Conception Aero Turbo Machine

Aircraft Design :
Propulsion Systems
Olivier L eonard
University of Li ` ege
Turbomachinery Group
October 2008
October 2008 w I ?
Aircraft Design : Propulsion Systems : Contents
I
Action, Reaction, Propulsion
I
Airbreathing engines
G
Historical Perspectives
G
Jet Engine Classication
G
Jet Engine Performance
G
Installation issues
I
Why jet propulsion did not succeed on the ground ?
October 2008 Slide 1/61 w I ?
Action - Reaction
I
Reaction : action which does not have initiative
I
Newtons law : action opposite reaction of same amplitude
action to be dened (easy for still bodies - less for mobiles)
I
Stone on a support : action and reaction are equal to the stones weight
I
Stone falling down : action and reaction depend upon the rate of decrease
of the stones velocity
I
Stone thrown away : action exerted on the stone
reaction by the stone on the support
support may start moving
Reaction
Application to aircraft propulsion :
I
action (initiative) exerted by a mobile (the engine) on the air (the support)
I
air (the support) moves due to the action
I
reaction exerted by the air on the engine
Action and reaction are independent of the ease with which the body moves in
the medium
Propulsion
I
Natural forces (wind, water stream, gravity, magnetic eld, ...)
provide movement
free and ecological but random and risky
I
Propulsion allows to move independently of natural forces
I
Propulsion may be produced
G
using muscles
G
using sources of energy
(wood, coal, hydrocarbons, electricity, atoms, ...)
noisy, polluting, expensive but fast, reliable, isotropic
I
Propulsion is done by means of an action on a support
support may be xed or moving
Propulsion
I
On the ground : propulsion by friction forces
I
On the water : oating is the rst concern
propulsion by action on water :
rowing, paddle wheels, propellers, jet pumps...
I
In the air : lift is the rst concern - muscles are not sufcient
propulsion by action on air surrounding the engine :
G
piston engines and propellers
G
pulse jet engines
G
ramjet engines
G
gas turbine engines
G
rocket engines
Airbreathing engines : historical perspectives
I
Lightness is the main quality of an engine
steam machines never succeeded
I
Other qualities of an engine are reliability, easy maintenance, low drag,
efciency
Reciprocating engines
I
Wrights engine, 1903 : 4 cylinders in-line, 90 kg, 12 Hp
I
In-line engines have a low drag but must be cooled with liquid
drag of the heat exchangers
I
Rotary cylinders are naturally cooled but noisy, high oil and fuel
consumption, strange inertia effects and high centrifugal forces
I
Radial engines do not need extra cooling
light, simple, robust, less vibrations but higher frontal area
I
The most successful congurations were V12 cylinders and
radial 7 or 9 cylinders (one or several rows)
I
Many breakthroughs were issued for aircraft propulsion :
high-quality fuels, supercharging, cooled valves
I
During World War II power reached 2500 to 5000 Hp
I
At these speeds the cooling system was bringing too much drag
a technological limit was reached
another type of engine was needed
Gas turbines engines
I
Steam cycles worked correctly since end of 19th century
I
Piston engines worked correctly since end of 19th century
I
Gas turbines work according to a continuous process
high temperatures are severely limited
the compression work is close to the available work
the success is much dependent on component efciencies
I
Principles of gas turbines were known since 18th century
I
First modern gas turbine by Stolze, 1872 - no output power
I
First jet engine by Lorin in 1913 - a ramjet
I
First turbojet engine by Guillaume in 1921
I
At that time the ight speeds were too low
jet propuslion uneffective and rejected
I
Stodola and Brown-Boveri improve compressors in the 30ies immediatly
the specic power was 3 times better than for reciprocating engines -
nowadays 20 times
I
The cycle efciency was around 15% (30% for piston engines)
nowadays 40%
I
Patent of Frank Whittle in 1930 for a new turbojet
1st ight in England in 1941 with the Whittle W1 developed by Rolls
Royce and de Havilland
I
