan
0chool of ;anagement, in .F=..
<andily his result applies to any system, and particularly, it applies to systems
within systems. 0o in a ban+, the $ueue might be one subsystem, and each of
the tellers another subsystem, and 7ittleDs result could be applied to each one,
as well as the whole thing. &he only re$uirement is that the system is stable ))
it canDt be in some transition state such as Must starting up or Must shutting down.
Mathematical formali%ation of &ittle's theorem
7et S%t( be to some system in the interval T/, tU. 7et V%t( be the number of
departures from the same system in the interval T/, tU. 9oth S%t( and V%t( are
integer valued increasing functions by their definition. 7et Tt be the mean time
spent in the system %during the interval T/, tU( for all the customers who were in
the system during the interval T/, tU. 7et -t be the mean number of customers in
the system over the duration of the interval T/, tU.
,f the following limits e-ist,
and, further, if O 6 W then 7ittleDs theorem holds, the limit
2?
e-ists and is given by 7ittleDs theorem,
Ideal Per!ormance
2F
(ffects of "on!estion
)
"on!estion*"ontrol Mechanisms
Backpressure
Request from destination to source to reduce rate
Useful only on a logical connection basis
Requires hop-by-hop flow control mechanism
Policing
Measuring and restricting packets as they enter the network
hoke packet
!pecific message back to source
"#g#$ %MP !ource &uench
%mplicit congestion signaling
!ource detects congestion from transmission delays and lost packets
and reduces flow
5/
(+#licit con!estion si!nalin!
Frame Relay reduces networ+ overhead by implementing simple congestion)
notification mechanisms rather than e-plicit, per)virtual)circuit flow control. Frame
Relay typically is implemented on reliable networ+ media, so data integrity is not
sacrificed because flow control can be left to higher)layer protocols. Frame Relay
implements two congestion)notification mechanisms"
# Forward)e-plicit congestion notification %F'*!(
# 9ac+ward)e-plicit congestion notification %9'*!(
F'*! and 9'*! each is controlled by a single bit contained in the Frame Relay
frame header. &he Frame Relay frame header also contains a Discard 'ligibility %D'(
bit, which is used to identify less important traffic that can be dropped during periods
of congestion.
&he ./"- *it is part of the ddress field in the Frame Relay frame header. &he F'*!
mechanism is initiated when a D&' device sends Frame Relay frames into the
networ+. ,f the networ+ is congested, D*' devices %switches( set the value of the
framesD F'*! bit to .. When the frames reach the destination D&' device, the
ddress field %with the F'*! bit set( indicates that the frame e-perienced congestion
in the path from source to destination. &he D&' device can relay this information to a
higher)layer protocol for processing. Depending on the implementation, flow control
may be initiated, or the indication may be ignored.
&he 0/"- *it is part of the ddress field in the Frame Relay frame header. D*'
devices set the value of the 9'*! bit to . in frames traveling in the opposite direction
of frames with their F'*! bit set. &his informs the receiving D&' device that a
particular path through the networ+ is congested. &he D&' device then can relay this
information to a higher)layer protocol for processing. Depending on the
implementation, flow)control may be initiated, or the indication may be ignored.
5.
Frame Relay Discard &ligi'ility
&he Discard /ligi*ility (D/) *it is used to indicate that a frame has lower importance
than other frames. &he D' bit is part of the ddress field in the Frame Relay frame
header.
D&' devices can set the value of the D' bit of a frame to . to indicate that the frame
has lower importance than other frames. When the networ+ becomes congested, D*'
devices will discard frames with the D' bit set before discarding those that do not.
&his reduces the li+elihood of critical data being dropped by Frame Relay D*'
devices during periods of congestion.
Frame Relay &rror Chec!ing
Frame Relay uses a common error)chec+ing mechanism +nown as the cyclic
redundancy chec$ ("("). &he *R* compares two calculated values to determine
whether errors occurred during the transmission from source to destination. Frame
Relay reduces networ+ overhead by implementing error chec+ing rather than error
correction. Frame Relay typically is implemented on reliable networ+ media, so data
integrity is not sacrificed because error correction can be left to higher)layer protocols
running on top of Frame Relay.
Tra!!ic Management in "ongested Network 9 $ome
"onsiderations
Fairness
Aarious flows should XsufferY e$ually
7ast)in)first)discarded may not be fair
Juality of 0ervice %Jo0(
Flows treated differently, based on need
Aoice, video" delay sensitive, loss insensitive
File transfer, mail" delay insensitive, loss sensitive
,nteractive computing" delay and loss sensitive
Reservations
2olicing" e-cess traffic discarded or handled on best)effort basis

Frame /elay "ongestion "ontrol

;inimi4e frame discard
;aintain Jo0 %per)connection bandwidth(
;inimi4e monopoli4ation of networ+
0imple to implement, little overhead
;inimal additional networ+ traffic
Resources distributed fairly
7imit spread of congestion
52
8perate effectively regardless of flow
<ave minimum impact other systems in networ+
;inimi4e variance in Jo0
"ongestion A%oidance with 2:plicit $ignaling
&wo general strategies considered"
<ypothesis ." *ongestion always occurs slowly, almost always at egress nodes
forward e-plicit congestion avoidance
<ypothesis 2" *ongestion grows very $uic+ly in internal nodes and re$uires
$uic+ action
bac+ward e-plicit congestion avoidance
2:plicit $ignaling /esponse
Network /esponse
each frame handler monitors its $ueuing behavior and ta+es action
use F'*!:9'*! bits
some:all connections notified of congestion
User (end1system) /esponse
receipt of 9'*!:F'*! bits in frame
9'*! at sender" reduce transmission rate
F'*! at receiver" notify peer %via 72F or higher layer( to restrict
flow
Frame /elay Tra!!ic /ate Management Parameters
*ommitted ,nformation Rate %*,R(
verage data rate in bits:second that the networ+ agrees to support for a
connection
Data Rate of 3ser ccess *hannel %ccess Rate(
55
Fi-ed rate lin+ between user and networ+ %for networ+ access(
*ommitted 9urst 0i4e %9c(
;a-imum data over an interval agreed to by networ+
'-cess 9urst 0i4e %9e(
;a-imum data, above 9c, over an interval that networ+ will attempt to
transfer
/elationship o! "ongestion Parameters
51
55
Unit III
T"P Flow "ontrol
3ses a form of sliding window
Differs from mechanism used in 77*, <D7*, X.25, and others"
Decouples ac+nowledgement of received data units from granting
permission to send more
&*2Zs flow control is +nown as a credit allocation scheme"
'ach transmitted octet is considered to have a se$uence number
T"P 0eader Fields !or Flow "ontrol
0e$uence number %0!( of first octet in data segment
c+nowledgement number %!(
Window %W(
c+nowledgement contains ! 6 i, W 6 M"
8ctets through 0! 6 i ) . ac+nowledged
2ermission is granted to send W 6 M more octets,
i.e., octets i through i C M ) .
T"P "redit Allocation Mechanism
"redit Allocation is Fle:i7le
5=
0uppose last message 9 issued was ! 6 i, W 6 M
&o increase credit to + %+ I M( when no new data, 9 issues ! 6 i, W 6 +
&o ac+nowledge segment containing m octets %m H M(, 9 issues ! 6 i C m, W 6 M
E m
Flow "ontrol Perspecti%es
"redit Policy
Receiver needs a policy for how much credit to give sender
*onservative approach" grant credit up to limit of available buffer space
;ay limit throughput in long)delay situations
5B
8ptimistic approach" grant credit based on e-pectation of freeing space before
data arrives
2!!ect o! 3indow $i;e
W 6 &*2 window si4e %octets(
R 6 Data rate %bps( at &*2 source
D 6 2ropagation delay %seconds(
fter &*2 source begins transmitting, it ta+es D seconds for first octet to arrive,
and D seconds for ac+nowledgement to return
&*2 source could transmit at most 2RD bits, or RD:1 octets
Normali;ed Throughput $
. W I RD : 1
0 6
1W:RD W H RD : 1

3indow $cale Parameter
"omplicating Factors
;ultiple &*2 connections are multiple-ed over same networ+ interface, reducing
R and efficiency
For multi)hop connections, D is the sum of delays across each networ+ plus
delays at each router
,f source data rate R e-ceeds data rate on one of the hops, that hop will be a
bottlenec+
7ost segments are retransmitted, reducing throughput. ,mpact depends on
retransmission policy
/etransmission $trategy
&*2 relies e-clusively on positive ac+nowledgements and retransmission on
ac+nowledgement timeout
5?
&here is no e-plicit negative ac+nowledgement
Retransmission re$uired when"
0egment arrives damaged, as indicated by chec+sum error, causing receiver to
discard segment
0egment fails to arrive
Timers
timer is associated with each segment as it is sent
,f timer e-pires before segment ac+nowledged, sender must retransmit
Key Design ,ssue"
value of retransmission timer
&oo small" many unnecessary retransmissions, wasting networ+ bandwidth
&oo large" delay in handling lost segment
Two $trategies
&imer should be longer than round)trip delay %send segment, receive ac+(
Delay is variable
$trategies.
