Final Theory

Feasibility study of Middle Tadi Khola HEP Page 1
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.1 Need for focus upon Hydropower Projects ................................................................................ 6
1.1.2 History of Hydropower Development ....................................................................................... 6
1.1.3 Hydropower development in Nepal ........................................................................................... 7
1.1.4 Hydropower Potential of Nepal .............................................................................................. 10
1.1.5 Justification for Small Hydropower Project ........................................................................ 12
1.2 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. 14
1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS .................................................................................................... 14
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 15
2.1 POWER SITUATION IN NEPAL ............................................................................................. 15
2.2 LOAD FORECAST .................................................................................................................... 16
2.3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION....................................................................................................... 17
2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF GRID SYSTEM AND POWER TRANSMISSION PLAN ................... 17
2.5 POWER DISTRIBUTION PLAN .............................................................................................. 19
2.6 LEGAL PROVISIONS TO INVEST IN HYDROPOWER SECTORS ..................................... 20
2.7 CHALLENGES AND ISSUES IN NEPALs POWER SECTOR ............................................. 23
2.8 COMPONENTS OF HYDROPOWER ...................................................................................... 24
2.8.1 Weir and Undersluice .............................................................................................................. 24
2.8.1.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 24
2.8.1.2 Design consideration of Diversion weir .................................................................................. 25
2.8.1.2.1 Elevation of Weir crest ....................................................................................................... 25
2.8.1.2.2 Length of Weir and Undersluice ......................................................................................... 26
2.8.1.2.3 Shape of Spillway ............................................................................................................... 27
2.8.1.2.4 Forces acting on Weir ......................................................................................................... 27
2.8.1.2.4.1 Water Pressure ................................................................................................................ 27
2.8.1.2.4.2 Uplift Pressure ................................................................................................................ 28

2.8.1.2.4.3 Weight of Weir................................................................................................................ 28
2.8.1.2.5 Modes of failure and Criteria for structural stability........................................................... 28
2.8.1.2.5.1 Overturning about toe ..................................................................................................... 28
2.8.1.2.5.2 Compression or Crushing ................................................................................................ 29
2.8.1.2.5.3 Sliding ............................................................................................................................. 29
2.8.2 Intake Structure ....................................................................................................................... 30
2.8.2.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 30
2.8.2.2 Design considerations of intake .............................................................................................. 31
2.8.3 Gravel Trap ............................................................................................................................. 32
2.8.3.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 32
2.8.3.2 Design Consideration .................................................................................................................. 32
2.8.4 Approach Canal....................................................................................................................... 33
2.8.4.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 33
2.8.4.2 Design Consideration .............................................................................................................. 33
2.8.5 Settling Basin .......................................................................................................................... 34
2.8.5.1 Design Consideration .............................................................................................................. 34
2.8.5.2 Sediment Flushing System ...................................................................................................... 35
2.8.6 Penstock pipe .......................................................................................................................... 35
2.8.6.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 35
2.8.6.2 Design Considerations ................................................................................................................ 37
2.8.6.2.1 Owners Requirement .......................................................................................................... 37
2.8.6.2.2 Choice of materials .............................................................................................................. 37
2.8.6.2.3 Site-Specific Requirements .................................................................................................. 38
2.8.6.2.4 Preliminary Study ................................................................................................................ 38
2.8.6.2.5 Type of installation .............................................................................................................. 39
2.8.6.2.6 Conditions for selection of Pipeline ..................................................................................... 39
2.8.6.2.7 Alignment ............................................................................................................................ 40
2.8.6.3 Economic Diameter .................................................................................................................... 40
2.8.6.4 Determination of Economic Diameter or Optimizing Penstock Diameter.............................. 41
2.8.6.6 Economic Diameter Equations ................................................................................................ 42
2.8.6.7 Water Hammer ........................................................................................................................ 44
2.8.6.8 Calculation of Head Losses ..................................................................................................... 44

2.8.6.9 Bifurcation ................................................................................................................................... 44
2.8.7 Anchor Block and Support Piers ............................................................................................. 45
2.8.7.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 45
2.8.7.1.1 Location of Anchor Block .................................................................................................... 45
2.8.7.2 Design Considerations ............................................................................................................ 45
2.8.7.3 Mode of failure and safety against .......................................................................................... 46
2.8.7.4 Support Piers or Side Blocks ...................................................................................................... 46
2.7.7.5 Provision of Expansion joints ..................................................................................................... 47
2.8.8 Turbine .................................................................................................................................... 47
2.8.8.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 47
2.8.8.2 Selection of turbine ..................................................................................................................... 48
2.8.8.2.2 Specific speed: ..................................................................................................................... 48
2.8.9 Powerhouse ............................................................................................................................. 49
2.8.10 Tailrace ................................................................................................................................... 50
2.8.10.2 Design Consideration ............................................................................................................ 50
2.8.11 Transmission Line ................................................................................................................... 51
2.8.11.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 51
2.8.11.2 Design Consideration .......................................................................................................... 51
3. DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT ....................................................................................................... 53
3.1 LOCATION OF PROJECT ........................................................................................................ 53
3.2 ACCESSIBILITY ....................................................................................................................... 53
3.3 TOPOGRAPHY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY ................................................................................ 53
3.4 CLIMATE ................................................................................................................................... 53
3.5 AVAILABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS .......................................................... 54
4. HYDROLOGY AND GEOLOGY ................................................................................................. 55
4.1 HYDROLOGY ........................................................................................................................... 55
4.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 55
4.1.2 Collection of hydrological data ............................................................................................... 56
4.1.3 Precipitation ............................................................................................................................ 57
4.1.4 Discharge and Water Level ..................................................................................................... 57
4.1.5 Estimation of High Flood Levels ............................................................................................ 58
4.1.6 Recommended flood flow ....................................................................................................... 61

4.1.7 Establishment of design discharge foe power calculation ...................................................... 62
4.1.8 Rating curve ............................................................................................................................ 63
4.1.9 Suspended matter and bed load ............................................................................................... 63
4.1.10 Estimation of Downstream Water Rights ............................................................................... 64
4.2 GEOLOGY ................................................................................................................................. 65
4.2.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 65
4.2.2 Geology of Nepal .................................................................................................................... 66
4.2.3 Objective of Geological Study ................................................................................................ 68
4.2.4 Scope of geological study ....................................................................................................... 68
4.2.5 Regional Geology ................................................................................................................... 68
4.2.6 General geology and Geomorphology of the project area ...................................................... 71
4.2.7 Soil Types ............................................................................................................................... 71
4.2.8 Joints ....................................................................................................................................... 72
4.2.9 Project area geology ................................................................................................................ 72
4.2.10 Engineering geology of the project area ................................................................................. 73
5. POWER OUTPUT AND ENERGY GENERATION .................................................................... 77
5.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 77
5.2 POWER TYPE ............................................................................................................................ 77
5.2.1 Firm Power .............................................................................................................................. 77
5.2.2 Secondary Power..................................................................................................................... 77
5.3 TYPES OF HEAD ...................................................................................................................... 78
5.3.1 Gross head ............................................................................................................................... 78
5.3.2 Net head .................................................................................................................................. 78
5.4 OVERALL EFFICIENCY .......................................................................................................... 78
5.5 INSTALLED CAPACITY .......................................................................................................... 79
6. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND COST ESTIMATION ................................................................ 80
6.1 COST ESTIMATION ................................................................................................................. 80
6.2 POWER-ENERGY STUDY AND REVENUE CALCULATION ............................................ 80
6.3 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS........................................................................................................... 81
6.3.1 Pay-Back Period ...................................................................................................................... 82
6.3.2 Benefit-Cost Ratio................................................................................................................... 82
6.3.3 Internal rate of return .............................................................................................................. 82

6.3.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 83
7. PROJECT PLANNING AND SCHEDULING .............................................................................. 84
7.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 84
7.2 PLANNING ................................................................................................................................ 84
7.3 PHASES OF CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................................ 85
7.4 TIME MANAGEMENT IN PROJECT ...................................................................................... 85
7.5 PROJECT SCHEDULING ......................................................................................................... 85
7.6 PLANNING AND SCHEDULING OF MIDDLE TADI KHOLA HEP ................................... 86
8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .............................................................................. 87
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................... 88


1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.1.1 Need for focus upon Hydropower Projects
The requirement of energy is increasing day by day while the resources from which they are
generated are overall constant and takes longer time for regeneration. So this is limiting the
supply. The demand of more and more energy has pronounced negative impact on the
environment, natural resources, etc. The depletion of non-renewable resources and
exhaustive source of energy may invite the energy crisis in the future. It is very essential that
the energy production must meet the concept of sustainable development.
Hydropower is the most common and reliable renewable source of energy which is
abundantly available in the nature. It is the energy that comes from the force of moving water
without reducing its quantity or quality. Hydropower means clean and cheap energy for
today and for tomorrow. It is beneficial for multipurpose uses such as irrigation, water supply
etc. Hydroelectricity offers a significant contribution to development and is environmental
friendly. Because of abundant water resources in Nepal, there is huge possibility of
hydropower power production. Since the large hydropower projects require larger amount of
fund and time period small hydropower project are more sustainable from all respects in the
present scenario.

1.1.2 History of Hydropower Development
The use of energy generated from water has been started since the very beginning of the
human civilization. Nearly 2000 years ago Greeks used water to grind wheat into flour. There
are other evidences of it in Roman civilization as well. In the 1700s, hydropower was
broadly used for milling of lumber and grain and for irrigation purposes while the actual
development and use of electrical energy started after 1880. In 1878 the world's first
hydroelectric power scheme was developed
at Cragside in Northumberland, England by William George Armstrong. Within the next 20
years roughly about 300 hydropower plants were operational around the world. The
invention of the hydraulic reaction turbine also created sudden expansion of hydropower. By
1900, 40% of the United States electricity was provided by hydropower. However, in early

19
th
century, progress in the hydropower development was slow because of the less
efficiency in power transmission over the long distance. The pace of hydropower
development increased dramatically after 1930. In the former Soviet Union, hydropower was
considered synonymous with industrialization and economic prosperity after 1920. United
States also made different policies regarding the water based project to create jobs and to
stimulate economic recovery.
After 2
nd
World War, African and Asian nations also used hydropower power to meet energy
and water needs of their countries and many large hydropower projects were built in India,
Pakistan, and Egypt between 1950 and 1980.

1.1.3 Hydropower development in Nepal
The development of hydropower started some hundred years ago but has not been very
encouraging. The history of hydropower development in Nepal can be traced to 1911. The
first hydropower of Nepal was 500kW Pharping Hydropower Project which was followed by
Morang hydro in 1918. After the first approach in hydropower development in Nepal in
1911, the progressive development was gradual only after the Sundarijal with capacity of
600kW and Panauti with capacity of 2400kW hydropower stations came into operation in
1934 and 1940 respectively.
Nepal has a huge potential of hydropower development, however, the development has
always been disturbed because of the economical condition. There were many large projects
that couldnt come into action because of the larger fund required for it. So because of this,
many small and micro hydropower has come into action. The establishment of Small hydel
development board in 1975 and Nepal Micro Hydropower Development Association in 1992
was another milestone in development of hydropower. Some of such hydropower are Jhupre
with capacity of 345kW, Jumla with capacity of 200kW, Doti with capacity 200kW
established during 1975 to 1985. Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) was established in 1985
which was responsible for generation, transmission, and distribution of electric power
brought the revolution in hydropower development.
According to 1960, all hydropower stations were constructed through grant aid from friendly
countries like the USSR (Panauti) India (Trisuli, Devighat, Gandak, and Surajpura Koshi).
The major donor countries in those periods were Japan, Germany, Norway, South Korea,

Canada, Finland, Denmark, Sweden and USA. The financial lending agencies were World
Bank, Asian Development Bank, Japanese Bank for International Cooperation, Saudi Fund
for Development etc. In 1992 Hydropower Development Policy was formulated by the
government of Nepal that allowed participation of private sector in hydropower development.
This policy was later replaced by Hydropower Development Policy 2001 that allowed further
movement to active participation of private sectors.
In the 8
th
Plan (1992/1997) 3.2 MW of power was generated. According to the 9
th
Plan
(1997/2002) the targeted power to be generated was 293MW but only 261MW of power was
generated with success percentage of 89.07% which was quite a good performance. While in
10
th
Plan (2002/2007) the targeted capacity was 314MW out of which only 13.26% was
generated i.e. 41.63MW. And according to the Interim Plan (2007/2010) the targeted power
to be generated was 105MW but only 82MW of power was generated with success
percentage of 78.09%.
Development of hydropower in Nepal is a complex task as it faces numerous challenges and
obstacles. The hydropower development has been seriously affected by the inefficiency,
politicization and mismanagement in state owned electricity utility-(NEA) as well as in its
line ministry. Neither NEA, nor its line ministry has ever created an investment friendly
environment to foster a private as well as community development of hydropower in Nepal.
Moreover, Government of Nepal lacks serious vision for the short-term as well as long term
hydropower development in Nepal. Other than this, lack of capital, high cost of technology,
and lower load factors due to lower level of productive end-use of electricity and high
technical and non technical losses have also attributed for the low level of development in
this field. However, hydropower business can be a great way for Nepal to progress - It has
the potential to uplift poverty, provide electricity to every household and even allow Nepal to
sell electricity to other countries. Popularity of Hydropower comes closer to becoming
Nepal's third most important business for earning foreign-revenue and every year, lots of
foreign companies visit Nepal for project studies.


Legends of the Power Development in Nepal
Major Power Plants in Operation
S.N. Power Plant
Capacity
(MW)
Annual Energy
(GWh) Owned By Type
1 Trisuli 24 292 NEA ROR
2 Sunkoshi 10 66 NEA ROR
3 Gandak 15 53 NEA ROR
4 Kulekhani 1 60 164 NEA STO
5 Devighat 14.1 13 NEA ROR
6 Kulekhani 2 32 96 NEA STO
7 Marsyangdi 69 519 NEA PROR
8 Puwa 6.2 41 NEA ROR
9 Modi 14.8 87 NEA ROR
10 Kaligandaki 144 791 NEA PROR
11 Andhi Khola 5 38 BPC ROR
12 Jhimruk 12 81 BPC ROR
13 Khimti 60 353 HPL ROR
14 Bhotekoshi 36 246 BKPC ROR
15 Indrawati 7.5 1.2 SHC ROR
16 Chilime 20 102 CVC PROR
17 Piluwa 2.6 18 AVHCO ROR
19 Chaku Khola 1.5 14.5
Alliance
Power
20 Small Hydro 14.2 NEA ROR
21
Small Hydro
Isolated 4.53 26 NEA ROR
22 Microhydro 14.5
Total 762
Table (1-i): Major Power Plants in Operation


Major Power plants under construction
S.N Power Plant Capacity(MW) Owned By
1 Chamelia 30 NEA
2 Upper Tamakoshi 456 NEA
3 Middle Bhotekoshi 102 MVJCL
4 Bhairabkunda 3 BHPL
5 Upper Modi Khola 25 GITEC
6 Rahughat 30 NEA
7 Khudi 4 KHL
8 Upper Seti 127 NEA
9 Mai 22 SMHPL
10 Kulekhani III 14 NEA
11 Kabeli A 30 ROR
Table (1-ii): Major Power Plants under construction

1.1.4 Hydropower Potential of Nepal
Nepal land is blessed with enormous amount of Water, sources of which comes from the
mighty Himalayan Range. The rivers in Nepal are mostly originated from Himalayas of
Tibetan plateaus. Due to steep topography, abundant precipitation and perennial nature of
most of the rivers; there exists tremendous hydropower potential in Nepal. The theoretical
potential is estimated to be about 83GW out of which 42GW has been considered as
financially viable and 44GW as technically viable. There are approximately 6000 large and
small rivers identified in the territory of Nepal carrying about 174*10
9
m
3
of surface runoff
annually which is 0.5% of the total surface runoff of the world.


