Abstract

Matching reservoir characteristics and completion technology

With optimum drilling uid formulation is important to the economics of any eld development. In
recent years, this need has become even more important with the growing application of open
hole completions in high angle or horizontal wellbores that are now commonly drilled and
completed with the same drill-in uid. Openhole completions place several demands on the
drilling fluids used in the payzone section. In order to maximize benets, the properties of the uid
need to be optimised for the conditions prevailing in the reservoir. The drill-in uid needs a
rheology good enough to enable good hole cleaning, lubricity good enough to avoid frictional
problems. Good inhibition with respect to imerstitial clays and interceded shales, and very
importantly, to be minimally damaging to the permeability of the formation. Other factors to be
considered include completion design and proposed payzone clean up procedure.
The number of potential variables involved means it is very difcult to design a single uid to cover
all eventualities, but a range of altemative drill-in systems has been developed in which each uid
is designed to cover a limited set of circumstances. Most applications can be covered by at least
one of the uids. This paper will discuss four generic drill-in systems. each of which embodies a
dierent approach to

Achieving the desired properties:
~ water-based polymer systems which may be based on
brines of varying concentration and which may contain
water or acid soluble bridging particles
o all-oil systems, covering a wide density range
I aqueous system based on a complex formed between
bentonite and mixed metal silicate.
0 solids-free water-based polymer system
Formulations, properties and some examples of eld
performance are presented together with a discussion of
relative advantages and disadvantages of each system type.
The objectives of each uid type are reviewed against actual
eld experience. Factors influencing selection of uid type
are discussed and guidelines are presented


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introduction
During the last decade the practice of completing wells with
an openhole deviated or horizontal section has become
established as a means of achieving improved productivity.
Indeed the better reservoir draining and productivity possible
from horizontal wells has had a major impact on the
economics of some dewzlopments. In some cases reduction in
the number of platforms required for olfshore elds has been
possible and elds have been developed which would not
have been viable using other currently available techniques.
in parallel with the increased use of operthole technology
has been the development of specialized drill-in uids. This
has followed from a recognition that the uid used to drill the
upper hole may not be appropriate for the payzone section;
that for the reservoir a uid should be devised which meets
the specic characteristics of the reservoir and will be
minimally damaging to the permeability. This last
requirement is particularly important as in openhole
completions there is no perforation step to enable
communication to be established through arty near well bore
permeability damage.
There are other advantages besides limitation of
permeability damage to be obtained from changing to a
specic reservoir drill-in uid. it means that specic aspects
of the payzone, such as stabilisation of clays and questions of
compatibility with the connate water, can be addressed
directly. It is not nwessaty to compromise with the dierent
requirements needed for the upper hole uid.
The main factors which are important for drill in uids
can be listed as follows:



ERIC DAVIDSON. SPE, BAROID
LTD. SUSAN STEWART. BAROID CORP SPE/IADC 39254
Temperature. The uid needs to be able to withstand full
bottom hole temperature, particularly as at various stages
of the completion operation the uid will be static for
prolonged periods of time.
Density. The density of the fluid needs to be formulated
to take into account pore pressure and requirements
regarding borehole stability.
Clay stability. The deviated borehole may pass through
beds of shale or there may be clay minerals in the interior
of the sandstone matrix. The uid needs to be
fomtulated to be adequately inhibitive.
Good control of uid loss. This is necessary for two
reasons. First. to avoid excessive loss of ltrate into the
fomtation. Secondly. many openhole wells are drilled in
unconsolidated sediments and in this case a tight
ltercake (coupled with hydrostatic pressure) is required
for borehole stability.
Hole cleaning. This is a very important aspect and
special attention must be paid to the ability of the uid to
transpon cuttings along extended horizontal sections and
round the particularly difcult 55 build section. Failure
to achieve good hole cleaning can lead to seyeral drilling
problems and might interfere with the subsequent
installation of any sand exclusion device or liner. Also
development of cuttings beds can markedly increase the
frictional forces acting on the string creating problems of
torque and drag.
Cement. If cement contamination is likely the impact
on uid properties must be considered.