Fi-ed timer
daptive
Pro7lems with Adapti%e $cheme
2eer &*2 entity may accumulate ac+nowledgements and not ac+nowledge
immediately
For retransmitted segments, canZt tell whether ac+nowledgement is response to
original transmission or retransmission
!etwor+ conditions may change suddenly
Adapti%e /etransmission Timer
verage Round)&rip &ime %R&&(
K C .
R&&%K C .( 6 . [ R&&%i(
K C . i 6 .
6 K R&%K( C . R&&%K C .(
K C . K C .
/F" <=* 2:ponential A%eraging
0moothed Round)&rip &ime %0R&&(
0R&&%K C .( 6 S \ 0R&&%K(
C %. E S( \ 0R&&%K C .(
&he older the observation, the less it is counted in the average.
5F
/F" <=* /etransmission Timeout
R&8%K C .( 6
;in%39, ;a-%79, V \ 0R&&%K C .(((
39, 79" prechosen fi-ed upper and lower bounds
'-ample values for S, V"
/.? H S H /.F ..5 H V H 2./
,mplementation 2olicy 8ptions
0end
Deliver
ccept
,n)order
,n)window
Retransmit
First)only
9atch
individual
c+nowledge
immediate
cumulative
T"P "ongestion "ontrol
Dynamic routing can alleviate congestion by spreading load more evenly
9ut only effective for unbalanced loads and brief surges in traffic
*ongestion can only be controlled by limiting total amount of data entering
networ+
,*;2 source Juench message is crude and not effective
R0A2 may help but not widely implemented
T"P "ongestion "ontrol is i!!icult
,2 is connectionless and stateless, with no provision for detecting or controlling
congestion
&*2 only provides end)to)end flow control
!o cooperative, distributed algorithm to bind together various &*2 entities
T"P Flow and "ongestion "ontrol
&he rate at which a &*2 entity can transmit is determined by rate of incoming
*Ks to previous segments with new credit
Rate of c+ arrival determined by round)trip path between source and destination
9ottlenec+ may be destination or internet
0ender cannot tell which
8nly the internet bottlenec+ can be due to congestion
1/
T"P $egment Pacing
T"P Flow and "ongestion "ontrol
/etransmission Timer Management
&hree &echni$ues to calculate retransmission timer %R&8("
R&& Aariance 'stimation
'-ponential R&8 9ac+off
KarnZs lgorithm
1.
/TT #ariance 2stimation
(>aco7son?s Algorithm)
5 sources of high variance in R&&
,f data rate relative low, then transmission delay will be relatively large, with
larger variance due to variance in pac+et si4e
7oad may change abruptly due to other sources
2eer may not ac+nowledge segments immediately
>aco7son?s Algorithm
0R&&%K C .( 6 %. E g( \ 0R&&%K( C g \ R&&%K C .(
0'RR%K C .( 6 R&&%K C .( E 0R&&%K(
0D'A%K C .( 6 %. E h( \ 0D'A%K( C h \]0'RR%K C .(]
R&8%K C .( 6 0R&&%K C .( C f \ 0D'A%K C .(
g 6 /..25
h 6 /.25
f 6 2 or f 6 1 %most current implementations use f 6 1(
Two @ther Factors
RacobsonZs algorithm can significantly improve &*2 performance, but"
What R&8 to use for retransmitted segmentsQ
!0W'R" e-ponential R&8 bac+off algorithm
Which round)trip samples to use as input to RacobsonZs algorithmQ
!0W'R" KarnZs algorithm
2:ponential /T@ 'acko!!
,ncrease R&8 each time the same segment retransmitted E bac+off process
;ultiply R&8 by constant"
R&8 6 $ \ R&8
$ 6 2 is called binary e-ponential bac+off
3hich /ound1trip $amplesA
,f an ac+ is received for retransmitted segment, there are 2 possibilities"
c+ is for first transmission
c+ is for second transmission
&*2 source cannot distinguish 2 cases
!o valid way to calculate R&&"
E From first transmission to ac+, or
E From second transmission to ac+Q
12
E Barn?s Algorithm
Do not use measured R&& to update 0R&& and 0D'A
*alculate bac+off R&8 when a retransmission occurs
3se bac+off R&8 for segments until an ac+ arrives for a segment that has not been
retransmitted
&hen use RacobsonZs algorithm to calculate R&8
3indow Management
0low start
Dynamic window si4ing on congestion
Fast retransmit
Fast recovery
7imited transmit
$low $tart
awnd 6 ;,!T credit, cwndU
where
awnd 6 allowed window in segments
cwnd 6 congestion window in segments
credit 6 amount of unused credit granted in most recent ac+
cwnd 6 . for a new connection and increased by . for each ac+ received, up to a
ma-imum
2!!ect o! $low $tart
15
ynamic 3indow $i;ing on "ongestion
lost segment indicates congestion
2rudent to reset cwsd 6 . and begin slow start process
;ay not be conservative enough" X easy to drive a networ+ into saturation but
hard for the net to recoverY %Racobson(
,nstead, use slow start with linear growth in cwnd
Illustration o! $low $tart and "ongestion A%oidance
Fast /etransmit
R&8 is generally noticeably longer than actual R&&
,f a segment is lost, &*2 may be slow to retransmit
&*2 rule" if a segment is received out of order, an ac+ must be issued immediately
for the last in)order segment
Fast Retransmit rule" if 1 ac+s received for same segment, highly li+ely it was
lost, so retransmit immediately, rather than waiting for timeout
Fast /eco%ery
When &*2 retransmits a segment using Fast Retransmit, a segment was assumed
lost
*ongestion avoidance measures are appropriate at this point
'.g., slow)start:congestion avoidance procedure
&his may be unnecessarily conservative since multiple ac+s indicate segments are
getting through
Fast Recovery" retransmit lost segment, cut cwnd in half, proceed with linear
increase of cwnd
&his avoids initial e-ponential slow)start
11
Limited Transmit
,f congestion window at sender is small, fast retransmit may not get triggered,
e.g., cwnd 6 5
3nder what circumstances does sender have small congestion windowQ
,s the problem commonQ
,f the problem is common, why not reduce number of duplicate ac+s needed to
trigger retransmitQ
Limited Transmit Algorithm
0ender can transmit new segment when 5 conditions are met"
&wo consecutive duplicate ac+s are received
Destination advertised window allows transmission of segment
mount of outstanding data after sending is less than or e$ual to cwnd C 2
Per!ormance o! T"P o%er ATM
<ow best to manage &*2Zs segment si4e, window management and congestion
control^
^at the same time as &;Zs $uality of service and traffic control policies
&*2 may operate end)to)end over one &; networ+, or there may be multiple
&; 7!s or W!s with non)&; networ+s
T"P+IP o%er AAL-+ATM
Per!ormance o! T"P o%er U'/
9uffer capacity at &; switches is a critical parameter in assessing &*2
throughput performance
,nsufficient buffer capacity results in lost &*2 segments and retransmissions
2!!ect o! $witch 'u!!er $i;e
Data rate of .1. ;bps
'nd)to)end propagation delay of = Ns
15
,2 pac+et si4es of 5.2 octets to F.?/
&*2 window si4es from ? Kbytes to =1 Kbytes
&; switch buffer si4e per port from 25= cells to ?///
8ne)to)one mapping of &*2 connections to &; virtual circuits
&*2 sources have infinite supply of data ready
@7ser%ations
,f a single cell is dropped, other cells in the same ,2 datagram are unusable, yet
&; networ+ forwards these useless cells to destination
0maller buffer increase probability of dropped cells
7arger segment si4e increases number of useless cells transmitted if a single cell
dropped
Partial Packet and 2arly Packet iscard
Reduce the transmission of useless cells
Wor+ on a per)virtual circuit basis
2artial 2ac+et Discard
E ,f a cell is dropped, then drop all subse$uent cells in that segment %i.e., loo+ for
cell with 0D3 type bit set to one(
'arly 2ac+et Discard
E When a switch buffer reaches a threshold level, preemptively discard all cells in a
segment
$electi%e rop
,deally, !:A cells buffered for each of the A virtual circuits
W%i( 6 !%i( 6 !%i( \ A
!:A !