von Ohain in Germany is supported by Heinkel
1st ight in august 1939 (4900 N, 361 kg)
I
Messerschmidt and Junkers build the Jumo 004
(8900 N, 750 kg) with cooled turbine blades - lifespan 25 hours
I
1st ight in USA in 1942 with a General Electric derived from Whittles
I
Since then most of the progress are due to advances in
G
materials, forging, casting, manufacturing
G
aerodynamics
G
combustion
G
dynamics of structures
G
control of systems
Airbreathing engines : the pulse jet engine
I
Developed by the Germans for the V1 rocket
I
Auto-regulated intermittent cycle
I
No rotating parts, cheap and simple
I
Noisy and many vibrations
Airbreathing engines : the ram jet engine
I
Invented by a French, developed by the Germans, improved by the
Americans : rst successful ight in 1945
I
Needs a gas generator at low speeds and a variable geometry
I
Efcient at Mach 3+
Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines
I
A continuous process allows very high mass ows
high power output
I
Gas turbine engines are based on a gas generator :
core compressor + combustion chamber(s) + high pressure turbine
powering the compressor
I
Iso-p lines in the (T,s) plane show that there is some enthalpy left behind
the gas generator - existing engines differ by the propulsion system using
this residual enthalpy
I
The simplest conguration is a nozzle but cycle optimization induces
ejection velocities up to 2500 km/h
poor propulsive efciency for most civil and military planes
I
A subsonic propeller is efcient up to 600 km/h
I
There is a need for intermediate solutions !
This is possible since thrust is proportional to mass ow and to gas V
I
Turbojet : simple nozzle
G
rather low mass ow rate but high output velocity
G
used for missiles, drones, Concorde or Lockheed SR71
G
often combined with reheat
I
By-pass engine : part of the mass ow is by-passed after a LP
compressor or a wide single stage fan
G
the ejection velocity and the noise are lowered
G
the propulsive efciency is increased from high subsonic to medium
supersonic
G
compatible with higher mass ows
G
may be combined with reheat
G
this cold ux may generate up to 85% of the total thrust
G
the by-pass air may be released to atmosphere through a nozzle or
mixed with the core hot stream before ejection
I
Turbopropeller : a subsonic propeller is powered through a gearbox by an
additional turbine section
G
almost no thrust is generated by the hot stream exhaust
G
the drag is lower than the drag of a piston engine
G
it is the most efcient solution for the low subsonic range
Airbreathing engines : synthesis
I
Today aircraft propulsion is performed by gas turbines
Ramjet is used only for the highest speeds or for missiles
Piston engines are now used only for the smallest planes
I
Gas turbine engines induced a real disruption
I
Action on air may be measured as an increase of its momentum
the useful power is measured by the variation of the gas kinetic energy
I
A gas turbine engine is made up of
G
a gas generator delivering a high enthalpy mass ow
G
a nozzle turning this enthalpy into kinetic energy
G
a turbine that converts enthalpy into mechanical energy and drives a
fan or a propeller
Thrust production process
Thrust = reaction force exerted by the uid on the engine
I
Compressor blades and diffusers are the main sources of thrust
I
Combustion induces air expansion and a positive thrust
I
Turbine blades and nozzle induce a negative thrust
I
Uninstalled thrust is T = q
m,9
V
9
q
m,0
V
0
+ (p
9
p
0
)A
9
Airbreathing engines : performance
Gas turbine perfomance are described in terms of
I
Installed thrust
A given engine may be installed on different aircrafts
inuences of the pod or the fuselage must be identied
I
Specic thrust = thrust divided by the air mass ow
I
Specic fuel consumption = fuel mass ow divided by thrust
I
Cycle efciency = quality of transformation of fuel heating value into
useful power = rate of production of kinetic energy
I
Propulsive efciency = quality of the transformation of the cycles useful
power into power used to propel the vehicle
I
Component efciencies = intake, compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine, nozzle...