Lubricity. This can be a major problem in wells with
tortuous trajectories or large lateral extensions. Oen the
measured depth achieved may be limited by frictional
considerations and this can be especially evident if the
drillstring is slid rather than rotated. Friction can be
inuenced by hole cleaning and pressure overbalance but
a very important factor is the inherent lubricity of the
drilling uid. ln the case of waterbased muds it is, of
course. common practice to add lubricants to the uid but
oil based uids have a major advantage in this respect.
Minimum damage. There are three main aspects of this
requirement. First, it is important to ensure that the mud
or mud ltrate is compatible with the connate water and
has no detrimental elfect on the wettability of the rock
surfaces. Secondly it is important that the uid should be
formulated in such a way to minimise the leakoff of mud
ltrate into the reservoir. To achieve this objective the
bridging particles or uid loss polymers need to be
selected with a view to minimising the invasion of solids,
polymers and ltrate into the fonnation. Thirdly it is
essential that the ltercake formed should be easily
removed; either by producing the well or by a suitable
solvent such as water or acid.
Completion design and clean up procedure. These two
factors carmot readily be distinguished from each other.
For example, if the completion comprises a sand
exclusion screert it will be necessary to consider the
implications of attempting to ow the completion/drill in
uid through the screen. Solids in the uid have the
potential of causing serious screen blockage and this
potential must be taken into account. Detailed treatment
of this question is outwith the scope of this paper, but it
must be borne in mind that the completion design, clean
up procedure and drill in uid selection are interrelated
factors.
0 Environmental considerations. Disposal of cuttings
which might be contaminated with mineral oil or
concentrated brine is a major consideration, and must be
taken into account within the context of the proposed
operation.
Several excellent reviews have been published dealing with
design criteria versus reservoir conditions. Ezzat' in
particular highlighted risks of incompatibility between mud
ltrate and fonnation rock and/or connate the uid. Dearing
and Alia gave an excellent overview of most of the currently
favoured systems. whereas Hale ct al 3 and Hodge et al 4
concentrated on identifying uids for specic applications.
These papers 3" dealt with actual cases and detailed the steps
followed to identify the uid of choice and the preferred
clean-up method for respective specic applications. In this
paper it is intended to review four types of drill-in uid. Each
type represents a dierent approach to achieving the desired
properties and the purpose of this review is to discuss the
properties and limitations of the various systems in order to
devise some guidelines for selecting an appropriate system for
specic reservoir conditions.
Systems under consideration
The four basic systems to be dismissed are:
a) Brine/polymer with bridging particles - viscosity
provided by polymer
b) All-oil uid
c) Mixed metal silicate system - viscosity generated by
inorganic interactions (i.e. water-based. shear- thinning
with bridging particles and uid loss polymers)
d) Water-based, solids- free non shear thinning polymer
based uid
These systems will be discussed individually in detail in
subsequent sections, but there are certain considerations
which apply to them all.
Design of rheology. As stated above hole cleaning is a very
important property, particularly if a highly deviated or
horizontal section is to be drilled. In order to optimise
rheological properties considerable use is made of an in-house
hole cleaning mathematical model 5 .
Fluid loss control. In order to obtain the best protection
from invasion of ltrate and from the possibility of



SPEIIADC 39264 OPEN HOLE COMPLETlONSI DRILLING FLUID SELECTION 3
differential sticking it is preferred to optimise uid loss
properties under dynamic conditions using Farm 90
rheometer. The core used has pore throat dimensions as
similar as possible to those in the reservoir and the
fomiulation is adjusted to minimise the Cake Deposition
lndex (CD1) and the ltration rate. These parameters are
known to be good indicators of tendency to ditfereutial
sticking. This process is utilised to identify the optimum
particle size distribution and uid loss polymer concentration.
For optimum overall perfonnance, of course, it may be
necessary to seek a compromise between the respective
compositions required for the best rheological and uid loss
performances. In order to achieve maximum exibility it is
necessary to be able to adjust all of the relevant parameters
individually and this is best done by ensuring all of the
ingredients are supplied as indiyddual components.
In subsequent sections examples are given of typical
forrnulations and properties. but these are for illustrative
purposes only, for each type of uid the properties can be
varied over a wide range.