,f ! I R and W%i( I _
then drop ne-t new pac+et on A* i
_ is a parameter to be chosen
ATM $witch 'u!!er Layout
Fair 'u!!er Allocation
;ore aggressive dropping of pac+ets as congestion increases
Drop new pac+et when"
1=
! I R and W%i( I _ \ 9 E R
! ) R

T"P o%er A'/
>ood performance of &*2 over 39R can be achieved with minor adMustments to
switch mechanisms
&his reduces the incentive to use the more comple- and more e-pensive 9R
service
2erformance and fairness of 9R $uite sensitive to some 9R parameter settings
8verall, 9R does not provide significant performance over simpler and less
e-pensive 39R)'2D or 39R)'2D)F9
Tra!!ic and "ongestion "ontrol in ATM Networks
Introduction
*ontrol needed to prevent switch buffer overflow
<igh speed and small cell si4e gives different problems from other networ+s
7imited number of overhead bits
,&3)& specified restricted initial set
E ,.5B.
&; forum &raffic ;anagement 0pecification 1.
@%er%iew
*ongestion problem
Framewor+ adopted by ,&3)& and &; forum
E *ontrol schemes for delay sensitive traffic
Aoice ` video
E !ot suited to bursty traffic
E &raffic control
E *ongestion control
9ursty traffic
E vailable 9it Rate %9R(
E >uaranteed Frame Rate %>FR(
/e4uirements !or ATM Tra!!ic and "ongestion "ontrol
;ost pac+et switched and frame relay networ+s carry non)real)time bursty data
E !o need to replicate timing at e-it node
E 0imple statistical multiple-ing
E 3ser !etwor+ ,nterface capacity slightly greater than average of channels
*ongestion control tools from these technologies do not wor+ in &;
Pro7lems with ATM "ongestion "ontrol
;ost traffic not amenable to flow control
E Aoice ` video can not stop generating
Feedbac+ slow
E 0mall cell transmission time v propagation delay
Wide range of applications
E From few +bps to hundreds of ;bps
E Different traffic patterns
1B
E Different networ+ services
<igh speed switching and transmission
E Aolatile congestion and traffic control
Bey Per!ormance Issues1Latency+$peed 2!!ects
'.g. data rate .5/;bps
&a+es %55 - ? bits(:%.5/ - ./=( 62.? - ./)= seconds to insert a cell
&ransfer time depends on number of intermediate switches, switching time and
propagation delay. ssuming no switching delay and speed of light propagation,
round trip delay of 1? - ./)5 sec across 30
dropped cell notified by return message will arrive after source has transmitted
! further cells
!6%1? - ./)5 seconds(:%2.? - ./)= seconds per cell(
6..B - ./1 cells 6 B.2 - ./= bits
i.e. over B ;bits
"ell elay #ariation
For digiti4ed voice delay across networ+ must be small
Rate of delivery must be constant
Aariations will occur
Dealt with by &ime Reassembly of *9R cells %see ne-t slide(
Results in cells delivered at *9R with occasional gaps due to dropped cells
0ubscriber re$uests minimum cell delay variation from networ+ provider
E ,ncrease data rate at 3!, relative to load
E ,ncrease resources within networ+
Time /eassem7ly o! "'/ "ells
Network "ontri7ution to "ell elay #ariation
,n pac+et switched networ+
E Jueuing effects at each intermediate switch
E 2rocessing time for header and routing
7ess for &; networ+s
E ;inimal processing overhead at switches
Fi-ed cell si4e, header format
1?
!o flow control or error control processing
E &; switches have e-tremely high throughput
E *ongestion can cause cell delay variation
9uild up of $ueuing effects at switches
&otal load accepted by networ+ must be controlled
"ell elay #ariation at UNI
*aused by processing in three layers of &; model
E 0ee ne-t slide for details
!one of these delays can be predicted
!one follow repetitive pattern
0o, random element e-ists in time interval between reception by &; stac+ and
transmission
ATM Tra!!ic1/elated Attri7utes
0i- service categories %see chapter 5(
E *onstant bit rate %*9R(
E Real time variable bit rate %rt)A9R(
E !on)real)time variable bit rate %nrt)A9R(
E 3nspecified bit rate %39R(
E vailable bit rate %9R(
E >uaranteed frame rate %>FR(
*haracteri4ed by &; attributes in four categories
E &raffic descriptors
E Jo0 parameters
E *ongestion
E 8ther
Tra!!ic Parameters
&raffic pattern of flow of cells
E ,ntrinsic nature of traffic
0ource traffic descriptor
E ;odified inside networ+
*onnection traffic descriptor
$ource Tra!!ic escriptor
2ea+ cell rate
E 3pper bound on traffic that can be submitted
E Defined in terms of minimum spacing between cells T
E 2*R 6 .:T
E ;andatory for *9R and A9R services
0ustainable cell rate
E 3pper bound on average rate
E *alculated over large time scale relative to T
E Re$uired for A9R
E 'nables efficient allocation of networ+ resources between A9R sources
E 8nly useful if 0*R H 2*R
;a-imum burst si4e
E ;a- number of cells that can be sent at 2*R
E ,f bursts are at ;90, idle gaps must be enough to +eep overall rate below
0*R
1F
E Re$uired for A9R
;inimum cell rate
E ;in commitment re$uested of networ+
E *an be 4ero
E 3sed with 9R and >FR
E 9R ` >FR provide rapid access to spare networ+ capacity up to 2*R
E 2*R E ;*R represents elastic component of data flow
E 0hared among 9R and >FR flows
;a-imum frame si4e
E ;a- number of cells in frame that can be carried over >FR connection
E 8nly relevant in >FR
"onnection Tra!!ic escriptor
,ncludes source traffic descriptor plus")
*ell delay variation tolerance
mount of variation in cell delay introduced by networ+ interface and 3!,
9ound on delay variability due to slotted nature of &;, physical layer
overhead and layer functions %e.g. cell multiple-ing(
Represented by time variable a
*onformance definition
0pecify conforming cells of connection at 3!,
'nforced by dropping or mar+ing cells over definition
&uality o! $er%ice Parameters1ma:"T
*ell transfer delay %*&D(
&ime between transmission of first bit of cell at source and reception of last
bit at destination
&ypically has probability density function %see ne-t slide(
Fi-ed delay due to propagation etc.
*ell delay variation due to buffering and scheduling
;a-imum cell transfer delay %ma-*&D(is ma- re$uested delay for connection
Fraction S of cells e-ceed threshold
Discarded or delivered late
Peak1to1peak "# C "L/
2ea+)to)pea+ *ell Delay Aariation
Remaining %.)S( cells within Jo0
Delay e-perienced by these cells is between fi-ed delay and ma-*&D
&his is pea+)to)pea+ *DA
*DA& is an upper bound on *DA
*ell loss ratio
Ratio of cells lost to cells transmitted
"ell Trans!er elay PF
5/
"ongestion "ontrol Attri7utes
8nly feedbac+ is defined
9R and >FR
ctions ta+en by networ+ and end systems to regulate traffic submitted
9R flow control
daptively share available bandwidth
@ther Attri7utes
9ehaviour class selector %9*0(
E 0upport for ,2 differentiated services %chapter .=(
E 2rovides different service levels among 39R connections
E ssociate each connection with a behaviour class
E ;ay include $ueuing and scheduling
;inimum desired cell rate
Tra!!ic Management Framework
8bMectives of &; layer traffic and congestion control
E 0upport Jo0 for all foreseeable services
E !ot rely on networ+ specific 7 protocols nor higher layer application
specific protocols
E ;inimi4e networ+ and end system comple-ity
E ;a-imi4e networ+ utili4ation
Timing Le%els
*ell insertion time
Round trip propagation time
*onnection duration
7ong term
Tra!!ic "ontrol and "ongestion Functions
5.
Tra!!ic "ontrol $trategy
Determine whether new &; connection can be accommodated
gree performance parameters with subscriber
&raffic contract between subscriber and networ+
&his is congestion avoidance
,f it fails congestion may occur
E ,nvo+e congestion control
Tra!!ic "ontrol
Resource management using virtual paths
*onnection admission control
3sage parameter control
0elective cell discard
&raffic shaping
'-plicit forward congestion indication
/esource Management Using #irtual Paths
llocate resources so that traffic is separated according to service characteristics
Airtual path connection %A2*( are groupings of virtual channel connections
%A**(
Applications
3ser)to)user applications
E A2* between 3!, pair
E !o +nowledge of Jo0 for individual A**
E 3ser chec+s that A2* can ta+e A**sZ demands
3ser)to)networ+ applications
E A2* between 3!, and networ+ node
E !etwor+ aware of and accommodates Jo0 of A**s
!etwor+)to)networ+ applications
E A2* between two networ+ nodes
E !etwor+ aware of and accommodates Jo0 of A**s
52
/esource Management "oncerns
*ell loss ratio
;a- cell transfer delay
2ea+ to pea+ cell delay variation
ll affected by resources devoted to A2*
,f A** goes through multiple A2*s, performance depends on consecutive A2*s
and on node performance
E A2* performance depends on capacity of A2* and traffic characteristics
of A**s
E A** related function depends on switching:processing speed and priority
#""s and #P"s "on!iguration
Allocation o! "apacity to #P"
ggregate pea+ demand
E ;ay set A2* capacity %data rate( to total of A** pea+ rates
'ach A** can give Jo0 to accommodate pea+ demand
A2* capacity may not be fully used
0tatistical multiple-ing
E A2* capacity I6 average data rate of A**s but H aggregate pea+ demand
E >reater *DA and *&D
E ;ay have greater *7R
E ;ore efficient use of capacity
E For A**s re$uiring lower Jo0
E >roup A**s of similar traffic together
"onnection Admission "ontrol
3ser must specify service re$uired in both directions
E *ategory
55
E *onnection traffic descriptor
0ource traffic descriptor
*DA&
Re$uested conformance definition
E Jo0 parameter re$uested and acceptable value
!etwor+ accepts connection only if it can commit resources to support re$uests
Procedures to $et Tra!!ic "ontrol Parameters
"ell Loss Priority
&wo levels re$uested by user
E 2riority for individual cell indicated by *72 bit in header
E ,f two levels are used, traffic parameters for both flows specified
<igh priority *72 6 /
ll traffic *72 6 / C .