Braytons cycle efciency
The cycle efciency measures the quality of the transformation of the power
contained in the fuel into the useful power
th
=
Useful power
Fuel power
=
q
m
V
2
9
2
V
2
0
2
!
q
me
q
c
1
1
c
I
This denition of cycle efciency is valid only for jet engines
I
Cycle efciency increases with ight speed and pressure ratio
I
Part of the fuel heating value goes to kinetic energy in the gas
I
Part of the fuel heating value goes to enthalpy in the gas
I
Not all of this enthalpy is transformed into useful power
q
m
C
p
(T
9
T
0
) goes to the atmosphere
Propulsive efciency
The propulsive efciency measures the quality of the transformation of the
useful power delivered by the cycle into power utilized for propelling the vehicle
T
=
Propulsive power
Useful power
=
Thrust speed
Useful power
Thrust reads
T = q
m
(V
9
V
0
) + (p
9
p
0
)A
9
| {z }
0
then
T
=
2(V
9
V
0
)V
0
(V
9
V
0
)(V
9
+ V
0
)
=
2V
0
V
9
+ V
0
=
2
1 +
V
9
V
0
Propulsive efciency
The difference between the useful power and the propulsive power is trapped
in the air
P
air
=
1
2
q
m
(V
2
9
V
2
0
) q
m
(V
9
V
0
)V
0
=
1
2
q
m
(V
9
V
0
)
2
I
Improving the propulsive efciency implies lower V
9
V
0
I
Optimizing the cycle efciency means high TET values
I
By-pass air is used to obtain a globally lower ejection speed
I
For ...600... km/h the turboprop is the best solution
I
Propfans use advanced propellers to obtain by-pass ratios 25...50
I
Turbofans are optimized for ...900... km/h with by-pass ratios 5...9
I
By-pass engines can go up to Mach 2.5 with a by-pass ratio 0.5...1
Propulsive efciency
Global efciency
Progress since the Comet
I
A car doubles its consumption from 100 km/h to 150 km/h
I
An aircraft can go higher to go faster
G
a car at 200 km/h burns about 10 liters of fuel per 100 km and per seat
G
same for last piston engine aircrafts (DC.6) ying at 500 km/h
G
same for the early jets (Comet, Caravelle, 707, DC.8) ying at 800 km/h
G
same for modern turbofans at 900 km/h and for Concorde at Mach 2
I
At commercial speeds the consumption per seat and per km has been
reduced by 70 % in 50 years
I
The noise has been reduced by 75 %, the weight by 30 %
Integration issues
I
Lowering the specic fuel consumption may be done by increasing the
cycle and the propulsive efciencies
I
Increasing the propulsive efciency is done by decreasing the
specic thrust
the mass ow must be augmented to keep the thrust level
the size of the engine must be increased
the weight, the drag, the cost increase
I
The integration of the engine is more difcult or impossible
the optimal engine conguration depends on the mission of the vehicle
Integration issues
I
For a long range civil airplane SFC is THE criterion
at high subsonic speeds, the best conguration is a huge ow of air
fairly accelerated through a wide fan (2 to 3 m)
I
For a high speed military plane the engine must be narrow and specic
thrust is THE criterion
the usual conguration is a moderate ow of air strongly accelerated
through a narrow fan with multiple stage
I
Military planes must have a wide range of performance
variable cycles (reheat)
Integration issues
Integration issues
The jet engine is theoretically rather simple but is actually very complex
because of many conicting design goals :
I
high speed air ow through the engine
I
steady high temperature levels active cooling
I
engine must be light
I
consumption must be low even for military engines
I
lifespan up to 20000 hours !
I
easy inspection and maintenance (on plane)
I
total security and reliability
The highest technological capabilities are required
Integration issues
How many engines ?