Water-based - polymer system
The base formulation can be represented as :
Brine
Viscosifying polymer
Fluid loss polymer
Bridging particles
Various considerations inuence the selection of the
individual components and it is useful to review the important
factors.
Fluid loss polymer. For application in this system the
polymer requires to have excellent uid loss performance and
to have no negative impact on the other important
characteristics of the formulated uid. For example. it should
be easily removed at the clean-up stage and should have
minimal effect on important rheological parameters.
Starch which has been subjected to a particular chemical
and physical modication has been found to perform very
well in this regard.
Viscosifying polymer. Within the industry the polymers
commonly used are all of microbiological origin. Welan
gum and succinoglycan have found specialist applications;
xanthan and, to a more limited extent, scleroglucan, are more
common components of drilling systems. Succinoglycan is
limited because of its restricted temperature range. The
transition temperature for this polymer (ie the temperature at
which the dispersed polymer molecules undergo a transition
from an ordered to a disordered conguration with
consequent decrease in viscosity) is dependent on the
composition of the brine. The maximum is 80C but in
concentrated calcilun based brines the transition temperature
is below 0C. Scleroglucan has good compatibility with
calcium rich brines and performs over a wide temperature
range, but the polymer has two disadvantageous features.
First. there is the commonly observed need for heat to achieve
full yield by the polymer, and secondly it is diicult to
degrade the polymer with strong acid at temperatures below
40C. A simple example of this feature is provided by some
tests involving the dissolution of ltercakes. These were
made from uids based on either xanthan or scleroglucan
(equal quantities) and having the same composition with
regard to modied starch and sized calcium carbonate.
Filtercakes formed under identical conditions were immersed
in excess 10% hydrochloric acid at about 30C. Typically,
alter two hours the xanthan based ltercake had dissolved
completely whereas more than 35% of the scleroglucan based
ltercake still remained. The point of using acid soluble
calcium carbonate as the sized particulate is to create the
ability to rise acid as a remedial treatment if necessary.
Clearly any ingredient which reduces the activity of the acid
is disadvantageous. At higher temperatures the reaction is
faster in both cases and the scleroglucan is less likely to cause
diiculty. However in terms of application to low
temperature wells xanthan is the more applicable polymer.
Xanthan has some limitations in brines containing very
high concentration of calcium. Transition temperature
decreases with increasing concentration of calcium salt and at
temperatures of around 100C and above polymers tend to
degrade7 Nevertheless, for general purposes the advantages
of the polymer greatly outweigh its disadvantages. The
material disperses easily, it gives the desired rheological
performance and is readily degraded by acid or oxidising
agents.
Bridging particles. The objective is, as far as possible, to
form a ltercake on the surface of the borehole wall.
Therefore, for any particular application it is necessary to
match the size distribution of the particles to the pore throat
dimensions of the reservoir. Accordingly the sized particles
are available in a variety of size ranges for exibility in the
selection of grades to be used.
in general there are two types of particulate commonly
used :
Sized water soluble particles (sodium chloride)
Sized acid soluble particles ( calcium carbonate- marble)
lt is oen preferred to clean up wells completed with
carbonate based systems without use of acid. In such cases
acidisation is only performed if remedial treatment is
necessary.
The same considerations with respect to particle size
distribution apply for each type of solid but the two types of
system di'er profoundly in terms of brine/particle
interactions. As will be made clearer below use of sized
sodium chloride has a major impact on;
Composition of brine which can be used
Minimum density of brine which can be used.



4 ERIC DAVIDSON, SPE, BAROID LTD, SUSAN STEWART, BAROID CORP SPE/IADC 39284
Brine. Density is particularly important. It is preferred that
the density of the whole uid should be controlled by the
brine rather than solids loading. This is in order to obtain
good rate of penetration and formation of a thin ltercake.
There are other important factors involved in brine
selection including impact of brine composition on shale
irthibition and brine oompositionlconnate water compatibility.
However, a primary point is the solubility of the particulate
and it is appropriate to deal with the two cases separately.