E ;ay improve networ+ resource allocation
Usage Parameter "ontrol
32*
;onitors connection for conformity to traffic contract
2rotect networ+ resources from overload on one connection
Done at A2* or A** level
A2* level more important
E !etwor+ resources allocated at this level
Location o! UP" Function
51
Peak "ell /ate Algorithm
<ow 32* determines whether user is complying with contract
*ontrol of pea+ cell rate and *DA&
E *omplies if pea+ does not e-ceed agreed pea+
E 0ubMect to *DA within agreed bounds
E >eneric cell rate algorithm
E 7ea+y buc+et algorithm
E
6eneric "ell /ate Algorithm
#irtual $cheduling Algorithm
55
Leaky 'ucket Algorithm
"ontinuous Leaky 'ucket Algorithm
$ustaina7le "ell /ate Algorithm
8perational definition of relationship between sustainable cell rate and burst
tolerance
3sed by 32* to monitor compliance
0ame algorithm as pea+ cell rate
UP" Actions
*ompliant cell pass, non)compliant cells discarded
5=
,f no additional resources allocated to *726. traffic, *726/ cells *
,f two level cell loss priority cell with"
E *726/ and conforms passes
E *726/ non)compliant for *726/ traffic but compliant for *726/C. is
tagged and passes
E *726/ non)compliant for *726/ and *726/C. traffic discarded
E *726. compliant for *726/C. passes
E *726. non)compliant for *726/C. discarded
Possi7le Actions o! UP"
2:plicit Forward "ongestion Indication
'ssentially same as frame relay
,f node e-periencing congestion, set forward congestion indication is cell headers
E &ells users that congestion avoidance should be initiated in this direction
E 3ser may ta+e action at higher level
A'/ Tra!!ic Management
Jo0 for *9R, A9R based on traffic contract and 32* described previously
!o congestion feedbac+ to source
8pen)loop control
!ot suited to non)real)time applications
E File transfer, web access, R2*, distributed file systems
E !o well defined traffic characteristics e-cept 2*R
E 2*R not enough to allocate resources
3se best efforts or closed)loop control
'est 2!!orts
0hare unused capacity between applications
s congestion goes up"
E *ells are lost
E 0ources bac+ off and reduce rate
E Fits well with &*2 techni$ues %chapter .2(
5B
E ,nefficient
*ells dropped causing re)transmission
"losed1Loop "ontrol
0ources share capacity not used by *9R and A9R
2rovide feedbac+ to sources to adMust load
void cell loss
0hare capacity fairly
3sed for 9R
"haracteristics o! A'/
9R connections share available capacity
E ccess instantaneous capacity unused by *9R:A9R
E ,ncreases utili4ation without affecting *9R:A9R Jo0
0hare used by single 9R connection is dynamic
E Aaries between agreed ;*R and 2*R
!etwor+ gives feedbac+ to 9R sources
E 9R flow limited to available capacity
E 9uffers absorb e-cess traffic prior to arrival of feedbac+
7ow cell loss
E ;aMor distinction from 39R
Feed7ack Mechanisms
*ell transmission rate characteri4ed by"
E llowable cell rate
*urrent rate
E ;inimum cell rate
;in for *R
;ay be 4ero
E 2ea+ cell rate
;a- for *R
E ,nitial cell rate
0tart with *R6,*R
dMust *R based on feedbac+
Feedbac+ in resource management %R;( cells
E *ell contains three fields for feedbac+
*ongestion indicator bit %*,(
!o increase bit %!,(
'-plicit cell rate field %'R(
$ource /eaction to Feed7ack
,f *,6.
E Reduce *R by amount proportional to current *R but not less than *R
'lse if !,6/
E ,ncrease *R by amount proportional to 2*R but not more than 2*R
,f *RI'R set *RH)ma-T'R,;*RU
"ell Flow on A'/
&wo types of cell
E Data ` resource management %R;(
0ource receives regular R; cells
5?
E Feedbac+
9ul+ of R; cells initiated by source
E 8ne forward R; cell %FR;( per %!rm).( data cells
!rm preset E usually 52
E 'ach FR; is returned by destination as bac+wards R; %9R;( cell
E FR; typically *,6/, !,6/ or . 'R desired transmission rate in range
,*RH6'RH62*R
E ny field may be changed by switch or destination before return
ATM $witch /ate "ontrol Feed7ack
'F*, mar+ing
'-plicit forward congestion indication
*auses destination to set *, bit in 'R;
Relative rate mar+ing
0witch directly sets *, or !, bit of R;
,f set in FR;, remains set in 9R;
Faster response by setting bit in passing 9R;
Fastest by generating new 9R; with bit set
'-plicit rate mar+ing
0witch reduces value of 'R in FR; or 9R;
Flow o! ata and /M "ells
A/' Feed7ack % T"P A"B
9R feedbac+ controls rate of transmission
E Rate control
&*2 feedbac+ controls window si4e
E *redit control
R9 feedbac+ from switches or destination
&*2 feedbac+ from destination only
/M "ell Format
5F
/M "ell Format Notes
&; header has 2&6../ to indicate R; cell
8n virtual channel A2, and A*, same as data cells on connection
8n virtual path A2, same, A*,6=
2rotocol id identifies service using R; %R96.(
;essage type
E Direction FR;6/, 9R;6.
E 9'*! cell. 0ource %9!6/( or switch:destination %9!6.(
E *, %6. for congestion(
E !, %6. for no increase(
E Re$uest:c+nowledge %not used in &; forum spec(
A/' Parameters
=/
A/' "apacity Allocation
&; switch must perform"
*ongestion control
;onitor $ueue length
Fair capacity allocation
&hrottle bac+ connections using more than fair share
&; rate control signals are e-plicit
&*2 are implicit
,ncreasing delay and cell loss
"ongestion "ontrol Algorithms1'inary Feed7ack
3se only 'F*,, *, and !, bits
0witch monitors buffer utili4ation
When congestion approaches, binary notification
E 0et 'F*, on forward data cells or *, or !, on FR; or 9R;
&hree approaches to which to notify
E 0ingle F,F8 $ueue
E ;ultiple $ueues
E Fair share notification
$ingle FIF@ &ueue
=.
When buffer use e-ceeds threshold %e.g. ?/b(
E 0witch starts issuing binary notifications
E *ontinues until buffer use falls below threshold
E *an have two thresholds
8ne for start and one for stop
0tops continuous on:off switching
E 9iased against connections passing through more switches
Multiple &ueues
0eparate $ueue for each A* or group of A*s
0eparate threshold on each $ueue
8nly connections with long $ueues get binary notifications
E Fair
E 9adly behaved source does not affect other A*s
E Delay and loss behaviour of individual A*s separated
*an have different Jo0 on different A*s
Fair $hare
0elective feedbac+ or intelligent mar+ing
&ry to allocate capacity dynamically
'.g.
fairshare 6%target rate(:%number of connections(
;ar+ any cells where **RIfairshare
2:plicit /ate Feed7ack $chemes
*ompute fair share of capacity for each A*
Determine current load or congestion
*ompute e-plicit rate %'R( for each connection and send to source
&hree algorithms
E 'nhanced proportional rate control algorithm
'2R*
E '-plicit rate indication for congestion avoidance
'R,*
E *ongestion avoidance using proportional control
*2*
2nhanced Proportional /ate "ontrol Algorithm(2P/"A
0witch trac+s average value of current load on each connection
E ;ean allowed cell rate %;R*(
E ;*R%1(6%.)S(c%;*R%1).( C Sc**R%1(
E **R%1( is **R field in 1th FR;
E &ypically S6.:.=
E 9ias to past values of **R over current
E >ives estimated average load passing through switch
E ,f congestion, switch reduces each A* to no more than D2Fc;*R
D2F6down pressure factor, typically B:?