Basin wise Hydropower Potential of Nepal
River
Basin
Capacity on small
river courses
Capacity on
Major River
Courses
Gross
Total
(GW)
Economic
potential
(GW)
Sapta
Koshi
3.6 18.75 22.35 10.86
Sapta
Gandaki
2.7 17.95 20.65 5.27
Karnali
and
Mahakali
3.5 32.68 36.18 25.1
Southern
Rivers
1.04 3.07 4.11 0.88
Total 10.84 72.45 83.29 42.14
Table (1-iii): Basin wise hydropower potential of Nepal

Identified Potential Hydropower Project
S.N. Project Capacity(MW) Type
1 West Seti 750 Storage
2 Budi Gandaki 600 Storage
3 Kali Gandaki II 660 Storage
4 Lower Arun 308 PROR
5 Upper Arun 335 PROR
6 Karnali Chisapani 10800 Storage
7 Arun III 900 ROR
8 Upper Karnali 900 PROR
9 Pancheswor 6480 Storage
10 Thulothunga 25 ROR
11 Tamor/Mewa 100 PROR
12 Dudh Khosi 300 Storage

13 Budi Gandaki 20 ROR
14 Likhu IV 51 PROR
15
Upper Marsyangdi
II 121 PROR
16 Andhi khola 180 Storage
17 Khimti II 27 ROR
18 Upper Modi A 42 ROR
19 Lantang Khola 218 Storage
20 Madi Ishaneshwor 86 Storage
21 Kankai 60 Storage
Table (1-iv): I dentified Potential Hydropower Project

1.1.5 Justification for Small Hydropower Project
According to the power output NEA has classified the hydropower into the followings
groups:
I. Micro Hydro Power Plant: Less than 100 KW
II. Mini Hydro Power Plant: 100 KW 1MW
III. Small Hydro Power Plant: 1MW 10 MW
IV. Medium Hydro Power Plant: 10 MW 300 MW
IV. Large Hydro Power Plant : More than 300 MW

For a developing country like Nepal hydro power project is a big one as it requires lots of
manpower and money. Small hydropower is more advantageous than large and micro
hydropower in Nepal as the cost of large hydropower is very high. Also the losses in micro
hydro are very high which makes per unit cost very high. So the Small Hydropower is a best
choice in context of Nepal. Also it produces electricity at competitive price. Small
hydropower ranges from 1MW 10 MW for which the head and discharge requires for it is
also easily available.

Unlike large hydropower, Small-hydro power mainly targets the rural areas which usually are
not connected to the grid and thus promotes rural industrial growth and improvement in the
general welfare of the people. The Impact of small hydropower on environment is minimal if
sufficient precautions are taken. For example, the dams built for some run-of-the-river small
hydropower projects are very small and impound little water - many projects do not require a
dam at all. Negative side effects associated with dams such as oxygen depletion, increased
temperature, decreased flow, and interference with upstream migration like fish are not
problems for many run-of-the-river projects.
The investments required for the Small hydropower are within Nepalese entrepreneurs, so
this encourages involvement of local people in this field. The involvement of the local people
minimizes the social problems for the construction. By the Year 2001, number of major
hydropower projects completed was 18 and number of projects proposed was 28. And by the
same period, over 45 Small hydropower projects were located throughout the country,
providing electricity to otherwise rural areas such Dhading, Dolpa, Helambu. Hence small
hydropower is best suited to produce electricity in Nepal.


1.2 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this project is to analyze and design the suitable hydropower effectively and
efficiently and also to tackle the practical problems that arise according to the field condition
and to enhance the skill of engineering.
The main objectives of the project are as follows:
To fulfill the partial requirement of the final year project for the completion of
Bachelors Degree in Civil Engineering.
To analyze the geo-hydrological situation of the site.
To prepare the layout of the project at feasibility level.
To design the hydraulic components of the hydropower plant at the site.
To familiarize the practical problems likely to face while designing and under taking
such projects.
1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
The main scopes of the project undertaken are as follows:
To work throughout the project under the supervision of supervisors from Kathmandu
University and Sanima Hydro & Engineering Pvt. Ltd.
To collect and analyze the hydrological and geological data of the site.
To assess the site condition.
To design the hydraulic components of the hydropower.
To prepare a volume of comprehensive project report.
The following are the limitations of the project:
Detailed survey data were not available so all the design are based on the study of
topographical map and digital map of the site location.
Only one day visit was made at the site so detailed hydrological and geological data
could not be collected and had to rely on the data from our host organization.
The designs were carried out referring to several materials due to lack of unified
guidelines. So the design outputs may not fulfill all the standards.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 POWER SITUATION IN NEPAL
At present, the Integrated Nepal Power System (INPS) has a total installed capacity of some
706MW of which 652 (92%) is generated from hydro resources. The installation of total
installed capacity is shown in figure below:
Source MW % of Total
Major Hydro (NEA) - grid connected 472.99 67
Small Hydro (NEA) - isolated 4.54 0.7
Total hydro (NEA) 477.53 67.7
Hydro (IPP) 174.53 24.7
Total hydro (Nepal) 652.06 92.4
Thermal (NEA) 53.41 7.6
Solar (NEA) 0.1 0
Total capacity including private and
others 705.57 100

Table (2-i): I nstalled Capacity of Nepal

The power sector presents the most severe infrastructure constraint for economic growth. In
the fiscal year 2010/2011, peak demand was 946 MW, versus 885MW in the prior year. In
the same fiscal year, annual energy demand increased 10% from the previous year to
4833GWh of which 982GWH (about 20%of the demand) was curtailed as loadshedding.
Domestic generation accounted for 3,157GWh, and 694GWh was met with net imports from
India.17 Thermal power generation represents less than 1% of grid-connected capacity.This
represents some improvement over the 2008/2009 fiscal year when system capacity shortage
was about 50% of the demand at the peak-load (813 MW) period during the winter months.
System losses were over 28% in fiscal year 2010/2011, an increase from 26.2% in fiscal year
2008/2009.
Demand is projected to continue growing at 7.6% annually until 2020. Due to the shortfall in
power delivery capacity, the NEA introduced scheduled service interruptions (load shedding)

of 12 hours per day in 2010. These conditions provide a major opportunity for supply side
and demand side energy efficiency improvements, as well as for use of other renewable
energy (RE) sources to provide immediate relief to the grid.
The peak load in Nepal occurs during the winter when the run-of-river power plants generate
at a lower capacity due to low river flows. The peak demand met by NEA rose steadily from
603 MW in 2006 to 946 MW in 2011, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9.4%.
Likewise, the total available energy increased from 2,781GWh to 3,858GWh at a CAGR of
6.8% during the same period. The total number of consumers increased at a CAGR of 10.0%
from 1.28 million in 2006 to 2.05 million in 2011, of which 95% comprise domestic
connections.
Electricity sales by NEA increased from 2,033 GWh in 2006 to 2,735 GWh in 2011 at a
CAGR of 6.1%. The domestic sector accounted for 43% of the total consumption in 2011,
followed by the industrial sector at 38%, commercial (7.5%), non-commercial (4.0%), street
lighting (2.4%), water supply & irrigation (2.0%), community sales (1.7%), and bulk supply
to India (1.1%).
2.2 LOAD FORECAST
The energy and demand forecast for years 2010-11 to 2027-28 is provided in Figure below.
Electricity demand is forecast to reach about 3,679 MW in year 2027-28 (medium growth
scenario) which is an increase of some 2,800 MW from the present peak demand. The energy
forecast indicates an energy output of 17,404GWh by 2027-28.
Meeting the projected demand presents several challenges. Investment in generation
transmission and distribution is insufficient, and private investors and development partner
have been reluctant to invest in the power sector because of several factors including,
governance and institutional structures, which need strengthening; lack of institutional
arrangements to mobilize the private sector; limited availability of domestic funds; relatively
low consumer tariffs; technical and commercial losses; a financially stressed public sector
utility; and inadequate human resource capacity.

2.3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Total energy consumption in Nepal in the year 2008-09 was about 9.4 million tons of oil
equivalents (401 million GJ). As can be seen from the Figure, only 12% of energy
consumption is from commercial energy sources such as petroleum and electricity. Petroleum
products, which are imported, and account for about 8% of the total energy consumed, and
electricity represented only 2% of the total energy consumption in 2010.

Figure (2-i): Energy Consumption of Nepal

2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF GRID SYSTEM AND POWER TRANSMISSION PLAN
At present, the INPS consists of 1,132 Km of 132 KV single circuit, 412.1 Km of 132KV
double circuit, 231.46 Km of 66 KV single circuit, 161.3 Km of 66 KV double circuit, 22Km
of 66 KV and 132 KV double circuit, 3.37 Km of 66 KV four circuit and 2,362Km of 33 KV
single circuit transmission line. Total substation capacity of the system is 902.45 MVA. In
the field of transmission, NEA is operating at system voltage levels of 132 KV and
66KV.Only about 35 percent people, who are receiving power from the national grid, are
facing uncertain hours of power cuts. However, only seven percent of the population gets the
power from alternative energy sources, including solar, micro-hydro and others. There is no
access to power for the 58 percent of population.
Woody biomass
and animal
waste
87%
Commercial
energy(petroleu
m and
electricity)
12%
Small RE
1%

Nepal Electricity Authority is the sole institution responsible for construction, generation,
transmission and distribution of power; it is also given the authority to construct the east-west
transmission lines. However, the present state of NEA is that it is unable to complete its
task. NEA is now busy to construct 592 MW project, including 456 MW Tamakoshi. Due to
the political instability and poor planning or to be said poor implementation, Nepal's power
sector has been passing through a critical stage. Although electricity is one of the necessary
ingredients for the overall development of the country, the state, government and NEA have
rarely shown any interest in the transmission lines. If Nepal's economy, had a capacity to
absorb 11500 MW (peak hour), it would have required 845 KM long 400 KV lines, the total
cost for which would have been Rs. 41 billion and for 612 north south 400KV would require
Rs. 33 billion, according to the Twenty Years Power Generation Report.
NEA is now busy to construct 592 MW project, including 456 MW Tamakoshi. Due to the
political instability and India's apathy, Nepal's power sector has been passing through a
critical stage. Although electricity is one of the necessary ingredients for the overall
development of the country, the state, government and NEA have rarely shown any interest
in the transmission lines. Over the period of 100 years, Nepal has built just 981 kilometers
circuit of transmission lines. If Nepal's economy, had a capacity to absorb 11500 MW (peak
hour), it would have required 845 KM long 400 KV lines, the total cost for which would
have been Rs. 41 billion and for 612 north south 400 kV would require Rs. 33 billion,
according to the Twenty Years Power Generation Report.
The corridor transmission line projects include Kabeli Damak 132, Kosi corridor
(Bashantapur-Kusha) 220 kV, Katari-Okhaldhunga, Solu, Singati-Lamosanghu,Sunkosi-
Dolkha,Ramecchap Garjyan-Khimti, Middle Marsyangdi-Manang, Kaligandaki 220 KV,
Katari-Okhaldhunga-Solu, Singati-Lamosanghu, Sunkosi-Dolkha, Ramecchap-Garjyan-
Khimit, Middle Marsyangdi-Manang, Karnali Corridor (Lamki-Upper Karnali)132 kV.
Under the absorption project are Thanko-Chapagaun-Bhaktapur, 132 kV, Syangja132
substation, Kamane Substation, Kushum-Hapure 132 kV transmission line, Butwal-
Kohalpur, Chapali 132, Matatirtha 132 kV station. Similarly, the primary phase of project
include Bajhang-Dipayal-Attariya Transmission line, Hapure-Tulsipur Transmission line
Surkhet-Dailekh-Jumla Transmission like, Kaligandai-Gulmi (Jhimruk)132 kV Transmission
line, Hetauda Butwal 400 KV Transmission line, Butwal-Lamki 400 kV Transmission line

and Lamki-Mahendranagar 400 kV Transmission line. Without construction of transmission
lines, one cannot expect any private investment and even NEA cannot build any project. For
instance, a total project cost includes the road construction and transmission line. The
government has no plan to construct the transmission line in the attractive power generation
sites like roads. If there are sites with cheap power generation, the government should
construct the transmission line. The government has already issued the license to public and
private sector with promises for over 17,000 MW. However, there is no transmission line in
most of the areas.

2.5 POWER DISTRIBUTION PLAN
The fact that about 85% of the population is not getting electricity as a source of energy
shows the need to extend distribution over Nepal. So, the distribution of electricity should be
done strategically. NEA has taken systematic studies of carrying out rural electrification and
distribution system reinforcement (DSR) feasibility on district wise basis.The organizational
restructuring of NEA in FY 2010/11 split the Distribution and Consumer Services (DCS)
Business Group into two Business Groups: DCS, East and DCS, West to manage the overall
distribution and consumer services in more effective and better way.
The Distribution and Consumer Services, West (DCSW) Business Group is entrusted with
the key responsibility of overall management of electricity distribution network of NEA in
Lumbini, Ganadaki, Bheri, Rapti , Dhaulagiri, Seti , Karnali and Mahakali zones of Nepal.
The responsibilities of DCS, West include construction, operation, maintenance,
rehabilitation and expansion of the network up to the 33 kV voltage levels and consumer
services such as new consumer connections, meter reading, billing, and revenue collection. It
is also entrusted with the work of operation and maintenance of off grid small hydro power
plants. DCS West is the second largest business group of NEA in terms of number of
employees and business activities. Approximately 18% of the total staffs of NEA is
employed in DCS, West. Also, DCS, West is on the forefront to earn revenue for sustaining
operation and maintenance and development activities of NEA.
The Distribution and Consumer Services, East (DCSE) Business Group is entrusted with the
key responsibility of overall management of electricity distribution network of NEA in

Mechi, Kosi, Sagarmatha, Janakpur, Narayani and Bagmati zones of Nepal. The
responsibilities of DCS East include construction, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation and
expansion of the network up to the 33 kV voltage levels and consumer services such as new
consumer connections, meter reading, billing, and revenue collection with the jurisdiction of
its territory. It is also entrusted with the work of operation and maintenance of off grid small
hydro power plants. DCS East is the largest business group of NEA in terms of number of
employees and business activities.
2.6 LEGAL PROVISIONS TO INVEST IN HYDROPOWER SECTORS
Hydropower industry is one of the major industries with wider scope in Nepal. For an
industry to prosper there should be support of government policies and legal provisions. Only
the potential cannot do the development of a nation if the policies cannot be harnessed.
Clearly defined conditions and attractive policy are always essential to harness the
innumerous resources. Realizing this fact, Nepal Government has developed certain policies.

a. Why to invest in Nepal?
Attractive Investment Features
One-Window Policy
Repatriation of Foreign Exchange
Income Tax Incentives
Fixed Royalty Payments
Import Concessions
Export Opportunities
No Nationalization of Projects

b. Policies, Act and Regulations:
Hydropower Development Policy-1992
Industrial Policy- 1992
Foreign Investment and One Window Policy- 1992
Electricity Act- 1992
Industrial Enterprises Act-1992

Foreign Investment and Technology Transfer Act -1992
Environment Conservation Act 1996
National Environment Impact Assessment Guidelines 1993

c. Legal Framework:
Survey License issued within 30 days
Survey License Period up to 5 years
Project License issued within 120 days
Project License period up to 50 years
Exclusive Water Rights
Public Consultation before issuance of Project License
Government land available on lease

d. Institutional Framework for Electricity Development as "One Window"
Issuance of Survey & Survey licenses
Provision of tax concessions & incentives
Assistance in importing goods, land permits, approvals etc.
Regulation and monitoring of projects

e. Incentive Income Tax
Generation :- 15 years tax holiday
Transmission :- 10 years tax holiday
& M Contracts:- 5 year tax holiday
After tax holiday:- 10 percent less than period prevailing
Foreign Lenders:- 50 percent capital cost allowance
Equity Investors:- No tax on interest earned
No tax on dividend

f. Import Facilities:-
Plant and Equipment including Construction Equipment
1% Custom Duty on items not manufactured in Nepal

import License Fee and sales tax exempted
effective from the date of commercial operation

g. Repatriation of Foreign Exchange
Principal and interest on debt
Return on equity
Sale of share equity
Prevailing Market rates

h. Royalty Payments:
For first 15 years
- Installed Capacity/annum - NRs. 100/KW
- Energy Generated - 2% of energy sales
After first 15 years
- Installed Capacity/annum - NRs. 1000/KW
- Energy Generated - 10% of energy sales

i. Market:
Domestic: Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA)
Foreign: India
Under Power Exchange Agreement
Under Power Trade Agreement between two countries
Regional: Government
Probably under the Regional Cooperation especially
Quadrangle concept within SAARC

j. Nepal Government/ NEA Policy on Purchases from Small Project
The private sectors should do the Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with NEA to sell
the energy produced. To promote the private sectors in national level and to provide
the opportunity to invest in the hydropower sectors for the Nepalese people, NEA has
the provision to purchase the energy of small hydropower plants with first priority.