I
Criteria : performance, reliability, enonomy
I
For a given performance at take-off, 2 large engines are less expensive
than 3 or 4 smaller ones
I
More engines increase the redundancy and the reliability of propulsion
force but also of electrical and auxiliary systems
I
More engines increase the probability of failure
Failed engines 1 2 3 4
Total engines
1 P
2 2 P P
2
3 3 P 3 P
2
P
3
4 4 P 6 P
2
4 P
3
P
4
P = 0.02 ... 0.1
per 1000 hours
Integration issues
I
ETOPS rules have been modied with time
from 60 to 180 minutes (with failure) for a twin engine a/c
twin engine a/c are becoming most popular
I
Twin engine a/c must climb with 50 % thrust, 4 engine a/c with 75 %
2 engine a/c are oversized for cruise : weight, cost, drag (T/W 0.30)
4 engine a/c need more maintenance (T/W 0.20)
3 engine a/c are losing favor because of installation issues (T/W 0.25)
I
Final choice :
G
estimation of T/W
G
selection of an existing engine
G
scale the available engine
Why jet propulsion did not succeed on the ground
A vehicle must be powered at a velocity of 40 m/s
At that speed its drag is 2000 N and the required power is 80 kW
Why not a propeller to power it ?
I
Thrust is proportional to the air mass ow and to V
propeller will be large for a small V
propeller will be small for a substantial V
I
Propeller 1 expels air at 200 m/s, provides a V of 160 m/s and has an
average velocity of 120 m/s
I
Propeller 2 expels air at 50 m/s, provides a V of 10 m/s and has an
average velocity of 45 m/s
I
Mass ow of propeller 2 = 16 mass ow of propeller 1
I
Propeller 2 must be more than 6 times bigger for the same thrust
I
Propeller 1 leaves in the air an energy propotional to (160 m/s)
2
which is dissipated behind the vehicle
I
Propeller 1 consumes 2.667 more fuel than propeller 2
I
Propeller 2 consumes 1.125 more than a direct wheel drive
I
Propeller 2 is too big
I
If a jet engine is used : V
e
600 m/s
the necessary mass ow and engine size would be small
the fuel consumption would be 8 times the standard one
I
If a rocket engine is used with V
e
= 40 m/s the propulsive efciency is
unity but a mass ow of 50 kg/s is required
I
If a rocket engine is used with V
e
= 2000 m/s only 1 kg/s is required but
the propulsive efciency is 0.04
Conclusions
I
Propulsion is always performed by action and reaction
on dry land, on the water or in the air
I
Action on a xed support is always preferable as far as energy is concerned
I
Action on a moving support is done by augmenting the
momentum of the support
I
The moving support consumes a certain amount of energy
I
Minimizing losses implies maximizing the mass ow and
minimizing the momentum increase
I
Working range of the different congurations is limited in terms of altitude
and speed
Flight envelope
Rolls Royce Trent
Pratt & Whitney JT9D
CFM 56
Pratt & Whitney 2037
General Electric GE 90
Leduc 021-1
Leduc 021-2
Leduc 022
Daedalus
Airbreathing engines : piston engines
The pionneers : Lorin
The pionneers : Whittle
The pionneers : von Ohain
The pionneers : Jumo
Airbreathing engines : Evolution
TOC
I
Aircraft Design : Propulsion Systems : Contents O
I
Action - Reaction O
I
Propulsion O
I
Airbreathing engines : historical perspectives O
I
Airbreathing engines : the pulse jet engine O
I
Airbreathing engines : the ram jet engine O
I
Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines O
I
Airbreathing engines : synthesis O
I
Thrust production process O
I
Airbreathing engines : performance O
I
Braytons cycle efciency O
I
Propulsive efciency O
I
Global efciency O
I
Progress since the Comet O
I
Integration issues O
I
Why jet propulsion did not succeed on the ground O
I
Conclusions O

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