'RH)minT'R, D2Fc;*RU
Load Factor
dMustments based on load factor
7F6,nput rate:target rate
=2
E ,nput rate measured over fi-ed averaging interval
E &arget rate slightly below lin+ bandwidth %?5 to F/b(
E 7FI. congestion threatened
A*s will have to reduce rate
2:plicit /ate Indication !or "ongestion A%oidance (2/I"A)
ttempt to +eep 7F close to .
Define"
fairshare 6 %target rate(:%number of connections(
A*share 6 **R:7F
6 %**R:%,nput Rate(( c%&arget Rate(
'R,* selectively adMusts A* rates
E &otal 'R allocated to connections matches target rate
E llocation is fair
E 'R 6 ma-Tfairshare, A*shareU
E A*s whose A*share is less than their fairshare get greater increase
"ongestion A%oidance Using Proportional "ontrol ("AP")
,f 7FH. fairshareH)fairsharecminT'R3,.C%.)7F(cRupU
,f 7FI. fairshareH)fairsharecminT'R3,.)%.)7F(cRdnU
'R3I., determines ma- increase
Rup between /./25 and /.., slope parameter
Rdn, between /.2 and /.?, slope parameter
'RF typically /.5, ma- decrease in allottment of fair share
,f fairshare H 'R value in R; cells, 'RH)fairshare
0impler than 'R,*
*an show large rate oscillations if R,F %Rate increase factor( too high
*an lead to unfairness
6/F @%er%iew
0imple as 39R from end system view
E 'nd system does no policing or traffic shaping
E ;ay transmit at line rate of &; adaptor
;odest re$uirements on &; networ+
!o guarantee of frame delivery
<igher layer %e.g. &*2( react to congestion causing dropped frames
3ser can reserve cell rate capacity for each A*
E pplication can send at min rate without loss
!etwor+ must recognise frames as well as cells
,f congested, networ+ discards entire frame
ll cells of a frame have same *72 setting
E *726/ guaranteed delivery, *726. best efforts
6F/ Tra!!ic "ontract
2ea+ cell rate 2*R
;inimum cell rate ;*R
;a-imum burst si4e ;90
;a-imum frame si4e ;F0
*ell delay variation tolerance *DA&
=5
Mechanisms !or supporting /ate 6uarantees
&agging and policing
9uffer management
0cheduling
Tagging and Policing
&agging identifies frames that conform to contract and those that donZt
E *726. for those that donZt
0et by networ+ element doing conformance chec+
;ay be networ+ element or source showing less important frames
E >et lower Jo0 in buffer management and scheduling
E &agged cells can be discarded at ingress to &; networ+ or subse$uent
switch
E Discarding is a policing function
'u!!er Management
&reatment of cells in buffers or when arriving and re$uiring buffering
,f congested %high buffer occupancy( tagged cells discarded in preference to
untagged
Discard tagged cell to ma+e room for untagged cell
;ay buffer per)A*
Discards may be based on per $ueue thresholds
$cheduling
>ive preferential treatment to untagged cells
0eparate $ueues for each A*
E 2er A* scheduling decisions
E '.g. F,F8 modified to give *726/ cells higher priority
0cheduling between $ueues controls outgoing rate of A*s
E ,ndividual cells get fair allocation while meeting traffic contract
"omponents o! 6F/ Mechanism
=1
6F/ "on!ormance e!inition
32* function
E 32* monitors A* for traffic conformance
E &ag or discard non)conforming cells
Frame conforms if all cells in frame conform
E Rate of cells within contract
>eneric cell rate algorithm 2*R and *DA& specified for
connection
E ll cells have same *72
E Within ma-imum frame si4e %;F0(
&o$ 2ligi7ility Test
&est for contract conformance
E Discard or tag non)conforming cells
7oo+ing at upper bound on traffic
E Determine frames eligible for Jo0 guarantee
3nder >FR contract for A*
7oo+ing at lower bound for traffic
Frames are one of"
E !onconforming" cells tagged or discarded
E *onforming ineligible" best efforts
E *onforming eligible" guaranteed delivery
$impli!ied Frame 'ased 6"/A
=5
Unit I#
Integrated and i!!erentiated $er%ices
Introduction
!ew additions to ,nternet increasing traffic
E <igh volume client:server application
E Web
>raphics
E Real time voice and video
!eed to manage traffic and control congestion
,'F& standards
E ,ntegrated services
*ollective service to set of traffic demands in domain
E 7imit demand ` reserve resources
E Differentiated services
*lassify traffic in groups
Different group traffic handled differently
Integrated $er%ices Architecture (I$A)
,2v1 header fields for precedence and type of service usually ignored
&; only networ+ designed to support &*2, 3D2 and real)time traffic
E ;ay need new installation
!eed to support Juality of 0ervice %Jo0( within &*2:,2
E dd functionality to routers
E ;eans of re$uesting Jo0
Internet Tra!!ic 9 2lastic
*an adMust to changes in delay and throughput
'.g. common &*2 and 3D2 application
E ');ail E insensitive to delay changes
E F&2 E 3ser e-pect delay proportional to file si4e
0ensitive to changes in throughput
E 0!;2 E delay not a problem, e-cept when caused by congestion
E Web %<&&2(, &'7!'& E sensitive to delay
!ot per pac+et delay E total elapsed time
E '.g. web page loading time
E For small items, delay across internet dominates
E For large items it is throughput over connection
!eed some Jo0 control to match to demand
==
Internet Tra!!ic 9 Inelastic
Does not easily adapt to changes in delay and throughput
E Real time traffic
&hroughput
E ;inimum may be re$uired
Delay
E '.g. stoc+ trading
Ritter ) Delay variation
E ;ore Mitter re$uires a bigger buffer
E '.g. teleconferencing re$uires reasonable upper bound
2ac+et loss
Inelastic Tra!!ic Pro7lems
Difficult to meet re$uirements on networ+ with variable $ueuing delays and
congestion
!eed preferential treatment
pplications need to state re$uirements
E head of time %preferably( or on the fly
E 3sing fields in ,2 header
E Resource reservation protocol
;ust still support elastic traffic
E Deny service re$uests that leave too few resources to handle elastic traffic
demands
I$A Approach
2rovision of Jo0 over ,2
0haring available capacity when congested
Router mechanisms
E Routing lgorithms
0elect to minimi4e delay
E 2ac+et discard
*auses &*2 sender to bac+ off and reduce load
'nahnced by ,0
Flow
,2 pac+et can be associated with a flow
E Distinguishable stream of related ,2 pac+ets
E From single user activity
E Re$uiring same Jo0
E '.g. one transport connection or one video stream
E 3nidirectional
E *an be more than one recipient
;ulticast
E ;embership of flow identified by source and destination ,2 address, port
numbers, protocol type
E ,2v= header flow identifier can be used but isnot necessarily e$uivalent to ,0
flow
I$A Functions
dmission control
E For Jo0, reservation re$uired for new flow
=B
E R0A2 used
Routing algorithm
E 9ase decision on Jo0 parameters
Jueuing discipline
E &a+e account of different flow re$uirements
Discard policy
E ;anage congestion
E ;eet Jo0
I$A Implementation in /outer
9ac+ground Functions

Forwarding functions
I$A "omponents 9 'ackground Functions
Reservation 2rotocol
E R0A2
dmission control
;anagement agent
E *an use agent to modify traffic control database and direct admission control
Routing protocol
I$A "omponents 9 Forwarding
*lassifier and route selection
E ,ncoming pac+ets mapped to classes
0ingle flow or set of flows with same Jo0
E '.g. all video flows
9ased on ,2 header fields
E Determines ne-t hop
2ac+et scheduler
=?