k. Export Opportunities:
Existing Power Trade Agreement between Nepal and India
Existing Interconnection Facilities with India
Power Deficit in India
Oriented Projects in Nepal

2.7 CHALLENGES AND ISSUES IN NEPALs POWER SECTOR
Around 40% of the population has access to some form of electricity, the majority being in
the urban areas. In a steep terrain country like Nepal with the dispersed villages in hills and
mountains, electrification is very costly. This situation poses challenges in managing the
financial resources to expand the electrification network. The electricity tariff in Nepal is
high, and is beyond the capacity of many of the customers. The reasons are manifold. The
basic infrastructure is not well developed. The cost of project often includes infrastructure
such as long approach roads, transmission lines and so on. The majority of the equipments
also have to be imported, which requires foreign currency and transportation overland for a
long distance from the port. The major share of the financing of the project is from the
foreign loans and investment, which are to be paid back in terms of foreign currency under
strict conditions. The ever weakening local currency against foreign currency escalates the
tariff further. The total loss in the system is about 24% indicating the scope for the
improvement. The challenges lie in the developing cheap and reliable hydropower projects so
as to keep the tariff within the reach of everyone. Nepalese Government is, therefore,
undertaking power sector reform measures with a view point to bring about improvements to
remedy the situation. It is encouraging to note that the private sector is gradually the power
market. The main challenge to the private sector is the transfer of technical knowhow and
easy access to the international markets for financing mechanisms.
The domestic demand over the forecast period of 25 years is relatively small, limiting many
developments. The challenge lies in the ability to establish a number of energy-intensive
industries and transport system within the country for creating a greater demand foe
hydropower, which will lead to a higher energy growth rate than the load forecast. A break-

through along the line will provide ample opportunities for development of this clean and
renewable energy.
Nepals own resources both in public and private sector cannot meet the financial investment
needed for hydropower development. A large investment is required from foreign investment
has been attracted in recent years, much still remains to be invested for meeting both internal
demand and the significant potential for the export of power. Nepal needs to utilize the
commitments on renewable energy made by the international development. Donors and
friends of Nepal are requested to come ahead in helping it in making best use of these
opportunities.
Nepal has given priorities for the use of electricity in transport, tourism, industry and
agriculture sectors. Special attention is provided to increase the load factor of small and
isolated generations through the use of electricity in domestic industries. Considering high
liquidity in the local financial market, efforts should be made to canalized local resources in
electricity fund, power development fund and encouraging other financial investments. The
involvement of private sector in generation is encouraging. The Government is open to
public-private partnership.

2.8 COMPONENTS OF HYDROPOWER
2.8.1 Weir and Undersluice
2.8.1.1 General

Weir is a structure constructed at the head of canal, in order to divert the river water towards
the canal so as to ensure a regulated continuous supply of silt free water with certain
minimum head into the canal. The types of weir and its use depend upon the topography,
geology, discharge, river morphology etc. If the major part or the entire pounding of water is
achieved by a raised crest and smaller part or nil part of it is achieved by the shutters then it
is called weir.
Undersluice is the structure constructed adjacent to the weir for the purpose of flushing the
deposited silt by providing openings on the weir portion. The crest level of the undersluice is

positioned at lower level than the crest of the weir i.e. usually it is kept 1.0 to 1.5m below the
crest level of the weir. They are designed to pass 10 to 20% of the design flood during the
rainy seasons. It creates comparatively less turbulent pocket of water near intake.
Undersluiced length of weir is divided into no. of ways by piers and regulated by gate.
Opening helps in scouring and removing the deposited silt from undersluiced pocket hence is
also called the scouring sluices. Gate-controlled undersluice helps regulating flow in intake at
the dry weather flow and low flow and periodic flushing.
Spillway is a structure constructed at the weir side to dispose surplus water from u/s to d/s
channel. It doesnt let the water rise above maximum reservoir level and are provided as a
safety measure against overtopping and the consequent damages and failure. The spillway
must have adequate discharge capacity to pass the maximum flood d/s without causing any
damage to weir and at the same time, not letting the reservoir level to rise above the
maximum water level. Spillway is essentially a safety value for weir. Types of spillway
according to location, operation, structures etc. are Straight drop, Overflow or Ogee, Chute,
Side Channel, Shaft, Siphon, Orifice, gated etc.
Ogee Spillway is an improvement upon the free over fall spillway and is widely used with
concrete, masonry, arch and buttress dams. Ogee spillway works effectively only on one
particular head called designed head.
2.8.1.2 Design consideration of Diversion weir
The design of weir includes computing the elevation of weir crest, length of weir, computing
the forces acting on the weir and checking the safety of the weir from all aspects like
overturning, sliding, crushing etc. they are explained as follows:
2.8.1.2.1 Elevation of Weir crest
There are various factors that affect the elevation of the crest, but in our case, diversion
of water is the purpose and the height should be sufficient to pond the water at a level that
can facilitate design flow in the intake. The height of the weir is governed by the height
of intake sill, depth of intake orifice and depth of the river at the intake site. Four other
important considerations to be considered for fixing the crest level of the weir are as follows:
The elevation of the weir crest has to be fixed such that the design flood is safely
discharged to the downstream without severe damage to the downstream.

The height of the crest affects the discharge coefficient and consequently the water
head above the weir as well as the back water curve.
The elevation of the weir determines the head of the power production.
The height of the weir affects the discharge that can be diverted into the canal.
The height of the weir crest affects the shape and location of the jump and design of
the basin.
The bed level of the river at the headwork is 1270m. The crest level of weir provided is
1275m and undersluice crest level is 1270m.
2.8.1.2.2 Length of Weir and Undersluice
The length of the weir depends upon the width of the waterway at the intake site. Crest length
should be taken as the average wetted width during the flood. The upstream and downstream
should be properly examined for the protection consideration.
Rise in water level on the upstream of the structures after construction of the weir is called
afflux. Fixation of afflux depends on the topographic and geomorphologic factors. A high
afflux shortens the length of the weir but increases the cost of the river training and river
protection works. For alluvial reaches it is generally restricted to 1m but for mountainous
region it may be high. The water way must be sufficient to pass high floods with desired
afflux. A weir with crest length smaller than the natural river width can severely interfere the
natural regime of flow thus altering the hydraulic as well as the sediment carrying
characteristics of the river.
Generally, the spillway and undersluice lengths are designed so as to safely pass 80 % and
20% of the design flood respectively. In our particular design, the spillway and undersluice is
so accommodated that from total water way, 7.5 m is given to undersluice and remaining
77.2m is given to spillway. The spillway is so designed that it can accommodate total flood
design. The undersluice portion is designed only for sluicing the bed load. Hence, the
undersluice is designed for 231.44m/sec discharge as flood discharge. This will economize
in the construction of energy dissipaters.

2.8.1.2.3 Shape of Spillway
The spillway has been designed as free over fall Ogee shaped weir. The discharge capacity of
Ogee shaped spillway is maximum as compared to that of other type of weirs. Ogee shaped
weir increases hydraulic efficiency and prevent cavitations. The profile of the spillway is
made similar to the nape profile of the free overfall weir to ensure that there is minimum
possibility of negative pressure development along its length.
The provisions of the fore and rare apron have been designed considering various factors as
presented in the detailed design of the weir structure. The parameters under consideration
are:
Hydraulic jump characteristics
Length and the height of formation of jump
Seepage Pressure
2.8.1.2.4 Forces acting on Weir
The main forces acting on the weir when it is in operation are:
Water Pressure
Uplift Pressure
Weight of the weir
2.8.1.2.4.1 Water Pressure
It is the major external force acting on the weir. This is called hydrostatic pressure force and
acts perpendicular on the surface of the weir and its magnitude is given by:
P=0.5* g*H
2

Where, g = Acceleration of gravity
H = Depth of water
This pressure force acts on H/3 from the base.
The calculation is provided in appendix B.

2.8.1.2.4.2 Uplift Pressure
The water enters the pores, cracks and fissures within the body of the weir and the foundation
material. Because the water is under pressure, it creates uplift pressure on the weir. The
pressure act on all directions but the pressure acting upward is important for the design of the
weir, as it reduces the effective weight of the weir. Hence it acts against the dam stability.
The magnitude of uplift pressure is given by:
U= w*H
Where, w = Unit weight of water
H = Depth of water

2.8.1.2.4.3 Weight of Weir
The weight of weir and its foundation is the major stabilizing/ resisting force. While
calculating the weight, the cross section is split into rectangle and triangle. The weight of
each along with their C.G. is determined. The resultant of all these forces will represent the
total weight of dam acting at the C.G. of dam. Simply, when the sectional area of each part is
multiplied by unit weight of concrete, weight of that part is obtained. The weir is designed
with ogee profile for spilling over its length. Hence weight is calculated by knowing its
section and multiplying by its unit weight.

2.8.1.2.5 Modes of failure and Criteria for structural stability
2.8.1.2.5.1 Overturning about toe
The weir may fail by overturning about its toe or about the downstream edge of any
horizontal plane within the weir. The overturning failure occurs when the resultant of all the
forces acting on the base passes outside the base. In other words, the weir will overturn if the
resultant strikes within the base and also within all other horizontal sections.
The factor of safety against overturning is given as:
F
o
=M
R
/ M
o
Where, M
R
= Resisting moment

M
o
= Overturning moment
This must be greater than 1.5 to be safe.

2.8.1.2.5.2 Compression or Crushing
This type of failure occurs when the compressive stress in the weir exceeds the safe limit.
While designing the weir section it should be so design that the resultant should pass through
middle 3
rd
part of the section to avoid the possible tension on the weir section. The section
should be totally in compression. So, weir should be checked against the failure by crushing
of its material. If the actual compressive stress may exceed the allowable stress, the dam
material may get crushed.
The vertical combine stress at the base is given by:
max
=V/B(1+(6e/B)) and
min
=V/B(1-(6e/B))
Where, e=B/2-x=Eccentricity of the resultant force from the centre of the base.
x=M/V; M= Moment and V= Total vertical force.
This must be less than 200 KN/m
3
.

2.8.1.2.5.3 Sliding
Sliding will occur when the net horizontal force above any plane in the weir or at the base of
the weir exceed the frictional resistance developed at that level. Factor of safety against the
sliding is measured as Shear Stability Factor (SSF) and is given by:
F
s
= * V/ H
Where, = Coefficient of friction
H= Total horizontal force
V= Total vertical force


For safety against sliding, SSF should be greater than 3-5.

2.8.2 Intake Structure
2.8.2.1 General
Intake is a structure where the water to the power plant is abstracted or separated from the
river flow. An intake can be defined as a structure that diverts water from river or other
course to a conveyance system downstream of the intake. The intake structure is used to trap
the required amount of water for the specific purpose with or without storing. An intake
structure should control the flow of water and prevent the heavy sediment load of the river
from entering the conveyance system. For this purpose, proper selection and sitting of intakes
must be chosen to evacuate necessary amount of water at any regime to the channel. The
peak discharge must be safely evacuated without any damage. To achieve this, hydrological
data must be collected and evaluated and the structures should be designed accordingly.
Prerequisites of the location of intake structure:
The course of the river should be relatively permanent at the intake site, i.e. the river
should not change its course at the intake location at the time.
The river should not have a large gradient at the intake site.
In case there is a confluence of two rivers in the selected site, the intake should be
located downstream of the confluence to take advantage of the flow of both rivers.
Advantage should be taken of stable banks such as rock outcrops or armored boulder
banks to protect the intake from erosion.
The intake should be located at the outer bend where flow is deeper and clearer and
towards the downstream end of the bend where the effect of the secondary currents
has fully developed. This limits sediment deposition at the intake area and also
ensures the flow availability during the dry season.
The intake structure is designed for 30% more than design discharge, 15% for flushing in
gravel trap, 15% for settling basin i.e. Q
design(intake
)= 1.3*Q
design
.

The intake consists of trash rack, intake canal and two orifice opening each of width 2.6 m
and height of 1.5m which allows the design flow to pass through it under normal condition
but restricts higher flows during floods.
The detailed design is shown in the appendix B.

2.8.2.2 Design considerations of intake
For small hydropower projects it is general practice to use 100 years return period from
probabilistic analysis of flood. A simple and moderately priced construction should be used
to minimize maintenance and repairs. For the small projects with no automation facilities,
hydraulically controlled structures become more feasible than mechanically controlled units.
There must be adequate provision to remove the suspended and bed load deposited upstream
behind the weir. This may be done using intermittent flushing using sluice gates or allowing
some water to flush it continuously. It has been found that entry of bed load towards diverted
canal will be minimum if the intake is located just downstream of concave bank of the river
bend. It not only restricts the bed load, but also ensures sufficient water depth even at low
water condition. The intake shall ensure uninterrupted supply of the required quantity of
water into the water conveyance system at all times. This requirement shall particularly be
met during periods of floods when the large amounts of boulders, trash and debris carried by
Nepali rivers could block or choke the trash rack, thereby forcing reduction in power
generation. The intake water passages shall be hydraulically efficient to minimize head
losses. For this purpose, the forms and dimensions of the intake water passages and its other
components, including piers and trash racks, shall, as far as possible, ensure smooth and
streamlined flow hydraulics. The design shall aim at achieving gradual transformation of the
static head to the conduit velocity and preventing formation of air-entraining vortices under
pressure flow conditions.
Topography, geology, height of bank, ratio of water diverted to that available, channel width,
routing of diversion canal, ease of diversion of river during construction, stability of river
bank and sides, river protection works governs the selection of the intake location and type.
For steeper gradients with straight reaches of river bottom rack intake is more suitable. But in
rocky banks, winding river, considerable suspended load it is not desirable. The lateral side

intake functions well in such case. Intake sill with 2 m is used not to allow bed loads to enter
the canals. Trash rack is used to prevent the entry of tree branches, leaves and other coarse
materials in the canal. Head is extremely valuable in hydropower projects so that trash rack
should be designed with minimum head loss. Suitable factor of safety should be employed to
design height of intake sill, to ensure sufficient withdrawal capacity in the future.
2.8.3 Gravel Trap
2.8.3.1 General
The gravel trap is a basin constructed close to the intake in order to prevent gravel from
getting into the approach channel. Main function of the gravel trap is to collect the bed load,
smaller than the trash-rack opening size, entering through it to the approach canal. Gravel
traps location is governed by the site conditions, availability of flushing head and gravel
carrying capacity of the approach canal. Its dimension depends on the flow velocity, gravel
size and specific density of the gravel and it should be sufficient to settle and flush gravels
passing from the coarse trash-rack. Gravel trap is generally designed to collect maximum of
12 hours gravel deposit. A flushing arrangement associated within the gravel trap is operated
to flush out the collected gravels to the river. Flushing frequency is less during the low flow
periods whereas continuous flushing is recommended during the monsoon. A gravel trap may
be equipped with overflow spillway.
The gravel trap is designed for maximum discharge of 6.032m
3
/s with intermittent flushing
of sediment of greater than or equal to 2mm through flushing orifice of size 0.75m *0.5m.the
flushing canal size is 0.75m *0.75m with flushing velocity of 2.4 m/s and slope of 1:30.The
design of gravel trap is provided in appendix B and the drawings are provided in appendix D.
2.8.3.2 Design Consideration
The main design principle for a gravel trap is that the velocity through it should be less than
required to move the smallest size of gravel to be removed. In general the gravel trap should
settle particles larger than 2mm diameter. Smaller sized particles will be removed by the
settling basin. Therefore, to be able to trap particles of diameter less than 2 mm, the velocity
in the gravel trap should be limited to 0.6 m/s. For the easiness in construction depth is
generally 3m, width is calculated to ensure desirable efficiency of settling. The gravel trap

designed is of hopper shaped and the floor is about 30 (1:1.7). This shape is recommended
for easy flushing.