Sized calcium carbonate. In this case solubility of the
particles in the brine is not a concern. the particles can be
regarded as being inert.
Sized calcium carbonate is compatible with viater (sg L0)
and with brines of other densities. for example:
sodium chloride up to 1.2 sg
sodium bromide tip to 1.5 sg
potassium chloride up to l.l6 sg
potassium formate up to l.57 sg
caesium chloride up to 1.9 sg
caesium fomiate up to 2.2 sg
That is. the range of possible brine density is from l to 2.2 sg
(but of course the practicality of very high densities would
depend upon whether the caesium salts ever become
commercially viable) If desired calcium chloride brine can
also be used but this brine does have limitations. First at
density higher than about 1.29 sg the brine is too
concentrated to allow the polymers to hydrate properly.
secondly the polymers have reduced thcnnal stability and
thirdly the calcium ions introduce an increased risk of
incompatibility with connate water. However, particularly in
cool conditions calcium chloride brines are an acceptable base
for the uid.
If. for shale stabilisation purposes. a high concentration of
potassium chloride were to be required. any concentration
from zero to saturated (372kg/m3) could be used. Also within
solubility limits brine of any desired sodium
chloride/potassium chloride ratio could be used.
Sized sodium chloride. Use of sized sodium chloride
places many constraints on the brine. Obviously it is a prime
requirement that the brine must always be saturated with
respect to sodium chloride. otherwise some of the particulate
salt will dissolve and the particle size distribution may be
distorted. This means that the brine can never have a density
lower than 1.2 sg (i.e. the density of sanuated sodium
chloride brine). Thus the minimum density possible is always
higher than that achievable for sized carbonate systems.
Further. the possibility of formulating a sized salt system
with dense brines based on salts of monovalent cations is also
more restricted than is the case for sized carbonate. Solid
sodium chloride is not compatible with potassium forrnate or
caesitun formate brine; in each case sodium formate would
be precipitated. Also the option of using dense caesium
chloride brines would not be possible as in this case a
precipitate of mixed chloride ( [Cs,.X (Nal~l;0),JCl ) of variable
composition would be forrncdg.
It is possible to use a brine containing calcium chloride,
but it must be saturated with respect to sodium chloride.
Furthermore the constraints which were described for the
calcium chloride/carbonate systems would apply in this case
also. The maximum acceptable brine density would be
about l.29sg.
The maximum density achievable from a sized sodium
chloride system involves the use of sodium bromide (1.5 sg)
as the base brine.
As is well known there is also an incompatibility between
solid sodium chloride and potassium chloride brine. ln the
presence of solid sodium chloride not more than 10%
potassium chloride can be dissolved in saturated sodium
chloride brine at ambient temperature. Any attempt to
dissolve more potassium salt merely results in undissolved
potassium chloride acciunulating in the solid phase. A
system comprising sized sodium chloride in potassium
chloride brine would not be possible
The elfect of cycling temperature, for example circulating
in a well. causes some of the solid salt to be dissolved and
reprecipitated. It has been suggested that this could cause
difculties due to recrystallisation and crystal growth.
However, this is not a problem for systems which contain
solely sodium chloride. Crystallisation of sodium chloride in
a single salt system can be readily controlled.
Properties.
Typical fannulatian. The formulations required to
produce the desired properties for any given application
depend upon requirements in respect of density, shale
inhibition, water compatibility etc. However, typical
formulations for carbonate and sized sodium chloride systems
are given in Table 1 together with typical rheological
properties. In each case minimum density formulations are
exemplied.
Shale stabilisation. Sized sodium chloride uids possess
a high degree of clay inhibition due to their high
concentration of dissolved salt. This can be further improved
by inclusion of up to 10% potassium chloride and 3% glycol.
Sized carbonate systems can use similar brines or if necessary
higher concentrations of potassium chloride. An example of
the comparative effects of using saturated sodium chloride
and mixed brine with glycol is shown in Table 2. These
results are from Slake Durability Tests and illustrate the
benecial results of potassium ions and glycol. The results
show t.hat inclusion of potassium ions and glycol greatly
reduced the degradation of the shale granules in contact with
the brine. ln the North Sea conmtation of these laboratory
results have been available from the eld. Thousands of feet
of shales have been drilled with sized sodium chloride uids
having this type of brine phase composition without any
major shale related ditculties.