E ;anages one or more $ueues for each output
E 8rder $ueued pac+ets sent
9ased on class, traffic control database, current and past activity on outgoing port
E 2olicing
I$A $er%ices
&raffic specification %&0pec( defined as service for flow
8n two levels
E >eneral categories of service
>uaranteed
*ontrolled load
9est effort %default(
E 2articular flow within category
&0pec is part of contract
Token 'ucket
;any traffic sources can be defined by to+en buc+et scheme
2rovides concise description of load imposed by flow
E 'asy to determine resource re$uirements
2rovides input parameters to policing function
Token 'ucket iagram
I$A $er%ices 9
6uaranteed $er%ice
ssured capacity level or data rate
0pecific upper bound on $ueuing delay through networ+
E ;ust be added to propagation delay or latency to get total delay
E 0et high to accommodate rare long $ueue delays
!o $ueuing losses
E ,.e. no buffer overflow
'.g. Real time play bac+ of incoming signal can use delay buffer for incoming
signal but will not tolerate pac+et loss
=F
I$A $er%ices 9
"ontrolled Load
&ightly appro-imates to best efforts under unloaded conditions
!o upper bound on $ueuing delay
E <igh percentage of pac+ets do not e-perience delay over minimum transit delay
2ropagation plus router processing with no $ueuing delay
Aery high percentage delivered
E lmost no $ueuing loss
daptive real time applications
E Receiver measures Mitter and sets playbac+ point
E Aideo can drop a frame or delay output slightly
E Aoice can adMust silence periods
&ueuing iscipline
&raditionally first in first out %F,F8( or first come first served %F*F0( at each
router port
!o special treatment to high priority pac+ets %flows(
0mall pac+ets held up by large pac+ets ahead of them in $ueue
E 7arger average delay for smaller pac+ets
E Flows of larger pac+ets get better service
>reedy &*2 connection can crowd out altruistic connections
E ,f one connection does not bac+ off, others may bac+ off more
Fair &ueuing (F&)
;ultiple $ueues for each port
E 8ne for each source or flow
E Jueues services round robin
E 'ach busy $ueue %flow( gets e-actly one pac+et per cycle
E 7oad balancing among flows
E !o advantage to being greedy
dour $ueue gets longer, increasing your delay
E 0hort pac+ets penali4ed as each $ueue sends one pac+et per cycle
FIF@ and F&
Processor $haring
;ultiple $ueues as in FJ
0end one bit from each $ueue per round
E 7onger pac+ets no longer get an advantage
*an wor+ out virtual %number of cycles( start and finish time for a given pac+et
B/
<owever, we wish to send pac+ets, not bits
'it1/ound Fair &ueuing ('/F&)
*ompute virtual start and finish time as before
When a pac+et finished, the ne-t pac+et sent is the one with the earliest virtual
finish time
>ood appro-imation to performance of 20
E &hroughput and delay converge as time increases
"omparison o! FIF@D F& and '/F&
6enerali;ed Processor $haring (6P$)
9RFJ can not provide different capacities to different flows
'nhancement called Weighted fair $ueue %WFJ(
From 20, allocate weighting to each flow that determines how many bots are sent
during each round
E ,f weighted 5, then 5 bits are sent per round
>ives means of responding to different service re$uests
>uarantees that delays do not e-ceed bounds
3eighted Fair &ueue
'mulates bit by bit >20
0ame strategy as 9RFJ
B.
FIF@ % 3F&
e
Proacti%e Packet iscard
*ongestion management by proactive pac+et discard
E 9efore buffer full
E 3sed on single F,F8 $ueue or multiple $ueues for elastic traffic
E '.g. Random 'arly Detection %R'D(
/andom 2arly etection (/2)
Moti%ation
0urges fill buffers and cause discards
8n &*2 this is a signal to enter slow start phase, reducing load
E 7ost pac+ets need to be resent
B2
dds to load and delay
E >lobal synchroni4ation
&raffic burst fills $ueues so pac+ets lost
;any &*2 connections enter slow start
&raffic drops so networ+ under utili4ed
*onnections leave slow start at same time causing burst
9igger buffers do not help
&ry to anticipate onset of congestion and tell one connection to slow down
/2 esign 6oals
*ongestion avoidance
>lobal synchroni4ation avoidance
E *urrent systems inform connections to bac+ off implicitly by dropping pac+ets
voidance of bias to bursty traffic
E Discard arriving pac+ets will do this
9ound on average $ueue length
E <ence control on average delay
/2 Algorithm 9 @%er%iew
*alculate average $ueue si4e avg
if avg H &<min
$ueue pac+et
else if &<min avg < &hma-
calculate probability 2a
with probability 2a
discard pac+et
else with probability .)2a
$ueue pac+et
else if avg &<ma-
discard pac+et
R'D 9uffer
/2 Algorithm etail
B5
B1
i!!erentiated $er%ices ($)
,0 and R0A2 comple- to deploy
;ay not scale well for large volumes of traffic
E mount of control signals
E ;aintenance of state information at routers
D0 architecture designed to provide simple, easy to implement, low overhead
tool
E 0upport range of networ+ services
Differentiated on basis of performance

"haracteristics o! $
3se ,2v1 header &ype of 0ervice or ,2v= &raffic *lass field
E !o change to ,2
0ervice level agreement %07( established between provider %internet
domain( and customer prior to use of D0
E D0 mechanisms not needed in applications
9uild in aggregation
E ll traffic with same D0 field treated same
'.g. multiple voice connections
E D0 implemented in individual routers by $ueuing and forwarding based on
D0 field
0tate information on flows not saved by routers
$er%ices
2rovided within D0 domain
E *ontiguous portion of ,nternet over which consistent set of D0 policies
administered
E &ypically under control of one administrative entity
Defined in 07
E *ustomer may be user organi4ation or other D0 domain
E 2ac+et class mar+ed in D0 field
0ervice provider configures forwarding policies routers
E 8ngoing measure of performance provided for each class
D0 domain e-pected to provide agreed service internally
,f destination in another domain, D0 domain attempts to forward pac+ets
through other domains
E ppropriate service level re$uested from each domain
$LA Parameters
Detailed service performance parameters
E &hroughput, drop probability, latency
*onstraints on ingress and egress points
E ,ndicate scope of service
B5
&raffic profiles to be adhered to
E &o+en buc+et
Disposition of traffic in e-cess of profile
2:ample $er%ices
Jualitative
E " 7ow latency
E 9" 7ow loss
Juantitative
E *" F/b in)profile traffic delivered with no more than 5/ms latency
E D" F5b in)profile traffic delivered
;i-ed
E '" &wice bandwidth of F
E F" &raffic with drop precedence X has higher delivery probability than that
with drop precedence d
D0 Field Detail
7eftmost = bits are D0 codepoint
E =1 different classes available
E 5 pools
-----/ " reserved for standards
E ////// " default pac+et class
E ---/// " reserved for bac+wards compatibility with ,2v1 &80
----.. " reserved for e-perimental or local use
----/. " reserved for e-perimental or local use but may be allocated for
future standards if needed
Rightmost 2 bits unused
"on!iguration iagram
"on!iguration 9 Interior /outers
Domain consists of set of contiguous routers
,nterpretation of D0 codepoints within domain is consistent
B=
,nterior nodes %routers( have simple mechanisms to handle pac+ets based on
codepoints
E Jueuing gives preferential treatment depending on codepoint
2er <op behaviour %2<9(
;ust be available to all routers
&ypically the only part implemented in interior routers
E 2ac+et dropping rule dictated which to drop when buffer saturated
"on!iguration 9 'oundary /outers
,nclude 2<9 rules
lso traffic conditioning to provide desired service
E *lassifier
0eparate pac+ets into classes
E ;eter
;easure traffic for conformance to profile
E ;ar+er
2olicing by remar+ing codepoints if re$uired
E 0haper
E Dropper
$ Tra!!ic "onditioner
Per 0op 'eha%iour 9
2:pedited !orwarding
2remium service
E 7ow loss, delay, MitterG assured bandwidth end)to)end service through domains
E 7oo+s li+e point to point or leased line
E Difficult to achieve
E *onfigure nodes so traffic aggregate has well defined minimum departure rate
'F 2<9
E *ondition aggregate so arrival rate at any node is always less that minimum
departure rate
9oundary conditioners
Per 0op 'eha%iour 9
2:plicit Allocation
0uperior to best efforts
Does not re$uire reservation of resources
Does not re$uire detailed discrimination among flows
3sers offered choice of number of classes
;onitored at boundary node
E ,n or out depending on matching profile or not
,nside networ+ all traffic treated as single pool of pac+ets, distinguished only as in
or out
BB
Drop out pac+ets before in pac+ets if necessary
Different levels of service because different number of in pac+ets for each user
P0' 1 Assured Forwarding
Four classes defined
E 0elect one or more to meet re$uirements
Within class, pac+ets mar+ed by customer or provider with one of three drop
precedence values
E 3sed to determine importance when dropping pac+ets as result of congestion
"odepoints !or AF P0'
B?
Unit #
Protocols !or &o$ $upport
Increased emands
!eed to incorporate bursty and stream traffic in &*2:,2 architecture
,ncrease capacity
E Faster lin+s, switches, routers
E ,ntelligent routing policies
E 'nd)to)end flow control
;ulticasting
Juality of 0ervice %Jo0( capability
&ransport protocol for streaming
/esource /eser%ation 1 Unicast
2revention as well as reaction to congestion re$uired
*an do this by resource reservation
3nicast
E 'nd users agree on Jo0 for tas+ and re$uest from networ+
E ;ay reserve resources
E Routers pre)allocate resources
E ,f Jo0 not available, may wait or try at reduced Jo0
/esource /eser%ation 9 Multicast
>enerate vast traffic
E <igh volume application li+e video
E 7ots of destinations
*an reduce load
E 0ome members of group may not want current transmission
X*hannelsY of video
E 0ome members may only be able to handle part of transmission
9asic and enhanced video components of video stream
Routers can decide if they can meet demand
/esource /eser%ation Pro7lems on an Internet
;ust interact with dynamic routing
E Reservations must follow changes in route
0oft state E a set of state information at a router that e-pires unless refreshed
E 'nd users periodically renew resource re$uests
/esource /e$er#ation Protocol (/$#P) esign 6oals
'nable receivers to ma+e reservations
E Different reservations among members of same multicast group allowed
Deal gracefully with changes in group membership
E Dynamic reservations, separate for each member of group
ggregate for group should reflect resources needed
E &a+e into account common path to different members of group
BF
Receivers can select one of multiple sources %channel selection(
Deal gracefully with changes in routes
E Re)establish reservations
*ontrol protocol overhead,ndependent of routing protocol
/$#P "haracteristics
3nicast and ;ulticast
0imple-
E 3nidirectional data flow
E 0eparate reservations in two directions
Receiver initiated
E Receiver +nows which subset of source transmissions it wants
;aintain soft state in internet
E Responsibility of end users
2roviding different reservation styles
E 3sers specify how reservations for groups are aggregated
&ransparent operation through non)R0A2 routers
0upport ,2v1 %&o0 field( and ,2v= %Flow label field(
ata Flows 1 $ession
Data flow identified by destination
Resources allocated by router for duration of session
Defined by
E Destination ,2 address
3nicast or multicast
E ,2 protocol identifier
&*2, 3D2 etc.