2.8.4 Approach Canal
2.8.4.1 General
The water diverted from the intake to the settling basin of inlet chamber through the
conveyance system is termed as headrace. A high head diversion plant is generally associated
with tunnel to divert water where as a medium head to low head diversion plants generally
employ canal diversion. Geology, topography and hydrology are major factors to select such
options. For small plants with low heads intra basin diversion having fairly straight reaches
of river, canal is the best option. Headrace has to convey extra discharge for continuously
flushing the settling basin.
The design is provided in appendix B and the drawings are provided in appendix D.
The canals for hydropower projects are constructed mainly for the purpose to alter the
gradient of the river to benefit hydropower production. Two essential parts of the canal in a
hydropower system are (i) headrace or power canal and (ii) tailrace. Points to be considered
for canal alignment can be summarized as:
The canal alignment should be sufficiently diverted away from the river so that the
risk of flood damage is minimum.
The velocity of the water must be high enough to ensure that suspended solid
(sediments) do not settle on the bed of the channel and that plant growth is
discouraged.
The water velocity must be low enough to ensure that the channel walls are not
eroded by the flow.
The alignment should be along the level to slightly sloping ground, pass through
stable terrain and follow the shortest reasonable route with a minimum crossings and
a minimum of head loss and minimum seepage loss because loss in head or discharge
is the loss in power production.

From earthwork point of view, the alignment should be selected to balance cut and fill as far
as possible. But this does not mean to balance cut and fill even by using costly retaining
structures. Stability is also a major factor.
The canal passing through gravel trap to settling basin through is known as approach canal.
Its dimension and shape depend on the discharge to be conveyed, prevailing topography and
geology of the alignment. Approach canal has to convey extra discharge for continuously
flushing the settling basin. It should also be able to carry the design flow with adequate
freeboard. The velocity should be low enough to ensure that the bed and the walls of the
canal are not eroded. A minimum velocity of 0.4 m/s should be maintained to prevent the
growth of aquatic plants.
2.8.5 Settling Basin
Settling basin is located right after the approach canal. The design of the settling basin is
depended on the suspended material type, their characteristics and the observation made
during the site visit. Topography and geological conditions prevails the design and
arrangement of the settling basin. The criteria adopted for the design of the settling basin is
summarized herein:
Maximum sediment concentration of 5000 ppm,
Mineralogical analysis of sediments,
Particle size distribution,

Intermittent flushing system is used for flushing. Intermittent flushing basin are of much
simpler design and less susceptible to blockage clogging than other types of basin.
There will be two chambers of settling basin and each will be 5.0 m wide, 54 m long and 3.5
m average depth having invert level slope of 1:30.

The settling basin is designed following standard practices. The geometry of inlet, the width
of basin and any curvature must be such as to cause minimum turbulence which might impair
the efficiency. Concentration approach is used to design it. Trap efficiency is obtained as

90% for removal of 0.2 mm sized sedimentary particles. Vetter's equation is used for
efficiency calculation. Hazen's equation and various charts are used to compute the transit
velocity and the settling velocity. Gated structures have been provided to control flow.
Upstream of gated structures, fine trash rack has been provided
2.8.5.2 Sediment Flushing System
Intermittent flushing system has been adopted for flushing. The sediments are flushed after
the opening of flushing gates at the downstream end of the basin and allowing the water level
to drop. This causes high velocities over the sediment deposits that turn erode the sediments
from the basin. At the end of flushing cycle, the inlet gate is closed to enable closing of
flushing gate. Once the flushing gates are closed, the inlet gates are reopened and the basin is
refilled. At the end of refilling cycle, when the water level in the basin is same as that in the
intake channel, the outlet gates are opened in the balanced condition.

2.8.6 Penstock pipe
2.8.6.1 General
The conveyance of water from intake to penstock is not much difficult but the passing of water
through penstock is the most challenging one. It is because the penstock should be safe as well
as economic. The pipe designed to carry water to the turbines with the least possible loss of head
consistent with the overall economy of the project is known as penstock pipe. These are
pressurized water conduits which convey water to the turbines from free water surfaces. The
water comes through either surge chamber or reservoirs or forebay. The most economical
penstock will be the one in which the annual value of the power lost in friction plus annual
charges such as interest, depreciation, maintenance will be a minimum. The penstock is usually
made of steel, although reinforced, concrete, GRP, HDP penstocks have also been built recently
in increasing numbers.
Support piers and anchor blocks are not needed for PVC penstocks of flexible and small
diameter. These are laid in ground covered with sand and gravel which acts as an insulation.
Except for rock excavation required, larger penstocks are usually buried. Before burying it the
penstocks should be painted properly and the coated. This should be such that the maintenance

is minimum and least cost. From the environmental point of view, the solution is optimal
because the ground can be returned to its original condition, and the penstock does not
constitute a barrier to the movement of wildlife.
The factors that creates problem are: (i) daily variation of flow through penstock (ii) estimated
load factor over a term of years, (iii) profile of penstock, (iv) number of penstocks, (v) type of
material used, (vi) diameter and thickness, (vii) value of power lost in friction, (viii) cost of
penstock installed, (ix) cost of piers and anchors, (x) total annual charges of penstock in place,
and (xi) maximum permissible velocity. It is extremely difficult to express these variables in a
comprehensive formula. Also the penstock should be safe enough to failure without loss of life
and property.
A penstock installed above ground can be designed with or without expansion joints. The
temperature variation should be considered when the turbine is continuously not working or
when the penstock is dewatered for maintenance because of thermal expansion and
contraction. The penstock is usually built in straight lines, with concrete anchor blocks at
each bend and with expansion joint between each set of anchors. The anchor blocks must
resist the thrust of the penstock plus the frictional forces caused by its expansion and
contraction, so when possible they should be founded on rock. If, due to the nature of the
ground, the anchor blocks require large volumes of concrete, thus becoming rather
expensive, an alternative solution is to eliminate every second anchor block and all the
expansion joints, leaving the bends free to move slightly.
In this case it is desirable to lay the straight sections of the penstock in steel saddles, made to
fit the contour of the pipe and generally covering 120 degrees of the invert. The saddles can
be made from steel plates and shapes, with graphite asbestos sheet packing placed between
saddle and pipe to reduce friction forces. The movement can be accommodated with
expansion joints, or by designing the pipe layout with bends free to move
It best suited for the range of pressure fluctuations met in the turbine operation because of the
strength and flexibility of steel. Present design standards and construction practices were
developed gradually, following the advent of welded construction, and are the result of
improvements in the manufacture of welding-quality steels, in welding processes and
procedures, and in inspection and testing of welds.

2.8.6.2 Design Considerations
2.8.6.2.1 Owners Requirement
The owner requirements must consider the following:
Preferred material and design type
Plant operation requirement
Annual cost of capital investment and cost of power and revenue loss
Inspection and maintenance provisions
Applicable internal and governmental guidelines, criteria, and design requirements
Legal and political issues, including environmental and licensing issues.

2.8.6.2.2 Choice of materials
Today there is a wide choice of materials for penstocks. Fabricated welded steel is best suited
for the larger heads and diameters. If available in the required sizes, spiral machine-welded
steel pipes can also be considered, due to their lower price. For high heads, steel or ductile
iron pipes are preferred, but at medium and low heads steel becomes less competitive,
because the internal and external corrosion protection layers do not decrease with the wall
thickness and because there is a minimum wall thickness for the pipe.
For smaller diameters, there is a choice between: manufactured steel pipe, supplied with
spigot and socket joints and rubber "O" gaskets, which eliminates field welding, or with
welded-on flanges, bolted on site; plain spun or pre-stressed concrete; ductile iron spigot and
socket pipes with gaskets; cement-asbestos; glass-reinforced plastic (GRP); and PVC or
polyethylene (PE) plastic pipes. Plastic pipe PE14 is a very attractive solution for medium
heads (a PVC pipe of 0.4 m diameter can be used up to a maximum head of 200 meters)
because it is often cheaper, lighter and more easily handled than steel and does not need
protection against corrosion. PVC15 pipes are easy to install because of the spigot and socket
joints provided with "O" ring gaskets. PVC pipes are usually installed underground with a
minimum cover of one meter. Due to their low resistance to UV radiation they cannot be
used on the surface unless painted, coated or wrapped. The minimum radius of curvature of a

PVC pipe is relatively large (100 times the pipe diameter) and its coefficient of thermal
expansion is five times higher than that for steel. They are also rather brittle and unsuited to
rocky ground. Pipes of PE16 (high molecular weight polyethylene) can be laid on top of the
ground and can accommodate bends of 20-40 times the pipe diameter (for sharper bends,
special factory fittings are required). PE pipe floats on water and can be
dragged by cable in long sections but must be joined in the field by fusion welding, requiring
a special machine. PE pipes can withstand pipeline freeze up without damage, may be not
available in sizes over 300 mm diameter.
2.8.6.2.3 Site-Specific Requirements
The site specific requirements are also equally important due to environmental restraints,
limitations on size and weight, geological restraints, hydrologic considerations, and limitations
due to alignment and support to the penstock physical layout. The site specific conditions,
requirements and design and cost associated with layout are determined by the choice of type of
installations such as above ground or buried penstocks or tunnel liner. Therefore the following
points must be considered for site-specific requirements to be addressed:
Land ownership, right-of-way limitations, mineral rights, and limitations relating to
excavation/quarrying operations
Environmental restraints, including aesthetics, fish, game and wildlife preservation,
archaeological excavations, disposal of material, clearing and erosion
Terrain configuration
Site geology, hydrology (groundwater conditions) and soils
Applicable codes and mandatory requirements
Other site-specific considerations

2.8.6.2.4 Preliminary Study
The preliminary study phase is an important phase of the general design effort of the
experienced designer. The final penstock configuration, alignment, design, and requirements
and parameters must be determined during this study phase. The designer must investigate the
site conditions and make several layouts of various alignments. Many trials are done during this
stage, Terrain, geologic characteristics, and foundation conditions play important roles during

this study phase. Since the ultimate goal of this study phase is to determine the most economic
and implementable alignment, it is not necessary to approach the study in a great precision.
2.8.6.2.5 Type of installation
The type of installation selected should reflect the above consideration. Penstocks are classified
into different types depending on their general features. Three following types have been
designed and used in recent years:
Supported penstocks or Exposed Penstock: These are usually fabricated from steel,
plastic fibreglass or wooden-stave pipe. They can be located above the ground or in
none encased tunnel and are usually supported on either steel or concrete support
systems. Plastic or fibreglass penstocks should not be exposed to sunlight because
ultraviolet rays break down the material

Buried penstocks: These are usually fabricated from steel, concrete, plastic or fibreglass.
They can be either partially or fully buried.
Steel Tunnel Liner: These are located in a tunnel and fully encased in concrete or
encased in a portion of a dam. The type of installation selected should reflect the cost-
effective penstock system which should consider the technical, environmental, economic
and constructability factors.
Each penstock type has different associated design, material and construction costs.
2.8.6.2.6 Conditions for selection of Pipeline
When a hydro-electric power station is to be supplied with water through a tunnel, arrangement
most frequently adopted is to terminate the tunnel with the portal at a relatively high level on the
hillside and connect the portal to the power station by means of a steel pipeline. The alternative
to such a pipeline is to arrange the tunnel at a low level so that it connects direct to the turbine.
Whether a pipeline or a low-level tunnel is adopted is largely governed by the overall costs, and
many factors have to be taken into consideration, including the nature of the ground, whether
composed of sound rock or deposited material; the amount of rock cover above the tunnel; the
most desirable position of the portal having regard to the most suitable geology. Having decided
to adopt a pipeline and having provisionally located the centreline in plan and elevation, it is

necessary to determine the water pressures to which it will be subjected. It can be assumed that
the maximum pressure through the pipeline due to surge is equal to the head resulting from the
maximum level of water in the surge shaft. It should be noted that the water-hammer pressure
wave travels from the valve to the surge shaft in a few seconds. The pressure is maximum at the
turbine valve and decreases to zero at the free water surface in the surge shaft / tank.
2.8.6.2.7 Alignment
To determine the most economical alignment of a pipeline, the designer must investigate the site
and make various layouts on topographic maps. He must then estimate material quantities for
each layout and evaluate its constructability. When making these layouts, the penstock should
be located on stable foundation sites such as along a ridge or a bench that has been cut into the
mountainside, Avoiding of troublesome sites such as underground water courses, landfill, fault
zones and potential slide areas is quite important. Because low-head penstocks cost less than
high-head penstock, the pipeline at high elevations needs to be made as long as possible before
going down the mountainside into powerhouse. To minimize costly anchors and costly pipe
transition sections, vertical bends, horizontal bends, and changes in diameter should be
combined in a way to have them at the same location.
2.8.6.3 Economic Diameter
The economically justified diameter for a penstock required to carry a design flow is the one at
which annual cost due to the greater investment do not exceed the annual value of the resulting
incremental energy output. The governing criterion is thus to regain economically the last
incremental kilo-watt-hour made available by reducing the head-loss through using a larger
diameter.
Under average conditions and present day prices the most suitable diameter for pipeline is
frequently one which gives a maximum water velocity of approximately 5 m/s (15 ft. per sec.).
As the pressure head or the cost of the pipeline per ton increases, it is economical to reduce the
diameter of the pipeline; similarly, as the load factor on the station increases, the diameter
should be increased. For a particular station the only variable is the pressure head which
increases as the pipe runs downhill towards the station. Some pipelines are therefore reduced in
diameter at the lower levels.

In the early stages of a project it is necessary to determine the approximate diameter of a
pipeline for estimating costs or other purposes.
In schemes where there are a number of turbines a single pipeline to supply all the turbines will
involve the use of the least amount of steel. Making joints in thick plates and handling large
pipes, however, are difficult and costly. It is frequently desirable, therefore, to use a separate
pipeline for each turbine, at least for the part nearest the power station where the pressure is
greatest. When separate pipes are used portal valves can be introduced on each pipeline, thereby
enabling any branch pipeline to isolate for maintenance without affecting the operation of the
remaining turbines.
In order to determine the economic diameter for any particular pipeline with greater accuracy, it
is necessary to consider a number of alternative diameters for the pipeline, and then estimate for
each diameter the annual charges to cover the capital cost of construction and the annual value
of the electrical energy lost on account of the friction head in the pipeline. The diameter which
gives a minimum for the sum of these two quantities is the most economical diameter.
2.8.6.4 Determination of Economic Diameter or Optimizing Penstock Diameter
In additional to alignment and design head, it is important to know about plant operation and
other factors that determine the annual cost of constructing and operating a powerhouse
penstock. The two major cost items involved in the annual cost are (1) cost of capital investment
and (2) cost of energy revenue loss from frictional head loss.
Cost of capital investment (C
t
): The initial investment (capital) cost must be paid off
over a period of years (project life) at a specified interest rate. When the project life
and interest rate known, the capital recovery factor (CRF) can be determined. By
multiplying the capital cost by the CRF, the annual cost of capital investment is
calculated.
Cost of energy revenue loss (C
e
): The flow rate (Q), the cost of kilowatt hours
generated each year, and turbine-generator efficiency must be determined through
careful study and planning. In addition, head loss must be accurately determined.
When all these parameters are known, the annual cost of energy revenue loss can be
calculated.