If, for shale stablisation reasons it is necessary to use



SPE/IADC 39254 OPEN HOLE COMPLETIONS DRILLING FLUID SELECTION S
calcium chloride brine then this is possible with either of the
sized solids within the constraints described above.
Density. Both carbonate and sized salt systems can be
weighted up to some extent by addition of extra solid, but the
preferred source of the density is the base brine. For
carbonate systems typical whole uid minimum densities
obtainable from usable, saturated brines (on the basis that the
uid contains 114 kg/m sized carbonate) are:
Base Brine Fluid D!lSl*
Water l.07 sg
Sodimn chloride( l.2sg) 1.26 sg
Potassirun chloride(l.l6 sg) 1.22 sg
Sodium brormde(l.5sg) [.55 sg
Potassium formate( l .57sg) L62 sg
Caesium for-mate{2.2sg) 2.22 sg
Of course. densities covering the entire range can be obtained
by diluting the saturated brines or by blending compatible
brines, eg. sodium chloride and sodium bromide or
potassium formate and caesiinn formate.
ln the case of sized salt systems the realistic possible
density ranges are those which can be obtained with sodiiun
chloride or sodium bromide brines, or blends thereof The
minimum densities obtainable (assuming 143 kg/mi of sized
salt in the uid) are :
Base brine Fluid Densitv
Sodium chlor-ide( l .2sg) l.26sg
Sodium bromide(l.5sg) l.54sg
A uid density higher than 1.54 sg can be obtained by
increasing the content of sized salt in the system; the practical
maximum is a uid with a density of 1.67 sg and containing
srukg/in of sized salt
Temperature. The controlling factor for both types of
uid is the thermal stability of the polymers. The standard
polymers are polysaccharides and for optimmn perfonnance
these should be used in concentrated brine as this contributes
to polymer stability. Even so, polymer degradation becomes
unacceptably rapid at about 100C, but by the inclusion of
appropriate high pH ingredients in the fluids the temperature
stability can be increased signicantly. By this means an
upper temperature limit of 145-150C can be achieved.
Use of concentrated fomiate brines, particularly potassium
formate confers even greater thermal stability on the
polymers). Using saturated potassium formats brine(l.57sg)
the thermal stability of the polymers can be extended to about
l75C. However, since sized sodium chloride cannot be used
with potassium fomtate brine this option is only available for
sized carbonate systems.
In order to obtain high temperature performance beyond
175C or with brines other than fomiates it is necessary to use
special synthetic high temperature polymers,
Compatibility between nrudkrare and connare uid. It
is preferred to base botlt types of system on brines made from
salts containing monovalem cations rather than from calcium
salts. Not only are polymers more compatible with this type
of brine but risk of precipitation due to the formation of
insoluble compounds is reduced . Most compounds of sodium
and potassium are soluble; this is not the case for alkaline
earth metals.
Precipitation of soluble salts due to concentration effects can
occur following the intermingling of highly concentrated
brines. For example, sodium chloride can be precipitated if
concentrated sodium chloride and calcium chloride brines are
mixed. Therefore, if there is a risk of mingling of saturated
or near saturated brines it may be preferred to opt for a
carbonate based system because with such uids the required
densities can often be produced without the use of satiuated
solutions. (For example, instead of saturated sodium chloride
at l.2sg a dilute solution of sodium bromide at l.2sg could be
used),
Ceniznr contamination. Being xanthan based the uids
can be affected badly in the event of signicant contamination
by cement. Both carbonate and sized salt systems need to be
treated to remove the effect of high pH and calcirun ions.
Clean up of ltercake. The optimum clean up procedure
varies according to the situation. In some circumstances it is
adequate merely to produce the ltercalte off the formation
but in other circumstances a chemical attack by acid or
oxidising agent might be necessary.