E Destination port
;ay not be used in multicast
Flow escriptor
Reservation Re$uest
E Flow spec
Desired Jo0
3sed to set parameters in nodeZs pac+et scheduler
0ervice class, Rspec %reserve(, &spec %traffic(
E Filter spec
0et of pac+ets for this reservation
0ource address, source prot
Treatment o! Packets o! @ne $ession at @ne /outer
?/
/$#P @peration iagram
/$#P @peration
>., >2, >5 members of multicast group
0., 02 sources transmitting to that group
<eavy blac+ line is routing tree for 0., heavy grey line for 02
rrowed lines are pac+et transmission from 0. %blac+( and 02 %grey(
ll four routers need to +now reservation s for each multicast address
E Resource re$uests must propagate bac+ through routing tree
Filtering
>5 has reservation filter spec including 0. and 02
>., >2 from 0. only
?.
R5 delivers from 02 to >5 but does not forward to R1
>., >2 send R0A2 re$uest with filter e-cluding 02
>., >2 only members of group reached through R1
E R1 doesnZt need to forward pac+ets from this session
E R1 merges filter spec re$uests and sends to R5
R5 no longer forwards this sessionZs pac+ets to R1
E <andling of filtered pac+ets not specified
E <ere they are dropped but could be best efforts delivery
R5 needs to forward to >5
E 0tores filter spec but doesnZt propagate it
/eser%ation $tyles
Determines manner in which resource re$uirements from members of group are
aggregated
Reservation attribute
E Reservation shared among senders %shared(
*haracteri4ing entire flow received on multicast address
E llocated to each sender %distinct(
0imultaneously capable of receiving data flow from each sender
0ender selection
E 7ist of sources %e-plicit(
E ll sources, no filter spec %wild card(
/eser%ation Attri7utes and $tyles
Reservation ttribute
E Distinct
0ender selection e-plicit 6 Fi-ed filter %FF(
0ender selection wild card 6 none
E 0hared
0ender selection e-plicit6 0hared)e-plicit %0'(
0ender selection wild card 6 Wild card filter %WF(
3ild "ard Filter $tyle
0ingle resource reservation shared by all senders to this address
,f used by all receivers" shared pipe whose capacity is largest of resource re$uests
from receivers downstream from any point on tree
,ndependent of number of senders using it
2ropagated upstream to all senders
WF%cfJg(
E c 6 wild card sender
E J 6 flowspec
udio teleconferencing with multiple sites
Fi:ed Filter $tyle
Distinct reservation for each sender
?2
'-plicit list of senders
FF%0.fJhg, 02fJ2g,^(
Aideo distribution
$hared 2:plicit $tyle
0ingle reservation shared among specific list of senders
0'%0., 02, 05, ^fJg(
;ulticast applications with multiple data sources but unli+ely to transmit
simultaneously
/$#P Protocol Mechanisms
&wo message types
E Resv
8riginate at multicast group receivers
2ropagate upstream
;erged and pac+et when appropriate
*reate soft states
Reach sender
E llow host to set up traffic control for first hop
E 2ath
2rovide upstream routing information
,ssued by sending hosts
&ransmitted through distribution tree to all destinations
/$#P 0ost Model
Summary
R0A2 is a transport layer protocol that enables a networ+ to provide differentiated levels
of service to specific flows of data. 8stensibly, different application types have different
performance re$uirements. R0A2 ac+nowledges these differences and provides the
mechanisms necessary to detect the levels of performance re$uired by different appli)
cations and to modify networ+ behaviors to accommodate those re$uired levels. 8ver
time, as time and latency)sensitive applications mature and proliferate, R0A2Ds
capabilities will become increasingly important.
?5
Revie, uestions
&E1s it necessary to migrate a2ay from your existing routing protocol to support
(#3P4
AER0A2 is not a routing protocol. ,nstead, it was designed to wor+ in conMunction with
e-isting routing protocols. &hus, it is not necessary to migrate to a new routing protocol
to support R0A2.
&E1dentify the three (#3P levels of service5 and explain the difference among them6
AER0A2Ds three levels of service include best)effort, rate)sensitive, and delay)sensitive
service. 9est)effort service is used for applications that re$uire reliable delivery rather
than a timely delivery. Rate)sensitive service is used for any traffic that is sensitive to
variation in the amount of bandwidth available. 0uch applications include <.525
videoconferencing, which was designed to run at a nearly constant rate. R0A2Ds third
level of service is delay)sensitive service. Delay)sensitive traffic re$uires timely but not
reliable delivery of data.
&E7hat are the t2o (#3P reservation classes5 and ho2 do they differ4
AE reservation style is a set of control options that defines how a reservation operates.
R0A2 supports two primary types of reservation styles" distinct reservations and shared
reservations. distinct reservation establishes a flow for each sending device in a
session. 0hared reservations aggregate communications flows for a set of senders. 'ach
of these two reservation styles is defined by a series of filters.
&E7hat are (#3P filters4
AE filter in R0A2 is a specific set of control options that specifies operational
parameters for a reservation. R0A2Ds styles include wildcard)filter %WF(, fi-ed)filter
%FF(, and shared)e-plicit %0'( filters.
&E8o2 can (#3P *e used through net2or$ regions that do not support (#3P4
AER0A2 supports tunneling through networ+ regions that do not support R0A2. &his
capability was developed to enable a phased)in implementation of R0A2.
Multiprotocol La7el $witching (MPL$)
Routing algorithms provide support for performance goals
E Distributed and dynamic
React to congestion
7oad balance across networ+
E 9ased on metrics
Develop information that can be used in handling different service
needs
'nhancements provide direct support
E ,0, D0, R0A2
?1
!othing directly improves throughput or delay
;270 tries to match &; Jo0 support
'ackground
'fforts to marry ,2 and &;
,2 switching %,psilon(
&ag switching %*isco(
ggregate route based ,2 switching %,9;(
*ascade %,2 navigator(
ll use standard routing protocols to define paths between end points
ssign pac+ets to path as they enter networ+
3se &; switches to move pac+ets along paths
E &; switching %was( much faster than ,2 routers
E 3se faster technology
e%elopments
,'&F wor+ing group in .FFB, proposed standard 2//.
Routers developed to be as fast as &; switches
E Remove the need to provide both technologies in same networ+
;270 does provide new capabilities
E Jo0 support
E &raffic engineering
E Airtual private networ+s
E ;ultiprotocol support
"onnection @riented &o$ $upport
>uarantee fi-ed capacity for specific applications
*ontrol latency:Mitter
'nsure capacity for voice
2rovide specific, guaranteed $uantifiable 07s
*onfigure varying degrees of Jo0 for multiple customers
;270 imposes connection oriented framewor+ on ,2 based internets
Tra!!ic 2ngineering
bility to dynamically define routes, plan resource commitments based on +nown
demands and optimi4e networ+ utili4ation
9asic ,2 allows primitive traffic engineering
E '.g. dynamic routing
;270 ma+es networ+ resource commitment easy
E ble to balance load in face of demand
E ble to commit to different levels of support to meet user traffic
re$uirements
E ware of traffic flows with Jo0 re$uirements and predicted demand
E ,ntelligent re)routing when congested
#PN $upport
&raffic from a given enterprise or group passes transparently through an internet
?5
0egregated from other traffic on internet
2erformance guarantees
0ecurity
Multiprotocol $upport
;270 can be used on different networ+ technologies
,2
E Re$uires router upgrades
*oe-ist with ordinary routers
&;
E 'nables and ordinary switches co)e-ist
Frame relay
E 'nables and ordinary switches co)e-ist
;i-ed networ+
MPL$ Terminology
MPL$ @peration
7abel switched routers capable of switching and routing pac+ets based on label
appended to pac+et
7abels define a flow of pac+ets between end points or multicast destinations
'ach distinct flow %forward e$uivalence class E F'*( has specific path through
70Rs defined
E *onnection oriented
'ach F'* has Jo0 re$uirements
,2 header not e-amined
E Forward based on label value
MPL$ @peration iagram
?=
2:planation 9 $etup
7abelled switched path established prior to routing and delivery of pac+ets
Jo0 parameters established along path
E Resource commitment
E Jueuing and discard policy at 70R
E ,nterior routing protocol e.g. 802F used
E 7abels assigned
7ocal significance only
;anually or using 7abel distribution protocol %7D2( or enhanced
version of R0A2
2:planation 9 Packet 0andling
2ac+et enters domain through edge 70R
E 2rocessed to determine Jo0
70R assigns pac+et to F'* and hence 702
E ;ay need co)operation to set up new 702
ppend label
Forward pac+et
Within domain 70R receives pac+et
Remove incoming label, attach outgoing label and forward
'gress edge strips label, reads ,2 header and forwards
Notes
;270 domain is contiguous set of ;270 enabled routers
&raffic may enter or e-it via direct connection to ;270 router or from non);270
router
F'* determined by parameters, e.g.