The total annual cost is determined by adding the two major costs above. Finally, select a
diameter that minimizes the total annual cost. The shell thickness is usually governed by the
allowable stress.
The diameter is selected as the result of a trade-off between penstock cost and power losses.
The power available from the flow Q and head H is given by the equation:
P=QH
Where, Q is the discharge in m3/s, H the net head in m,
The economic diameter of a penstock is a function of head loss, cost and the value of energy. A
first estimate can be obtained from the equation given below:
D = E
P
x P
0.43
x H
-0.57

Where, E
p
= 0.49
D = diameter in meter
P = turbine rated capacity (kW)
H = turbine rated head (m)
2.8.6.6 Economic Diameter Equations
The economic diameter equations for penstocks are developed for the Case 1 or Case 2. They
are as follows.
(1) Case 1 Minimum thickness for shipping and handling
When the shell thickness (t) in millimetres is determined by D/288, the economic diameter (D)
is given as:

When a specific value is used for t, the economic diameter is:
( )
0.1667
(
=
WCt
pwf f hmEQ
0.3867 D
3

1429 . 0
3
) (
9025 . 0
(
=
WC
pwf f hMEQ
D

(2) Case 2 Internal pressure governs
The economic diameter (D) for a Case 2 penstock is given as:
( )
1429 . 0
(
=
WCH
pwf Shf MEQ
0.5 D
3

Where,
= friction factor
= hours per year of operation
= $/kWh, composite value of energy
= turbine/generator efficiency in decimal form
= interest rate
= years, repayment period
= design flow
= specific weight of steel
C = capital cost of penstock installed
pwf = present worth factor,{(i+1)
n
+1}/i(i+1)
n

S = allowable stress
t = thickness, D/288
H = Design Head
It is very important to know, how the power plant will be operated when determining the
penstock diameter. Some of the parameter values, such as the competitive value of power and
the number of hours of power generation, will vary greatly for a base-load power plant
f
h
M
E
i
n
Q
W

compared to a peaking load plant. Selecting the design flow (Q) is important because this term
is cubed in the diameter equations. Variations in the design flow value have a significant impact
on the resulting diameter calculations.
2.8.6.7 Water Hammer
Water hammer is the result of a change in flow velocity in a closed conduit causing elastic
waves to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin. The elastic waves, in turn,
cause increase or decrease in pressure as they travel along the line, and these pressure changes
are variously referred to as water hammer, surge or transient pressure. As the water-hammer
pressure wave travels rapidly, the amplitude of the successive pressure waves quickly falls from
a maximum to a negligible amount, and normally this latter stage is reached before the surge
pressure attains its maximum value. A water-hammer pressure oscillates above and below the
immediately previously existing water pressure line, the pipeline must be investigated to ensure
that the water pressure does not fall below atmospheric pressure. This undesirable condition is
most likely to occur where there is a sharp bend downwards, in the pipeline. The pressure
occurring at this point should be determined for the conditions when the reservoir is at its lowest
working level and a turbine has been started up thereby producing a down surge in the surge
shaft. It will generally be found that the negative water hammer due to opening of the turbine
valve is greater than the amplitude of the secondary water hammer oscillations due to closure.

2.8.6.8 Calculation of Head Losses
Hydraulic losses in a penstock reduce the effective head in proportion to the length of the
penstock and approximately as the square of the water velocity. Accurate determination of
losses is not possible, but estimates can be made on the basis of data obtained from pipe flow
tests in laboratories and full-scale installations. The various head losses which occur in penstock
are the friction, bend, gradual contraction, bifurcation, valve and others.
2.8.6.9 Bifurcation
There are two major categories of bifurcating geometries:
The symmetrical wyes may be a single symmetric bifurcation or a series of bifurcations
pipes in which the branch pipes are parallel to the direction of the main pipe.
Non-symmetrical wyes distribute several branch pipes in the same direction from the
straight main pipe.
In the plants with two units mainly two type of bifurcation are used:
In high head plants, the spherical type wye branch is used.
In the medium and low head plants, the wye branch with external stiffener type is used.


2.8.7 Anchor Block and Support Piers
2.8.7.1 General
An anchor block is and encasement of penstock designed to restrain the pipe movement and
to fix the pipe in place during installation and operation. Anchor blocks tend to prevent the
movement of the penstocks due to steady or transient forces including expansion and
contraction forces and water hammer pressures. They provide necessary reaction to the
dynamic forces at the bends. To provide the necessary degree of stability to the pipe
assembly, anchor blocks find their significance. Anchor blocks are provided at all horizontal
and vertical bends of the pipe. Slide blocks are used to support the pipes at intermediate
points so as to prevent excessive bending stresses in the pipe. They resist the weight of the
pipe and water and resist the lateral movement but allow the longitudinal movement of the
pipe. So, these blocks are lighter in weight than anchor blocks and save the overall cost of the
support action.

2.8.7.1.1 Location of Anchor Block
At vertical and horizontal bends of the penstock. A filled penstock exerts forces at
such bends and the pipe needs to be properly anchored.
Immediately upstream of the powerhouse which minimizes forces on the turbine
housing.
At sections of the penstock where the straight pipe length exceeds 30m. It is done to
limit the thermal expansion of the pipe since an expansion joint will be placed
downstream of the anchor block.
2.8.7.2 Design Considerations
It should be constructed of 1:3:6 concrete with 40% plums and nominal reinforcement. Plums
are boulders that are distributed evenly around the block such that they occupy about 40% of
the block volume. The boulders add weight to the block therefore increases the stability
while decreasing the volume required. Hoop reinforcement is required around the pipe to
resist cracking of the concrete due to tensile forces from the pipe. Foundation parts and the

central part of the block can be made of 1:1.5:3 reinforced concrete and outer portion can be
made of stone masonary in1:4.
Water flowing under pressure when diverted from straight path exerts pressure as the bends.
To resist various forces these blocks are designed. The blocks act as the massive structures
and work as the gravity dams. Sliding, Overturning, tension and crushing are to be checked
for the blocks.
Anchor blocks are the support of the penstock and are constructed to meet this purpose. As
the penstock is circular, the anchor blocks are made to fit the curve surface. Saddle supports
are used in it and a sufficient cover is provided above the pipe for adequate fixity.
2.8.7.3 Mode of failure and safety against
Anchor blocks are designed similar to the gravity dam. The blocks are to be designed to
resist overturning, sliding, crushing and tension failure. A firm foundation is required for the
blocks. The blocks should be prevented from gulley erosion due to rain water.

2.8.7.4 Support Piers or Side Blocks
Support piers are required along the straight sections of exposed penstock between anchor
blocks. Thin- walled plain pipe can buckle at the support piers with relatively short spans. In
this case permissible span can be increased by welding a wear plate to the pipe at each
support. Wear plate is also required where the pipe leaves an anchor block, if the span to the
first support pier exceeds that allowed for plain pipe. It is usually not economical to increase
the pipe wall thickness in order to increase the support spacing, but should be considered
where the cost of support piers is significant.
The support engages less than the full perimeter of the penstock, generally between 90 and
180 degrees of arc, and typically 120. These are simpler to construct than full perimeter ring
girder supports, but generally are spaced closer together than the ring girders. It is usually
spaced between 6 to 8 m between the anchor blocks. It is constructed of concrete 1:3:6.
Design procedure is same as that of the anchor blocks but only the combination of load is
different.

2.7.7.5 Provision of Expansion joints
Mechanical joints either expansion joint or bolted sleeve type coupling is used in both
exposed and buried penstocks to accommodate the longitudinal movement caused by the
temperature changes and to facilitate the construction. The joints shall allow for movement
where differential settlement or deflections are anticipated.
Expansion joint permit only the longitudinal movements. The joints are used primarily with
above ground installations and are located between the supports at the points where the
penstock deflections are of equal magnitude and direction. These joints divide the barrel shell
into separate units, which are watertight, but structurally discontinuous. It should be provided
just below the anchor block. Length of the expansion joints = tL
2.8.8 Turbine
2.8.8.1 General
Hydraulic turbines are machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy developed by turbine is used in running an electric generator which is
directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine which in turns converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Based on the energy conversion, turbines are classified as Impulsive or
Active and Reactive Turbines.
Impulse Turbine: The turbine, in which pressure head or potential energy of water is
converted into the kinetic energy of water in the form of jet of water issuing from one
or more nozzles and hitting a series of buckets mounted on the periphery of the wheel,
at atmospheric pressure is called impulse turbine. It is used for high head and low
discharge. Pelton and Turgo turbines are the examples of the impulse turbine.
Reactive Turbine: The turbine, in which both kinetic energy and potential energy of
water is utilized to rotate the runner or the turbine is called the reactive turbine. The
water flows through the runner under kinetic and potential energy. The turbine runner
is submerged and water enters all around the periphery of the runner. Water is taken
up to the tailrace by means of a closed draft tube and thus whole passage of water is
totally enclosed. Francis, Kaplan, Propeller, Deriaz turbine etc are the examples of
reactive turbines.

2.8.8.2 Selection of turbine
Selection of suitable type of turbine for the project depends upon several factors like head,
discharge, power production, load condition and corresponding efficiency, quality of water,
tail water level, size, construction feasibility etc. Selection of turbine is essential for the
layout of the powerhouse, approaching and discharging pipes, conditions of construction and
exploitation and techno economic parameters.

2.8.8.2.1 Head and discharge:
High head and low discharge -Pelton turbine
Medium head and medium discharge - Francis turbine
Low head and high discharge Kaplan turbine
2.8.8.2.2 Specific speed:
10 to 50 - Pelton turbine
80 to 400 - Francis
300 to 500 - Kaplan Diagonal
450 to 1200 - Kaplan Axial

For Tadi Small Hydropower Project, Francis Turbine is selected. The selection was made by
using the head vs discharge graph. Because of medium head of 77.7m, we have selected
Francis turbine as it has better efficiency than other in part load operation. Discharge
variations in the river would happen as per FDC. Due to this, we used two turbines of same
capacity so that one will be operated at part loads not by reducing the efficiency to practically
low level. Also, two sets of turbines increases the degree of reliability. In our project, two
Francis turbines are used with equal capacity. The runner diameter of the turbine is 0.5m.


2.8.9 Powerhouse
2.8.9.1 General
Power house is a massive structure which accommodates electrical as well as mechanical
components such as turbine, generator, switch gear, control room, engineer's room,
reception room and operator's accommodation. The main function of this building is to
protect the electro-mechanical equipments from the adverse weather as well as possible
mishandling by unauthorized persons. The power house should accommodate all the
equipments with enough space and should be easily accessible without any difficulty.
Basically flat terrain is best suitable for the construction of powerhouse. Generally, there are
two types of powerhouse. They are:
Surface Powerhouse
Underground Powerhouse
Surface power house is cost effective and is best suited when the power house is far away
from flood plain. On other hand, the underground powerhouse is located inside the rock
mass which makes it more stable against flood effects and other external forces. Due to
underground construction and high technological methods, the underground powerhouse is
highly costlier than surface ones. Some powerhouses are located as semi-underground
structures being partly on surface and partly underground. Therefore, on basis of cost
effectiveness, surface power house is preferred where as if the site is prone to flood as well
as other dangers, underground powerhouse is preferred.

2.8.9.2 Powerhouse Sizing
Turbine, generators, control room equipments are very massive and require lots of space in
powerhouse. Power house size mainly depends on the discharge, head, type of turbine and
generator, number of units and the general arrangement in the power house. The size of the
power house should be sufficient to house all the components. Enough clear space should be
available for installation of equipment as well as for proper maintenance.


2.8.9.3 Height of Powerhouse
Height of power house is done by the addition of dimensions of turbine block and its
superstructure. Height of the lower turbine block from the foundation to the floor of the
machine hall is to be determined by the dimensions of the turbine. The height should be
enough for the installation of turbine, generator and shaft, gear mechanism and the cranes.
There should be sufficient space for removal and overhaul of any of the components without
disturbing other components. Sufficient clear space is also provided for crane installation,
operation and maintenance without disturbing any other component in the powerhouse.

2.8.10 Tailrace
2.8.10.1 General
After passing through the turbine the water returns to the river trough a short canal called a
tailrace. If the power house is close to river, the outflow may be discharged directly into the
river. But when the river is far off from the power house, one may have to construct a
channel or pipes according to topography of the site between the power house and the river.
The tailrace should be designed and maintained properly so that excessive aggravation and
degradation is avoided. Impulse turbines can have relatively high exit velocities, so the
tailrace should be designed to ensure that the powerhouse would not be undermined.
Protection with rock riprap or concrete aprons should be provided between the powerhouse
and the stream. The design should also ensure that during relatively high flows the water in
the tailrace does not rise so far that it interferes with the turbine runner. With a reaction
turbine the level of the water in the tailrace influences the operation of the turbine and more
specifically the onset of cavitation. This level also determines the available net head and in
low head systems may have a decisive influence on the economic results.

Design of the tailrace is similar to that of headrace channel except that higher velocity can be
allowed in the design without caring for head loss in the channel. High grade of concrete is
required to resist erosion of tailrace channel due to higher velocity. The downstream end of

tailrace must be protected to prevent the river by erosion or by flow from the tailrace. The
discharge should be disposed off over rock or large boulders. If erodible slopes exist in the
vicinity, a stilling basin may be required to dissipate energy.

2.8.11 Transmission Line
2.8.11.1 General

The transmission system planning focuses on the establishment of necessary extensions to
the grid in order to connect the new generation plants and transfer the power from the plants
to the load centers in reliable as well as economic way. Transmission lines transmit bulk
electrical power from power stations to load centers in the form of either underground cables
or overhead lines. Transmission system of an area is known as grid. The different grids are
interconnected through tie lines to form a national grid. Transmission voltages in Nepal are
33 KV, 66 KV and 132 KV and planning to transmit at 220 KV. The high voltage
transmission lines transmit electrical power from the sending end sub-station (Power Station)
to the receiving end stations. The transmission facilities affect the cost and reliability of
energy supplied to the consumers to a great extent.


The choice of the most economical voltage for transmission line requires a detailed study of
many technical and economical factors. The power capacity and distance of transmission are
specified. The detail design includes the line voltage, size of phase conductor, span, spacing
and configuration of the conductors, numbers and size of earth wires, number of insulators,
clearance, sag under operating and erecting condition etc.
The transmission line for the purpose of economy is required to be constructed at lowest cost.
This is achieved by optimizing the tower height and the span length. This will reduce the
overall cost of line. While deciding the length various factors such as voltage, public safety
and Government's regulation must be considered.

2.8.11.3 Basic planning/rules for reliability
With this cost of energy not served (ENS) the following basic planning rules have been
established:
(N-1)
1
supply of areas currently supplied through one line should be established when
the net load during peak exceeds approximately 50MW
In cases, where areas are supplied through a single circuit stung on a double circuit
tower, the second circuit should be strung when the net load during peak exceeds
approximately 35 MW
Transmission lines from power plants should not in general be designed to sustain
single outages without loss of generation.
Transformers shall in general, comply with (N-1) criteria for the system but not
necessarily in individual substations.
Transmission lines and transformers should be allowed 20% overload during
emergency operation.

2.8.11.4 Voltage and Frequency for Power reliability
The most typical operating criteria used in other countries are given as:
Maximum allowable voltage variation in normal operation: 5%
Maximum allowable voltage variation during emergencies: 10%
Maximum allowable frequency variation during emergencies: 5%

Once these design features are available, the voltage regulation and efficiency can be
calculated. In case these quantities are not within the prescribed limits, a revision of the
design is necessary. Most of the parameters mentioned above are beyond the scope of this
project work. The cost and performance of the line depend, to a great extent, on the line
voltage. An empirical formula for the optimum voltage is; Where, V = Line voltage in KV;
L = Distance in Km; P = Power in KW. A standard voltage nearest to this value should be
adopted. The above formula gives only a preliminary estimate.


3. DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT
3.1 LOCATION OF PROJECT
The proposed project Tadi is located in Rautbeshi, Shikarbeshi and Ghyanphedi Village
Development Committees (VDCs) of Nuwakot district in the Central Development Region of
Nepal. The proposed site lies between 275730N to 275754N latitude and 852404E
to 852500E longitude. The elevation of the proposed site area is within 1270m 1792.3m.
Tadi khola is one of the snow fed river and there are large number of rounded boulders
deposited in either side of the bank of the proposed site. It finally merges to Trishuli River.
The catchment area of the river basin at intake site is approximately 105sq. km. The
hydraulic structures like intake, approach canal and power house is proposed to run through
the left bank of the river. The intake site is located at Majhuwa village and the powerhouse
site is located near the conjunction of Kuntung Khola and Tadi Khola.
The location of the project area is provided in the Appendix D.
3.2 ACCESSIBILITY
There is direct transportation from Kathmandu to Trishuli Bazaar which branches off from
Ganagate to the project site. There is a motorable road(earthen and partially graveled)
of about 24 km from Ganagate to the project site. It takes about 6 hours from Kathmandu and
about 3 hours from Trishuli to reach the project site.
3.3 TOPOGRAPHY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY
The Tadi khola catchment lies within the Gandaki river basin. About, 3% of the catchment is
covered by snow whereas 26% is covered by rock and meadow. Similarly, about 46% of the
area is of agriculture land whereas 25% of the catchment area is covered by forest. The Tadi
khola flows with an average river slope of about 1 in 33.
3.4 CLIMATE
The average annual rainfall at the region is about 2755 mm. The project area experiences hot
and humid climate during June to September and cold climate during November to January.
The mean monthly temperature varies from 14 C to 25.4C. The relative humidity varies
from 33% to 93% over the year.

3.5 AVAILABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Local construction materials like sand, stones, aggregates etc. are available on the
construction site. Other construction material like cement, steel can be brought from
Kathmandu.


4. HYDROLOGY AND GEOLOGY
4.1 HYDROLOGY
4.1.1 Introduction
Water resources are the most important natural resources because they are not only
renewable but also abundantly available in Nepal. River runoff is the most important
component of available water resources in Nepal. The importance of the available water was
realized and The Government of Nepal started hydrological survey in early 1960s.
Availability of water and the risk factors at a project site are the major concern for the
development of any water resources project. Data on hydrology for most of the major river
basins in Nepal are available for more than 45 years. It is also estimated that more than 6000
rivers and rivulets are available in the country and only about 280 gauging stations are
established. Estimation of hydrological extremes and flow during normal condition are
essential for designing hydraulic structures of any hydropower. Hydrological study is
required for pre feasibility and feasibility study stages for future water balance analysis of
concerned catchments. Precipitation, temperature and humidity data are other important data.
Most important type of Hydrological data require for hydropower study is a long term stream
flow record of the flow available for power production. Stream flow data is used to estimate
the average annual energy that can be produced from the basin of available head. The
information about the high floods are extremely important to design the structures and to
ensure the safety of the structures as well as resident of the vicinity. Idea of flow availability
during the low flow season and during historical low flow year is also needed to estimate the
dependable capacity. If the stream flow data of the required basin is not available then they
are obtained from indirect methods like empirical methods, correlation/regional regression of
the available data of the nearby basin having similar hydrological characteristics, drainage
area, soil, precipitation pattern etc. Long term availability of stream flow is important in case
of Small hydropower Project, which are designed as runoff river plants normally at a slight
decrease in design discharge during its operation.


4.1.2 Collection of hydrological data
Hydrology is of great importance throughout all the project phases: from the preliminary
planning to the technical design, to the final management. In each phase of the project the
hydrological contribution is never a standard approach, but is a result of a fine calibration of
methodologies according to the requested degree of approximation and the available data.
The longer the hydrological data the more reliable is the estimation of design parameter for
the project. The collection of hydrological data mainly includes:
Precipitation in the catchment area.
Stream flow measurement.

Analyses of hydrological records are important to establish following parameters of the river:
Flow Duration Curve of the watershed at the intake site which is useful to determine
the design discharge.
Flood Analysis which is expected in the future can be done which is useful to
determine the maximum design flood.
Low Flow statistics are essential to determine the minimum design flow.
Parameter such as annual hydrograph showing long term mean monthly flow which is
useful to determine the firm and secondary energy that can be produced.
Stage discharge relationship curves at the intake site and tailrace site.
Tadi Khola is of the main tributaries of Trisuli River. The catchment area of the river lies
mainly in dense mixed forest. The Tadi Khola is gauged river whose gauging station number
is 448 located at Tadipul, Belkot, Nuwakot. Since, the catchment area characteristics of the
intake site are more or less similar to the gauge station number 448. So the hydrological data
for the proposed hydropower station can be taken from the above station.

.

4.1.3 Precipitation
The record of precipitation is important to understand the nature of catchment and flow of the
stream. The precipitation can be measured by two types of Rain Gauge.
Recording Type Rain gauge
Non Recording Type Rain gauge.
The measurement of precipitation of Tadi khola was done by using Recording Type Rain
gauge.
4.1.4 Discharge and Water Level
4.1.4.1 Discharge
The various methods of measuring the discharge are as follows:
Direct Method
Velocity-Area Method
Dilution method
Electromagnetic method
Ultrasonic method
Indirect Method
Hydraulic structures such as weir, flume etc
Slope Area method

4.1.4.2 Water level
The stage/water level is the elevation of the top water surface from an arbitrary datum.
The water level can be measured using following methods:
Manual gauging (staff gauge, wire gauge)
Automatic stage recorder
Float gauge recorder
Bubble gauge


The gauge discharge can be expressed by rating equation:
Q=C
r
(G-)

Where, Q = Storm Discharge
G = Gauging Height
= gauge reading at zero discharge
C
r
and are rating curve constant.
4.1.5 Estimation of High Flood Levels
Estimation of the high flood likely to occur in the river during the life of the project is
extremely important so as to facilitate safe passage of flood without causing any serious
damage to the project, the vicinity and the downstream. The flood flow value acts as a safety
measure for the design and location of hydraulic structure as well as superstructures
Probabilistic and regional methods can be used to calculate it. The more the frequency of the
flow, the larger the flood and hence, the more costly is the project. The selection of the
frequency depends upon the project risk and the economic condition. It is usually practiced to
adopt 100 years return period flow in the Small Hydropower Projects.
Among the various methods Gumbel method is very popular and is widely used. Log
Persons method is also widely used method. These methods are used in case of gauged
stations while for the ungauged stations WECS and DHM is widely used. PCJ method, and
other Empirical methods are also used for flood calculation.
The annual maximum instantaneous peak flow of the Tadi khola for the period of 1969-2006
for station 448 Tadi Khola was obtained from Department of Hydrology and Metrology
(DHM) and those data are used to calculate flood frequency analysis for different return
period.

4.1.5.1 Frequency Method
Frequency analysis is used to calculate the peak flow of a stream for any number of return
periods. It is a statistical method which is used for prediction of peak flow.


4.1.5.1.1 Gumbel Method
This extreme value distribution was introduced by Gumbel in 1941 and is commonly known
as Gumbels distribution. It is one of the widely used probabilities distribution function for
the extreme values in hydrologic and meteorological studies for prediction of peak floods,
maximum rainfall, maximum wind speed, etc.
Gumbel defined a flood as the largest of the 365 daily flow and the annual series of flood
flows constitute a series of largest values of flood. According to this theory of extreme
events, the probability of occurrence of an event equals to or larger than a value X
o
is
P ( X X
o
) = 1-e
-e^(-y)

In which y is dimensionless variable given by,
Y = (x-a)
Where, a = 0.4
= 1.2825/
x

thus, y = ( X- )/
x
+ 0.577
where, = mean and

x
= standard deviation of the variate X.
In practice, it is the value of X for a given P that is required and is
transposed as
Y
p
= -ln {-ln( 1-P)}
Noting that time period T =1/P and designating Y
T
= the value of y, commonly called the
reduced variate, for a given T
Y
T
= -{ ln.ln (T/(T-1))}
Y
T
= - {.834 +2.303 loglog (T/(T-1))}
The value of the variate X with a return period T is,
X
T
= +K
Where, K= (Y
T
0.577)/1.2825
The above equations constitute the basic Gumbels Equation and are applicable ta an infinite
sample size. Since practical annual data series of extreme events such as floods, maximum
rainfall depth, etc all have finite lengths of records; the equation for K is modified to account
for finite N as given for practical use
X
T
= + K *
n-1

Where n
-1
= standard deviation of the sample of size N
= Sqrt ( (X )
2
/(N-1))
K= frequency factor expressed as ( Y
T
Y
N
)/S
N

In which, Y
n
= reduced mean, a function of sample size N and is given table
S
n
= reduced standard deviation, a function of sample size N
These equations are used under following procedures to estimate the flood magnitude
corresponding to the given return period based on an annual flood series.
1. Assemble the discharge data and note the sample size N. here the annual flood value
is the variate x. Find and
n-1
for the given data.
2. Using tables determine Y
n
and S
n
appropriate to given N.
3. Find Y
T
for the given T by using Y
T
= -{ ln.ln (T/(T-1))}
4. Find K using K= ( Y
T
Y
n
)/S
n

5. Determine the flood discharge, X
T
= + K *
n-1
.
The calculation is provided in Appendix A-I.2.1, the 100 year flood being 237.60cumecs.

4.1.5.1.2 Log Pearson Type III method
In this method the variate is first transformed into logarithmic form (base 10) and the
transformed data is then analyzed. If X is variate of random hydrologic series, then the series
of z variate is
z = log x
For z series, for any recurrence interval T
z
T
= z +K
Z
z

where, K
Z
= a frequency factor of recurrence interval t and coefficient of skew C
S
.
z
= Standard deviation of the z variate sample
z
= Sqrt{(z-z
)
2
/ (N-1)}
C
S
= coefficient of skew of variate z
C
S
= {N(z-z
)/{(N-1)(N-2)
z
3
}

The variate of K
Z
= f (C
S
,T ) is given in table.
The corresponding value of x
T
= antilog (z
T
)
The calculation is provided in appendix A-I.2.2, the 100 year flood being 231.44cumecs.

4.1.5.2 Regional Regression Method
The regional regression method is region basis methods for the given area in which country
is divided into different regions depending on various characteristics such as rainfall
intensities, catchment area, etc. WECS/DHM is commonly used regional methods in context
of Nepal.

4.1.5.2.1 WECS and DHM
The WECS/DHM method was developed by WECS (1989) which estimates the
hydrological characteristics of ungauged sites in Nepal using a frequency distribution
parameter technique that is a variation of the multiple regression technique. In this method,
the independent variable that is most significant in the regression analysis is the area of the
basin below the 3000m elevation i.e. the area of the basin influenced by monsoon
precipitation. This method is not applicable to basins located entirely above 3000m and its
results for basin with a very small portion below the 3000m elevation are not particularly
reliable.
4.1.6 Recommended flood flow
Since the station 448 Tadi Khola is a gauged station, the flood of different return periods are
obtained by Gumbels Method and Log Pearson Type III Method only. They are plotted
using flood data of Tadi khola and it gives a straight line graph from different return periods.
We preferred the value obtained from Log Pearson Type III Method because for daily and
monthly data this method works better.


4.1.7 Establishment of design discharge foe power calculation
The major approaches for assessing water availability of hydropower projects are mean
monthly flow and flow duration curve. These curves give realistic estimation of flow and
ascertain economic viability of a project.
4.1.7.1 Mean monthly flow
Availability of adequate water flow for power generation is indicated by estimation of mean
flow. Mean annual flow gives the potential power of stream but stream flow is usually less
than this flow. To calculate mean monthly flow following methods can be used.
MIP
Catchment Correlation
HYDEST
Modified HYDEST
MIP, HYDEST and modified HYDEST methods are used for an ungauged station. So
catchment correlation method was used to calculate the mean monthly flow.
Catchment Correlation
The mean monthly flow at the proposed intake is derived using data obtained from gauge
station no 448 with catchment area is 653 km
2
. The catchment area of the intake site is 105
km
2
. So the mean monthly flow at intake is calculated using the following formula:
Q
2
= (A
2
/A
1
) *Q
1

Where, Q
2
= Known discharge of the basin 2.
Q
1
= Required discharge of the basin 1.
A
1
= Area of the basin 1
A
2
= Area of the basin 2
The driest monthly flow was obtained as 0.83 m
3
/s.
The correlated data, the mean monthly flow and the hydrograph are provided in Appendix
A-I.1.2, A-I.1.1 and A-I.1.3.


4.1.7.2 Flow Duration Curve
The flow duration curve is a probability discharge curve that shows the percentage of time a
particular flow is exceeded or equaled. In a runoff river hydropower project, it is useful to
know the variation of flow over the year so as to make ease to select the most appropriate
turbine configuration as well as for project optimization.
Flow duration Curve at different probability of exceedence is provided in Appendix A-I.1.1.
The exceedence discharge at 40 % is obtained as 4.64 m
3
/s.
4.1.8 Rating curve
Rating curve is a graph of discharge versus stage for a given point on a stream, usually
at gauging stations, where the stream discharge is measured across the stream channel. With
the help of rating curve, for any discharge the water level can be known easily. This is very
important for determination of weir height.
The rating curves for the upstream of weir and downstream of tailrace have been plotted and
are provided in the Appendix A-I.3.1 and A-I.3.2.
4.1.9 Suspended matter and bed load
4.1.9.1 General
The sediment transport in the river is a complex phenomenon. A careful study of the
sediment inflow and assessment of deposition is of major importance in planning of any
hydropower project. The mineralogical analysis of the sediment sample is necessary to
determine the presence of hard and soft material contents. The sediment collected from
samples of fine and coarse deposits are generally used for mineralogical analysis. The size of
the sediment greater than 100mm is taken as bed load. The sediment having size less than
100mm is taken as suspended matter. The major effects of sediment and minerals for run off
river projects are:
Serve abrasion, wear and tear of turbine depending on nature of sediment overtime.
Reduction of storing capacity of dam due to deposition of sediment.
Cost of construction and maintenance of overall project increases.

Degradation of river downstream of the dam resulting in instability on either side of
banks.
The concentration of bed load for any hydropower plant is approximately taken as 30%
of the maximum discharge which is used for sluice gate design. Similarly, the concentration
of suspended matter is taken as 10-20% of the maximum discharge of the river which is used
for the design of settling basin. The realistic and objective assessment of sedimentation is
necessary for both project economic and environment consideration.
4.1.9.2 Morphological influence upon solid matter particle
The size of the sediment in the river system of our country usually varies from fine sand to
big boulders. Tadi khola is one of the snow fed river and there are large number of rounded
boulders deposited in either side of the bank of the proposed site. At the meandering section
of the Tadi khola, high deposition of sediments takes place on either side of the river. The
bed characteristic of the river is rocky and mobile. The slope of the river is relatively high as
it is in the hilly region and the sediments are transported to a larger distance.
4.1.10 Estimation of Downstream Water Rights
When dam, weir etc is constructed across the stream for different purpose, the flow on
downstream is blocked. This will affect the privilege of downstream. The advantages that are
taken from the stream are not only human but also the fishes, natural plants, domestic
animals, and other directly or indirectly related living beings. To analyze compensation flow,
the total population of the downstream basin should be estimated. The use of stream by
animals, fishs population, etc should be estimated as well. The fail in analysis of species
composition has directly influence on population density, age structure and sediment
characteristics. Therefore, it is recommended that at least 10% of the discharge should be
released to downstream as downstream water right.