However, in considering any clean up treatment it is
essential to take into account aspects of procedure. For
example, if a prepacked screen or other type of sand exclusion
device is to be used then appropriate steps must be taken to
minimise risk of the screen becoming blocked by particles in
the drill in /completion uid. Also in order to ensure that any
treatment is as eective as possible it is important that the
displacement steps should remove as much adherent uid as
possible from the ltercake. lfacid or oxidising agent spends
on adherent fluid it cannot attack the ltercake.
In the case of carbonate based systems commonly
successful clean up methods are as follows:
Gravel packingro acidixing). The ltercake is le in
place while the gravel is placed: the well is subsequently
produced through the ltercake and gravel. _
Producing the wzllfno wciing). In this case the uid is
displaced to clear brine before the screens or liner are
installed, following which the well is brought on.
Acidisation aftlre well. This has been a traditional
treatment for wells drilled with mrbonate based uids.
However, current opinion is that, if possible contact of acid
with the formation and completion steelwork is usually best
avoided. Also, particularly in the case of long horizontal
sections in permeable sandstone. complete removal of the
ltercake by acid might be ditcult. If 5-10% l-lCl is applied
it will probably be necessary to use several flushes or to
circulate the acid. As pointed out by Hale if conditions are
static there will probably be insuicient acid in the well bore



6 ERIC DAVIDSON, SPE. BAROID LTD, SUSAN STEWART, BAROID CORP SPEIIADC 39284
to consume all of the carbonate. Also there is an important
point which needs to be bome in mind concerning rate of
reaction. At bottom hole temperature conditions acid and
carbonate will react very rapidly. Therefore rapid
consumption of carbonate is likely at the point at which acid
is introduced to the well bore. This can lead to localised
clean up, excessive local losses and inability to circulate acid
to the rest of the open hole section. If acid is to be used
consideration should be given to a weak organic acid. foamed
l-ICI or some other form of retarded acid.
In the case of sized sodium chloride syst.ems similar
considerations apply. Contrary to supercial expectations
only rarely can the ltercake be cleaned up solely with
nndersaturated brine. This is due to two main causes: rst
the polymer in the ltercake protects the salt from the water,
and secondly the ltercake usually contains signicant
quantities of water insoluble drill solids. In Nonh Sea
operations it tends to be standard practice to attack sized salt
ltercake with the same sort of aggressive reagents as are
used for carbonate systems i.e. 5-15% HCI or oxidising
agent.
One useful feature of the sized salt system is that it is
possible to attack the polymer with an aggressive reagent with
minimal effect on the sized salt. The principle of this
approach is to use saturated NaCl brine as the carrier solution
for the oxidising agent or acid; thus the uid can attack the
polymer while leaving the salt unaected. Then having
removed the polymer the residual salt can be dissolved by a
wash with undersaturated brine. This approach has given
satisfactory results. but in pemieable fomtations there is the
risk of localised leak-o" of water into the formation resulting
in loss of returns and failure to wash the full length of the
section.
Salt based systems do olfer a particular advantage for
water producing or water injection wells. In this case it can
be expected that the injected/produced uid will tend to
dissolve any residual particulate.
Selection of salt based versus carbonate based systems.
Disposal of cuttings requires due attention and may be
inuential in choice of system. Oshore it is usually
acceptable to discharge saline material, with some exceptions
such as restrictions on potassium discharge in the Gulf of
Mexico or discharge of saline uids in brackish conditions.
When such restrictions apply. if density requirements permit,
a carbonate system could be used with very low salinity brine.
This is not an option for sized salt systems. Cuttings disposal
from sized salt systems always presents a more polluting
potential than is the case for carbonate systems. This can be
very signicant in onshore locations.
In terms of density there are many applications for which
the salt system is not an option. However, there is a density
range for which both types of lluid could be applied. In this
case sodium chloride systems offer advantage if use of acid
based remedial treatments will not be acceptable or if the
wells to be drilled are for the production or injection of water.
Unless such conditions apply the nal choice is best guided
by retum penneability studies in the laboratory preferably
using core from the reservoir.