E 0ource:destination ,2 address or networ+ ,2 address
?B
E 2ort numbers
E ,2 protocol id
E Differentiated services codepoint
E ,2v= flow label
Forwarding is simple loo+up in predefined table
E ;ap label to ne-t hop
*an define 2<9 at an 70R for given F'*
2ac+ets between same end points may belong to different F'*
MPL$ Packet Forwarding
La7el $tacking
2ac+et may carry number of labels
7,F8 %stac+(
E 2rocessing based on top label
E ny 70R may push or pop label
3nlimited levels
E llows aggregation of 702s into single 702 for part of route
E *.f. &; virtual channels inside virtual paths
E '.g. aggregate all enterprise traffic into one 702 for access provider to
handleReduces si4e of tables
La7el Format iagram
Time to Li%e Processing
!eeded to support &&7 since ,2 header not read
First label &&7 set to ,2 header &&7 on entry to ;270 domain
&&7 of top entry on stac+ decremented at internal 70R
E ,f 4ero, pac+et dropped or passed to ordinary error processing %e.g. ,*;2(
E ,f positive, value placed in &&7 of top label on stac+ and pac+et forwarded
t e-it from domain, %single stac+ entry( &&7 decremented
E ,f 4ero, as above
E ,f positive, placed in &&7 field of ,p header and
La7el $tack
ppear after data lin+ layer header, before networ+ layer header
&op of stac+ is earliest %closest to networ+ layer header(
!etwor+ layer pac+et follows label stac+ entry with 06.
8ver connection oriented services
E &opmost label value in &; header A2,:A*, field
Facilitates &; switching
E &op label inserted between cell header and ,2 header
E ,n D7*, field of Frame Relay
E !ote" &&7 problem
??
Position o! MPL$ La7el $tack
F2"sD L$PsD and La7els
&raffic grouped into F'*s
&raffic in a F'* transits an ;720 domain along an 702
2ac+ets identified by locally significant label
t each 70R, labelled pac+ets forwarded on basis of label.
E 70R replaces incoming label with outgoing label
'ach flow must be assigned to a F'*
Routing protocol must determine topology and current conditions so 702 can be
assigned to F'*
E ;ust be able to gather and use information to support Jo0
70Rs must be aware of 702 for given F'*, assign incoming label to 702,
communicate label to other 70Rs
Topology o! L$Ps
3ni$ue ingress and egress 70R
E 0ingle path through domain
3ni$ue egress, multiple ingress 70Rs
E ;ultiple paths, possibly sharing final few hops
;ultiple egress 70Rs for unicast traffic
;ulticast
/oute $election
0election of 702 for particular F'*
<op)by)hop
E 70R independently chooses ne-t hop
E 8rdinary routing protocols e.g. 802F
E DoesnZt support traffic engineering or policy routing
'-plicit
E 70R %usually ingress or egress( specifies some or all 70Rs in 702 for
given F'*
E 0elected by configuration,or dynamically
?F
"onstraint 'ased /outing Algorithm
&a+e in to account traffic re$uirements of flows and resources available along
hops
E *urrent utili4ation, e-isting capacity, committed services
E dditional metrics over and above traditional routing protocols %802F(
;a- lin+ data rate
*urrent capacity reservation
2ac+et loss ratio
7in+ propagation delay
La7el istri7ution
0etting up 702
ssign label to 702
,nform all potential upstream nodes of label assigned by 70R to F'*
E llows proper pac+et labelling
E 7earn ne-t hop for 702 and label that downstream node has assigned to
F'*
llow 70R to map incoming to outgoing label
/eal Time Transport Protocol
&*2 not suited to real time distributed application
E 2oint to point so not suitable for multicast
E Retransmitted segments arrive out of order
E !o way to associate timing with segments
3D2 does not include timing information nor any support for real time
applications
0olution is real)time transport protocol R&2
/TP Architecture
*lose coupling between protocol and application layer functionality
E Framewor+ for application to implement single protocol
pplication level framing
,ntegrated layer processing
Application Le%el Framing
Recovery of lost data done by application rather than transport layer
E pplication may accept less than perfect delivery
Real time audio and video
,nform source about $uality of delivery rather than retransmit
0ource can switch to lower $uality
E pplication may provide data for retransmission
0ending application may recompute lost values rather than storing
them
F/
0ending application can provide revised values
*an send new data to Xfi-Y conse$uences of loss
7ower layers deal with data in units provided by application
E pplication data units %D3(
Integrated Layer Processing
dMacent layers in protocol stac+ tightly coupled
llows out of order or parallel functions from different layers
/TP Architecture iagram
/TP ata Trans!er Protocol
&ransport of real time data among number of participants in a session, defined by"
E R&2 2ort number
3D2 destination port number if using 3D2
E R&2 *ontrol 2rotocol %R&*2( port number
Destination port address used by all participants for R&*2 transfer
E ,2 addresses
;ulticast or set of unicast
Multicast $upport
'ach R&2 data unit includes"
0ource identifier
&imestamp
2ayload format
/elays
,ntermediate system acting as receiver and transmitter for given protocol layer
;i-ers
E Receives streams of R&2 pac+ets from one or more sources
E *ombines streams
E Forwards new stream
&ranslators
E 2roduce one or more outgoing R&2 pac+ets for each incoming pac+et
E '.g. convert video to lower $uality
/TP 0eader
F.
/TP "ontrol Protocol (/T"P)
R&2 is for user data
R&*2 is multicast provision of feedbac+ to sources and session participants
3ses same underlying transport protocol %usually 3D2( and different port number
R&*2 pac+et issued periodically by each participant to other session members
/T"P Functions
Jo0 and congestion control
,dentification
0ession si4e estimation and scaling
0ession control
/T"P Transmission
!umber of separate R&*2 pac+ets bundled in single 3D2 datagram
E 0ender report
E Receiver report
E 0ource description
E >oodbye
E pplication specific
/T"P Packet Formats
F2
Packet Fields (All Packets)
Aersion %2 bit( currently version 2
2adding %. bit( indicates padding bits at end of control information, with number
of octets as last octet of padding
*ount %5 bit( of reception report bloc+s in 0R or RR, or source items in 0D'0 or
9d'
2ac+et type %? bit(
7ength %.= bit( in 52 bit words minus .
,n addition 0ender and receiver reports have"
E 0ynchroni4ation 0ource ,dentifier
Packet Fields ($ender /eport)
$ender In!ormation 'lock
!&2 timestamp" absolute wall cloc+ time when report sent
R&2 &imestamp" Relative time used to create timestamps in R&2 pac+ets
0enderZs pac+et count %for this session(
0enderZs octet count %for this session(
Packet Fields ($ender /eport)
/eception /eport 'lock
00R*in %52 bit( identifies source refered to by this report bloc+
Fraction lost %? bits( since previous 0R or RR
*umulative number of pac+ets lost %21 bit( during this session
'-tended highest se$uence number received %52 bit(
E 7east significant .= bits is highest R&2 data se$uence number received from
00R*in
F5
E ;ost significant .= bits is number of times se$uence number has wrapped to 4ero
,nterarrival Mitter %52 bit(
7ast 0R timestamp %52 bit(
Delay since last 0R %52 bit(
/ecei%er /eport
0ame as sender report e-cept"
E 2ac+et type field has different value
E !o sender information bloc+
$ource escription Packet
3sed by source to give more information
52 bit header followed by 4ero or more additional information chun+s
'.g."
/ '!D 'nd of 0D'0 list
. *!;' *anonical name
2 !;'Real user name of source
5 ';,7 'mail address
6ood7ye ('F2)
,ndicates one or more sources no linger active
E *onfirms departure rather than failure of networ+
Application e!ined Packet
'-perimental use
For functions ` features that are application specific
F1