4.2 GEOLOGY
4.2.1 General
Middle Tadi hydroelectric project is Run-of-river type project situated at Rautbeshi,
Shikharbeshi and Ghyanphedi VDC in Nuwakot district. The project is a seasonal type
project which has its headworks located 7km upstream from Samundratar Bazaar whereas
powerhouse is planned to be constructed right across the Shikharbeshi Bazaar. The waterway
is envisaged to be of pressure penstock steel pipe.
The geological and geotechnical investigation is one of the major components for the
feasibility study of hydroelectric projects. Detailed engineering geological study is the basic
requirement for the construction of hydropower projects. It directly related with the sub
surface condition of the rock the soil and their engineering properties. It plays an important
role in understanding of ground through which the project is planned to align. It is even more
important for the projects that have underground structures. A small mistake in geo-technical
investigation can collapse the whole structure and hence carry great risk in construction.
Therefore, proper investigations are necessary to clarify the magnitude of risk and how they
can be minimized or managed. With this backdrop, the main objective of the study is set to
achieve required information and data on the following aspect of the project area:
To provide basic geological and geotechnical parameters for the environmental
study and also the design of hydraulic structures,
To study the geomorphology of the project area,
To find out major weakness zone, hazardous and non-hazardous area, degree of
stability,
To obtain information on regional geology of the project area and site specific
surface geology condition in order to assess the suitability and stability of
structures,
To study the Lithology of the project area and identify the type of earth materials,
To indentify the location of construction material sites and hence carry out
construction material survey,

The study abstracts a brief description of regional geology and detail engineering geological
condition of the project area, which provides an assessment of rock support of underground
works and foundation requirement of important structures for the feasibility of the MTKHEP.
This section of the report is based on several site visits findings and observation.
4.2.2 Geology of Nepal
Nepal occupies about 800km long Himalayan range in the central sector of the southwardly
convex Himalayan mountain arc. Nepal can be divided into the following five tectonic zones
(Hagen, 1969)
Tibetan-Tethys Himalaya Zone
Higher Himalaya Zone
Lesser Himalaya Zone
Sub- Himalaya (Siwalik) Zone
Terai Zone
4.2.2.1 Tibetan- Tethys Zone
It lies between the south Tibetan Detachment System in the south and the Indus-Tsangpo
Suture Zone in the north. This zone is the northernmost tectonic zone that comprises chiefly
of fossiliferous sedimentary rocks, such as shale, limestone and sandstone of age ranging
from lower Paleozoic to Paleocene. The rocks of this zone are well exposed and studied in
Thak Khola (Mustang), Manang, Dolpa, Mt. Everest, Mt. Makalu, Mt. Annapurna and Mt.
Dhaulagiri regions.
4.2.2.2 Higher Himalayan zone
This zone is tectonically still active and made up of metamorphic rocks. This zone is
geologically as well as morphologically well defined and consists of a huge pile (about
10km) of highly metamorphosed rocks. The Main Central Thrust (MCT) bounds this zone in
the southern and the South Tibetan Detachment System. The MCT zone is characterized by
inverted metamorphism. It has been observed that higher grade of metamorphic rocks lie
structurally and topographically above the low- grade rocks. Le Fort (1975 b) and Sharma

(1978) explain the inverted metamorphism in terms of thermal regime associated with MCT.
The Higher Himalayan Zone is composed of crystalline rocks. Bordet et al, (1972) divided
this zone into the following four main units:
Kyanite-Silliminite gneiss
Pyroxenic marble and gneiss
Banded gneiss
Augen gneiss

4.2.2.3 Lesser Himalayan Zone
The Lesser Himalayan Zone lies at the south of the Higher Himalayan Zone. It is bounded by
the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the south. This Lesser
Himalayas of Nepal include both midlands and Mahabharat Range in the physiographic
division. The important valleys like Kathmandu and Pokhara lies within this zone. This zone
is composed of relatively high- grade meta-sedimentary rocks of Cambrian to Eocene age.
This zone is also characterized by the development of extensive thrust sheets and tectonic
windows. A great variation in the tectonic structure is found in the eastern and western sides.

4.2.2.4 Sub- Himalayan (Siwalik) Zone
It lies in the south of the Lesser Himalayan Zone. It is represented by the first low altitude
hills, bordering the plains of Terai. These ranges rise immediately to the north of the Terai
plain. The Siwaliks are bounded by the MBT on the north and the Main Frontal Thrust
(MFT) on the south. This zone exhibits a rugged topography characterized by steep hill
slopes and deep valleys with landslides and steep escarpments and runs along the entire
length of the country from east to west. The youngest mountain chain seems to be
tectonically active and still rising. The Siwaliks of Nepal are composed chiefly of fluvial
sediments like sand, shale, and pebble beds of Neogene age.

4.2.2.5 Terai Zone
It is the southernmost tectonic division of Nepal. It is part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and
gently slopes towards the south. In the northern part, the MFT separated the Terai Plain from
the Sub-Himalayas. The alluvial deposits of Pleistocene to Recent age (Sharma 1990) cover

the Terai Plain. The average thickness of alluvium deposits is about 1500 m. The rivers
coming from the hills in the north bring these sediments.
4.2.3 Objective of Geological Study
The main objectives of the detailed geological and geo-technical investigation are as follows:
To obtain the required information about regional geology of the project area
and the site specific surface geological condition in order to assess the
stability and suitability of the particular structure;
To find out the rock mass condition of project area and geotechnical
condition, regional geology of the overall project;
To produce engineering geological maps, cross-section and profiles of the
major structures;
To assess the location of construction material sites and hence carries out
construction material survey.
4.2.4 Scope of geological study
The scope of this feasibility study comprises of the following works:
To collect and review the available literature, topographical and geological maps,
photographs and land satellite images;
To study the geological and geo-morphological information prior to previous
studies;
To conduct field survey to collect and verify geological information prior to
general and detail geological mapping of the project components and particular
structures;
To identify the geological and seismic hazards such as faults, thrusts and
landslides, etc;
To identify and assess construction material quarry sites, sources and their
quality.
4.2.5 Regional Geology
The project lies in the Nuwakot Complex of Lowe Nuwakot group of Kuncha Formation.
According to Brodet (1961), rock is described as an enormous complex, a kind of flysh, a
silky luster, slightly metamorphic, of yellowish, blue grey and green grey color, and

extremely monotonous. Particular characteristic of Kuncha formation are frequent
intercalation of phyllitic grit stones, consisting of detrial grains of mostly quartz, very
subordinately feldspar, tourmaline and other minerals, which are loosely disseminated in a
phyllitic matrix. Sericite and chlorite are usually the only metamorphic minerals recognizable
in the Kunch Formation, but an increase in metamorphic grade was locally seen in lower
parts of the formation, with appearance of chloritized biotite and Betrawati, and of biotite and
even small garmets near the confluence of Bhotekoshi and Sunkoshi.
A special noteworthy feature of the Kuncha formation is a strong lineaton, predominantly in
a N or N-NE direction, seen in nearly all outcrops. It is less distinct in the higher parts of the
Nuwakot Complex. This project lies in Higher Himalayan unit of the Central Nepal. It
consists of high grade metamorphic rocks such as gneiss, migamitte etc. The area lies in the
Gosainkund Crystalline nappe with para-gneiss as the main rock type. The geology of the
Central Nepal is summarized in Table below.
Complex Groups Formation Main Lithology Thickness,
m
Age
K
a
t
h
m
a
n
d
u

C
o
m
p
l
e
x

Phulchoki
Group
Godawari
Formation
Limestone, dolomite 300 Devonian
Chitlang
Formation
Slate 1000 Silurian
Chandragiri
lomestone
Limestone 2000 Cambro-
Ordoviclan
Sopyang
Formation
Slate, Calc-Phylite 200 Cambrian
Tistung
Formation
Metasandstone,
phylite
3000 Late
Precambrian
Transitional Zone
Markhu
Formation
Marble, Schist 1000 Precambrian
Kulekhani Quartzite, Schist 2000 Precambrian

Formation
Chisapani
Quartzite
White Quartzite 400 Precambrian
Kalitar Formation Schist, Quartzite 2000 Precambrian
Bhaise Dobhan
Marble
Marble 800 Precambrian
Raduwa
Formation
Granetiferous 1000 Precambrian
Mahabharat Thrust
N
u
w
a
k
o
t

C

o
m
p
l
e
x

Upper
Nuwakot
Group
Robang
Formation
Phyllite, Quartzite 1000 Paleozoic
Malekhu
Limestone
Limestone, Dolomite 800 Paleozoic
Benighat Slate Slate, Argillaceous
Dolomite
2000 Paleozoic
Erosional Unconformity
Lower
Nuwakot
Dhading
Dolomite
Stromatalitic
Dolomite
500 Late
Precambrian
Nourpul
Formation
Phyllite, Quartzite,
Dolomite
800 Late
Precambrian
Dandagaon
Phyllite
Phyllite 1000 Late
Precambrian
Fagfog Quartzite White Quartzite 400 Late
Precambrian
Kunchha
Formation
Phyllite, Quartzite,
Gritstone,
Conglomerate
3000+ Late
Precambrian
Main Boundary Thrust
Siwaliks Group

Table 3.1 Stratigraphic Subdivision of Central Nepal (after Stoldin and Bhattarai (1977)
Stocklin (1980))
4.2.6 General geology and Geomorphology of the project area
Geologically, the MTHEP area lies in the Gosainkund Crystalline Nappe with para gneiss at
the main rock type and of Higher Himalayan Unit of the central Nepal. It consist of high
grade metamorphic rocks such as gneiss, migmatite etc.
Most of the project area lies in steep to gentle sloppy and flat area. Right bank of headworks
is lies in alluvium deposit whereas left bank lies in colluviums deposit. The river course is
covered with pebbles, cobbles and big boulder of up to about 5 m in diameter. The gravel
trap, approach cannel, settling basin, penstock pressure pipe passes steep topography to flat
area. In some locations of penstock alignment quartzite is exposed.

4.2.7 Soil Types
4.2.7.1 Colluvium Soil
Colluviums soil is commonly encountered in the project area. It is composed of light grey to
dark grey, angular to sub-angular pebbles, cobbles, boulders and gravel supported in the
clayey sandy matrix. It consists of about 65% coarse material and about 35% fine materials.
Fine material contains low to medium plastic sandy silt. The estimated thickness of the
colluviums varies from about 3 m to 9 m depending upon the nature of slope. Unconsolidated
soil is found in relatively flat and gently sloping areas and semi consolidated soil in
moderately steeper slopes.
4.2.7.2 Alluvium Soil
It covers maximum surface area of the project area. Recent and old alluvial deposits are
distributed at both banks of the Tadi Khola in headworks area, waterway and powerhouse
site and which could be around 5 to 15 m high from the existing riverbed level. The old river
alluvium is deposited over the bedrock in some stretches of these areas. The terrace consists
of sub-rounded to rounded boulder (max diameter > 2000 cm), cobble, pebble and gravel of
gneiss limestone slate dolomite etc supported by sandy and silty matrix. It is light grey in

color, non-cohesive, medium compact and previous nature. It contains about 30% to 40%
coarse and 70% 60% fine material.
The recent alluvial deposits are found in and around Riverbanks and river courses especially
at Kuntung Khola. It comprises rounded to well rounded, boulder (max. diameter > 2000 cm)
cobble, pebble and gravel with silty sandy matrix. It contains about 60 to 70% coarse
material supported by 30 to 40% fines material. The thickness of the recent deposit varies
from 3m to 5m.
4.2.7.3 Residual Soil
Most of the gently dipping slopes and ridges of the project area are covered with residual
soil, which are the weathering product of bedrocks. It is also distributed right across the
Kuntung Khola where powerhouse is proposed. Residual soil is grey in color in gentle slope
areas whereas brown to light brown in remaining areas. The soil is characterized by cohesive
clay to no-cohesive with mix of sand and silt. The depth of residual soil generally varies from
5 to 10 m in the project area.
4.2.8 Joints
Hardly any rock outcrop can be traced in the project corridor except headworks area since all
corridors are of colluvio-alluvium deposit. However, this is not the case for waterway
alignment.
4.2.9 Project area geology
The project area mainly consists of gneiss. The main characteristics of different rock types
based on the observation of available rock exposures are discussed hereunder. During the
engineering geological study, and engineering geological map of the project area has been
prepared. The main project structure such as diversion weir axis site, settling basin/forebay,
penstock pipe, powerhouse and tailrace are mapped. Geologically, the whole project area lies
in the Gosainkunda Crystalline Nappe with para gneiss as the main rock type of Higher
Himalayan succession. The rocks are medium strong, slightly weathered having three sets of
joints including foliation plane.
060/ 35 (Dip dir/Dip amount) Foliation Plane

310/60 (Dip dir/Dip amount) J1
4.2.10 Engineering geology of the project area
The project is is located in a fairly stable stretches of the river section. Exposed rock outcrops
at bed and either banks at headworks, exposed rock outcrops at headrace penstock alignment
and thereon followed almost parallel to the existing small irrigation canal will be the major
location of the structures. A brief discussion on major project location is made in the
following sub- sections.
4.2.10.1 Headworks site
The proposed intake lies in colluvio-alluvium deposit on both banks. The bed rock has been
estimated about 10 m. The left bank is on flood plain where pebbles, boulders and gravels of
different sizes can be seen. There is not much elevation difference with respect to the Tadi
Khola river bed and thus it requires bank protection works. Likewise, the right bank has also
alluvial deposit where Suryakund HEP power house is proposed.
The alluvium deposit is composed of thick to thin accumulation of fine to coarse sand,
rounded to sub-rounded boulders of quartzite and granite (more than 80% gneiss). The
thickness of the alluvium may ranges from 5m to 10m. The slope of both banks is steep
except at river bed level.
Following suggestions are made on the basis of site visit findings:
Colluvio-alluvium deposits are found on both banks and at river bed. Bed rock cannot
be expected at shallow depth and thus grouting will help in some extent to reduce
piping effect.
Both banks will require bank protection works so as to ensure channelized flow.
Left bank where surface settling basin is proposed is on flood plain and thus
extension flood wall little downstream will be helpful to protect surface structures.
Catch drain in uphill slope is required along left bank. It is also advisable to have
bioengineering slope stabilization though it seems fairly stable hill slope.


4.2.10.2 Settling basin/forebay
The proposed settling basin lies in the old alluvio-colluvuial deposit along left bank and flood
plain area. The deposit comprises boulders of gneiss, quartzite, and fine sediments containing
the particles of mica, feldspar and quartzite. The proposed area is flood plain and the soil is
compact. It would be better to aligned project structures to hillside by cutting toe of the hill
slope.
Recommendations:
Soil treatment should be done before construction of settling basin.
River protection works should be done.
Catch drain in uphill slope is suggested.
Bioengineering of hill slope is suggested
Safe discharge of settling basin flushing discharge and location of stable spillway
section;
Construction of foundation in soil will invite to control over up heaving effect.

4.2.10.3 Waterway
The waterway will be steel penstock pipe because of the terrain difficulties in construction of
canal.
The proposed pressure pipe passes through colluvial deposit in some location it passes
through gneiss bands.
Only few meters of pressure pipe passes through exposed rock. The rock is medium grained,
slightly weathered, strong to medium strong. The persistency of the discontinuities is less.
The dip amount varies from 70 to 80 where as dip direction varies from 160 to 170o
towards south east. The thickness of the bedding varies from 0.7 m to 0.2 m. Remaining part
of the canal alignment passes through the alluvial as well as colluvial deposit. The colluvial
deposit comprises gneisses and gray to dark gray soil. Whereas alluvial deposit comprises
very few amounts of boulders of granite and quarzite etc and fine sediments consisting of
different mineral assemblages like quartzite, feldspar, tourmaline etc.

Right after the setting basin, the penstock will start. It has to follow the hill slope to avoid
flood banks. Some 200 m downstream from the setting basin, it has to pass through the
exposed rock outcrops and thus will require anchorage of the penstock pipe. Moreover, it has
to cross three small gullies on its way down to powerhouse. It is small in width and also
relatively small catchment. Support piers may be enough but more detail calculation at
design is suggested.
Likewise, close to the proposed powerhouse location, the penstock pipe has to follow
irrigation fields. The area is stable.
Recommendations
Most parts of the surface penstock alignment passes through alluvio-colluvial deposit
so well treatment of slope be done during construction.
It has to cross three small kholsi on its way down to powerhouse. Both aqueduct as
buned is possible but detailed flood calculation is suggested prior taking decision.
The water way in some stretches has to cross exposed rock surface and thus rock
anchorage in those areas are suggested.
Waterway alignment to be set well above possible flood plain to ascertain safe from
possible flood hazards.
Waterway alignment should be chosen so as to avoid denting problem.
Slope stabilization uphill is suggested; bio-engineering could be one of the best
approaches.
Shear key could give more stability to anchor blocks.

4.2.10.4 Powerhouse and tailrace
The power house and tailrace lies in alluvial deposit near the confluence of Kuntung Khola-
Tadi Khola. The deposit consists of boulders of, gneiss, quartzite and schist supported by
silty clay matrix. About 10% of deposit boulder and remaining is fine to coarse sand and silty
clay. Fine and coarse sediments consists of different mineral fragments like quartzite, mica,
tourmaline, feldspar etc. The tailrace is also locates along collovio-alluvium deposit and thus
it is important to find a suitable discharging point for tailrace outlet.

Proposed powerhouse location is on the agriculture land located on the left bank of the Tadi-
Khola. Superficially, it can be seen a paddy land but it is an alluvial deposit. It is therefore
envisioned that the area is comprises of rounded to well rounded boulders (<3 m), cobbles,
pebbles and gravels in silty sand matrix. There is possibility of flood in the tailrace during
high flood time and therefore the tailrace should be moved further to hillside. Moreover,
bank protection work along left bank would be useful to protect from possible flooding. For
foundation of powerhouse structure, allowable bearing capacity of this alluvial deposit is
greater than150 kN/m
2
.


5. POWER OUTPUT AND ENERGY GENERATION
5.1 GENERAL
In Nepal, there is higher discharge in during the rainy season. This results in hydrological
variation and hence the power potential in the rainy season is substantially greater than
technically and economically viable power potential of the rivers. Therefore, the optimization
study shall be conducted to select the economically viable installed capacity of the
hydropower plants. The optimization is done for the following alternatives safe scenarios:
Served in an isolated system.
Connected to INPS for meeting the system requirement.
Based on export scenario.

5.2 POWER TYPE
5.2.1 Firm Power
The firm power is always ensured to a customer at any hour of the day and is, thus,
completely dependable power. The power which is available more the 95% of certain time
period is known as firm power. Such a power would correspond to the minimum flow of
river and is available all the time. The energy generated from such power is known as firm
energy.
On-peak firm energy is defined as that portion of the firm energy generated during
designated peaking period. This energy has greatest energy benefit.
Off-peak firm energy is defined as that portion of firm energy generated in the off-peak
periods. This type of energy has lower benefit than the on-peak firm energies.

5.2.2 Secondary Power
If the power is available intermittently for unpredictable time, the power is called the
secondary power. In other words, it is surplus or non firm power other than the primary one
and is useful in the interconnected system of power station i.e. grid. It may also be used to

take care of the current demand by following a load sharing plan. The energy generated from
such power is known as secondary energy.
Secondary energy is defined as the difference between the long term average annual energy
and firm energy. This energy is supplied to consumers at a lower price than that of on-peak
and off-peak firm energy.

5.3 TYPES OF HEAD
5.3.1 Gross head
It is the difference in water level elevation at the point of diversion and the point of return of
water back to the river. The gross head obtained is 77.7 m.
5.3.2 Net head
It is the head obtained after deducting the losses between the diversion point and axis of
turbine from gross head. The net head obtained is 66.045 m.

5.4 OVERALL EFFICIENCY
The overall efficiency of the system is 85%, calculated with aid of following relation and
parameters:

o
=
h
*
T
= 0.85
where,
o
= Overall efficiency

h
= hydraulic efficiency

T
= Turbine efficiency


5.5 INSTALLED CAPACITY
If the turbine is designed with the maximum discharge then it will be in full operation only
for small period of time. In other words, the plant has to run not in full capacity. This causes
plant to become much costly due to its bigger size. If the turbine is designed with minimum
discharge then it is required to spill much of the useful water. So , usually hydropower plants
are designed with the discharge, which is assumed to be available in the river 40% period of
the year. The capacity of the plant estimated through this discharge with some extra reserve
capacity is termed as installed capacity.
The installed capacity of the power plant is the maximum power which can be generated by
the generators at normal head with full flow.
The installed capacity of the hydropower is given as:
P= 9.81 * Q
d
*H
n
*
o

Where, P= installed capacity i.e. power in KW
Q
d
= Design discharge in cumecs
H
n
= Net head
o
= Overall unit efficiency
The installed capacity of the power plant is 3.00 MW
The estimation of energy is provided in Appendix C.


6. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND COST ESTIMATION
6.1 COST ESTIMATION
In all the engineering works, beforehand probable cost of construction work is required to be
known. This is said to be estimated cost. We must as far as possible reduce the cost because
if the estimated cost is greater than the money available, we must reduce it by either reducing
work or by changing the specification. Form this importance of estimate is understood. In
preparing the estimate generally, quantities of different item of work are calculated by simple
menstruation method. But for proper estimation proper ideas of drawing should be clear. The
calculation mainly consists of length, breadth and height. In preparing estimate details of
each item, big or small, nothing should be left. Accuracy in estimate is generally important
because if estimate is exceeded it becomes very difficult to account for and arrange the
additional money. Inaccuracy in preparing estimate, omission of items, changes in designs,
improper rates, etc are the reasons for exceeding the estimate, though increasing is rates is
one of the main reason.
The total project cost excluding VAT and taxes was obtained relatively higher as NRs
647,796,180 equivalent to US$ 6,216,853 as per current rate of open market exchange rate.
These comprise NRs 404,872,613 for civil construction cost, NRs 80,974,523 for hydro-
mechanical cost, NRs 121,461,784 for electro-mechanical cost and 10% for contingencies.
The detail estimation is provided in the Appendix C.

6.2 POWER-ENERGY STUDY AND REVENUE CALCULATION
With an escalation rate of 3%, the proposed energy rate as per each fiscal year is mentioned
in section C-V of Appendix C of this report.
The installed capacity as aforementioned is 3 MW. The total dry energy production per
annum is 2.17 GWh while the total wet energy production is 13.51 GWh leading to an annual
production of 15.67 GWh energy.
The energy calculation chart is attached herewith in section C-II of Appendix C of this
report.

The NPV (government-takes) is obtained as NRs 93m with royalty NRs 47.96m and taxes
NRs 45.48m and the NPV (project-takes) is NRs 55m.
The gross revenue was calculated as NRs 918510000; the total annual operation and
maintenance cost being NRs 97176942.7 and the project life is of 30 years.

6.3 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
An engineering work is always accompanied by its economic study. The economic study is
a guiding parameter of whether the engineering work is to be carried out or not. Economic
analysis is a quantitative evaluation, which presents a comparison between the benefit and
cost over the lifetime of a project. It is a criterion for the selection of alternatives. Again for
making the decision of either constructing or not of the alternative, economic viability is one
of the major criterions. It is a systematic approach to determining the optimum use of
scarce resources, involving comparison of two or more alternatives in achieving a
specific objective under the given assumptions and constraints.
Economic analysis takes into account the opportunity costs of resources employed and
attempts to measure monetary terms the private and social costs and benefits of a project to
the community. The revenue earned from the project has to be assessed based on the project
available energy. These are equated against the recurring costs which consist mainly of the
interest on investment, depreciation of the plant and equipment, operation and maintenance
expenses, to arrive at the income surplus. No one wants to invest for the project which will
not give the good return in future though it is feasible technically from regional balance
point of view.
A hydropower project will provide electric power for many years. Consequently the benefits
of the project will be spread over a long years. The project costs however, are composed by
the initial construction costs and the running costs which occur during the whole project life.
Thus in order to make realistic investment decisions, each monetary value must be identified
by both time and money. Thus, economic analysis is made on the principle of time value of
money.

6.3.1 Pay-Back Period
Payback period refers to the period of time required for the return on an investment to repay
the sum of the original investment. It measures the liquidity of project.
The payback period of the project is 8.75 years.
6.3.2 Benefit-Cost Ratio
Benefit-cost ratio is a technique for evaluating a project or investment by comparing the
economic benefits with the economic costs of the activity. Benefit-cost ratio has several
objectives. First, benefit-cost ratio can be used to evaluate the economic merit of a project.
Second the results from a series of benefit-cost analyses can be used to compare competing
projects. It can be used to assess business decisions, to examine the worth of public
investments, or to assess the wisdom of using natural resources or altering environmental
conditions. Ultimately, benefit-cost ratio aims to examine potential actions with the objective
of increasing social welfare.
The B/C ratio of the project is obtained as 1.06.
6.3.3 Internal rate of return
The internal rate of return on an investment or project is the annualized effective
compounded return rate that makes the net present value of all cash flows (both positive and
negative) from a particular investment equal to zero. It can also be defined as the discount
rate at which the present value of all future cash flow is equal to the initial investment or in
other words the rate at which an investment breaks even. In more specific terms, the IRR of
an investment is the discount rate at which the net present value of costs of the investment
equals the net present value of the benefits of the investment. IRR calculations are commonly
used to evaluate the desirability of investments or projects. The higher a project's IRR, the
more desirable it is to undertake the project.
The IRR of the project is obtained as 9% for a project life of 30 years.
The detail calculation of economic analysis is provided in Appendix C.


6.3.4 Conclusion
The payback period of the project is 8.75 years; the benefit-cost ratio is 1.06 and the internal
rate of return is 9%. Due to very low B/C ratio and relatively lower rate of return, the project
is classified as economically unfeasible. However, several optimization measures on the
design and consideration of the principal components can be carried out, which may lead to
reduction in the construction expenses and aid in increasing the financial viability. Also, the
provision of plum concrete may be a significant change in reducing the cost while not
compromising with the strength. In carrying out this project, only the optimization work for
the diameter of the penstock pipe is carried out.


7. PROJECT PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
7.1 GENERAL
A project involves lot of planning, designing and implementing activities that need proper
utilization of manpower, machine, material, money. Projects are the outcomes of resources,
techniques which must be economically viable, technically, politically suitable and socially
acceptable. With the increasing complexity of larger projects, the necessity for better
planning and scheduling is increasing. For the success of any project it is necessary that the
objectives and time schedules should be defined with reference to attainable targets, taking
into account all the problems and difficulties which may be existing at the time of drawing up
of the plan or during the courses of construction period.
7.2 PLANNING
Planning is a scheme, method or design for the attainment of some objectives. It is a mode of
action, intentions or arrangements worked out in advance. It is the careful consideration of all
possibilities in order to complete the project most economical and within the stated time.
During planning one of the things to anticipate about is the events which are likely to
attainment of the goal. All the expected risk and methods foreseen to overcome them are
included as a part of planning. Most important part of planning is to designate as to who will
monitor and control it. A good plan contains complete documentation such as human
resources, financial resources and information system required to complete a project. In other
words, effectiveness, efficiency and economy have been the key points to be remembered
during project planning.
For the successful run of the project, certain development such as assess road, temporary
camps, and facilities of drinking water should be provide at the project site before the
commencement of the actual construction. The construction work should be commenced
after enough operation lined up and definite arrangements are made for the arrival of
materials and equipments.


7.3 PHASES OF CONSTRUCTION
General phase of project construction can be summarized as:
1. Access road construction.
2. Construction of camps.
3. Construction of civil works.
4. Installation of electromechanical work.
7.4 TIME MANAGEMENT IN PROJECT
Time is a scarce in project management whose wastage means cost growth. So, it is
necessary to utilize the minimum time to accomplish the targeted goals of the project.
7.5 PROJECT SCHEDULING
Project scheduling is a mechanical process of setting out time period to a given task. During
scheduling the starting and finishing dates to each part of work are assigned or fixed in such
a manner that the work should be done in an orderly and systematic way so as to complete as
to complete whole work should be done in an orderly and systematic way so as to complete
the whole of project in the scheduled time. Also the time estimate of each activity and project
as a whole is considered and time is allocated to each activity and subsequently to whole of
the project.
The project scheduling is done immediately after planning work is completed, approved, the
budget estimate is prepared and the detailed design, tendering and the master plan is more or
less finalized. The schedule of construction work is very important aspect of the project as it
ensures not only the timely completion of the project to comply with the energy requirement
of the nation but also to have a tentative idea on the cash flow pattern of the project. The
management of the finance as well as the other resources like material, equipment and
manpower for the project implementation largely depend on the schedule of the construction.
Due to the interdependency of number of activities with each other, it is necessary to make
the schedule in the systematic way for easy understanding and reference. The widely used
techniques are:
Bar chart
Flow chart

Network analysis
CPM/PERT

7.6 PLANNING AND SCHEDULING OF MIDDLE TADI KHOLA HEP
The planning and scheduling of each activities of project should be done with the effective
use of manpower, machine and tools as far as possible and the time scheduling can be done
using techniques such as Gantt chart, Flow chart or Network analysis. However due to time
constraint we have not prepared planning and scheduling chart in this report.


8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The MTKHEP is a run-of-river hydropower project with an installed capacity of 3.00 MW.
The design discharge at 40% exceedence is 4.64 m
3
/s and the gross head is 77.7 m. There are
two numbers of units of Francis turbines each unit producing 1.50 MW.
The proposed project is located in Nuwakot district of the Central Development Region of
Nepal. The project site is accessible with a direct transportation from Kathmandu to Trishuli
Bazaar which branches off from Gangate to the project site. The catchment area is 105 km
2

which is partial snow covered. The average river slope of Tadi River is 1 in 33. In general,
the project area lies in the Gosainkunda Crystalline Nappe with para gneiss rock as the main
rock type. Due to the terrain difficulties in the construction of canal, the waterway is
recommended to be steel penstock pipe.
The weir crest level is 1275 m while the undersluice crest level and intake invert (sill) level
are 1270 m and 1272.5 m respectively. The turbine level is 1197.3 m. There are two orifices
at the side intake and provision of gravel trap and settling basin with intermittent flushing
system. The 15m*10.3m*4.55m forebay is provided alongside the settling basin. The
penstock pipe is 1260m long with the diameter and thickness of 1.5 m and 0.014 m
respectively.
The financial rate of return and the B/C is as low as much as 9% and 1.06. This suggests the
project to be financially unviable. However, it is recommended to carry out optimization
works in principal civil components in order to reduce the cost. Also, the choice of materials
(viz. plum concrete in weir core, anchor block etc.) could prove useful too.
The social and environmental factors have been considered during the feasibility study and as
per findings; there are no significant settlements in the project area, therefore no issues
regarding resettlement, irrigation off-takes, water mills and drinking water supply. The
project area is placed in the buffer zone of Langtang National Park; this necessitates the
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the project, whatsoever the project has no other
significant environmental impacts. Release of at least 10% of the driest mean monthly flow
from headworks has been adopted for ecological reasons.

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baral, S. (2013). Fundamentals of Hydropower Engineering. Kathmandu: Engineering and
Educational Services.
Chow, V. T., Madiment, D. R., & Mays, L. W. (1988). Applied Hydrology. McGraw Hills.
Dandekar and Sharma, (1996). Water Power Engineering, Vikas Publishing House.
Department of Electricity Development.(2003). Guidelines for Study of Hydropower Projects.
Nepal.
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM), Hydrological and Meteorological Records
of Nepal
Garg, S.K.(1976). Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures, Khanna Publishers.
IS: 11388-1995. Recommendations for Design of Trash Racks for Intakes. Bureau of Indian
Standards. New Delhi.
IS: 11527-1985. Criteria for Structural Design of Energy Dissipators for Spillways. Reaffirmed
1999. Indian Standard Institution. New Delhi.
ITDG. (2002). Civil Works Guidelines for Micro hydropower in Nepal, BPC Hydroconsult.
METCON Consultants. (2001). Guidelines for the Feasilibility Study of PROR and ROR
Hydropower Projects(10-100MW).Kathmandu: DOED
Subramanya, K. (2008). Engineering Hydrology. New Dehli: Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited.
USBR. (1978). Design of Small Dams . Water Recourses Technical Publication, Third Edition .
WECS and Department of Hydrology & Meteorology (DHM), (1990). Methodologies for
Estimating Hydrologic Characteristic of Ungauged Locations in Nepal Volume II Appendices.
Nepal.

Final Theory

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Final Theory

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Feasibility study of Middle Tadi Khola HEP Page 1

Você também pode gostar