A point to consider when judging the relative merits of
sized salt or sized carbonate systems is the relative
eectiveness of water and acid in dissolving the respective
particles. In this connection it is worth remembering that as a
general rule the chemical driving forcc between acid and
carbonate is much larger than the chemical forces driving the
dissolution of salt in water. This means that over a given
period of time there will tend to be more complete dissolution
of carbonate by acid than of salt by water. This is a
signicant point particularly if it is desired to rcmovc
ltercake from the lower side of a horizontal hole.
Examples.
Gravel packing carbonate systenr A very successful
example of a carbonate system used in a grave] packing
application is provided by recent operations by Statoil in the
Norwegian sector of the N. Sea. In these cases since the
requirement was for a uid density in the range 1.6 - l.67sg
the fonnulation was based on sodium bromide brine (l .5sg).
Pilot holes were drilled with synthetic ester oil based mud and
the water based system was used for the underreaming stage.
The screens were installed while t.he uid was in the hole and
the displacement and gravel packing steps were perfonned
with the ltercake still in place. No acid was used.
production was through the ltercake and gravel pack. The
objectives of this operation included good hole cleaning
avoidance of uid loss during the drilling and gravel packing
operations, minimal fomiation damage and the ability to
bring the well on withmrt acid treatment. All of these
objectives were met very satisfactorily. Production from these
wells exceeded expectations. A major factor in their success
was that all aspects of the operation were optimised in
advance by careful testing and planning.
Producing the well - carbonate system - no acid
Development of a gas reservoir in the southem sector of the
North Sea (by BP) involves the borehole being circulated to
clean brine ( density l.l3sg) before the screens are installed.
Then the well is brought on without acidisation or other
chemical treatment of the ltercake. The objectives of this
approach included good hole cleaning and retention of good
uid loss control aer the hole had been displaced to clean
brine. All objectives were met. including excellent
perforrnance. Produaion was higher than expected.
Sized salt sysrenu Several operators including Chevron,
BP, and Kerr McGee have relied very heavily on sized salt for
developments in the North Sea. The reservoirs involved had
a density requirement which fell comfortably in the sized salt
range (eg. 1.25 - 1.35 sg) and which were demanding in
terms of the need for shale inhibition. The productive sands



SPE/IADC 39284 OPEN HOLE COMPLETlO
NS DRILLING FLUID SELECTION 7
occurred largely as lenses within beds of shale. so drilling in
the shale was unavoidable. A main objective of these
operations was to maintain borehole stability within the shale
and this was achieved by boosting the inherent inhibitive
properties of saturated soditun chloride brine by additional
potassium chloride and gl3.."ls (see Table 2). The other
principal objectives included good production and avoidance
of damage. In these developments the tiltercake has been
degraded either by 5 - 15% hydrochloric acid or an oxidising
agent Although there has been some variability in the results
it has been considered that the objectives have been satised
well enough to justify the continued use of the sized salt
system.
BP has used sized salt for drilling the nal sections of
wells for water injection and water production. In this case
the objective was to exploit the expected benet of using a
sized particulate which would be soluble in the
produced/injected uid. The clean up stage involved an
attack on the ltercakes with 15% hydrochloric acid followed
by ow of water. Several hours were required for the well to
clean up aer which excellent performance was attained.
All-oil system
Many of the common drilling problems erioounterod eg.
shale stability, lubricity etc. are addressed very satisfactorily
by use of conventional oil based invert emulsion mud.
However, regular invert emulsion includes powerful
surfactants to ensure that the mineral components of the
system (e.g. cuttings. well bore and weighting/bridging
mineral particles) remain wetted by the oil phase rather than
by the dispersed aqueous component. lf the powerful
surfactants invade the fonnation they can cause the reservoir
rock which is normally water wet to become oil wet resulting
in a large decrease in the permeability of the reservoir to oil "
. This elfect can seriously impair productivity. A probable
example of this phenomenon was described by Dearing and
Ali: They summarised a development which involved the
use of a conventional oil-based invert uid. Five wells were
drilled with this lluid and in all cases the productivity index
was poor. Remedial treatment with acid did not achieve
desired results. For subsequent wells oil-based mud was
abandoned; sized salt was used and the perfonnance was
greatly improved
Use of an all-oil uid offers a means of using an oil base
uid but avoiding wettability problems. Since allcil uids
contain no aqueous phase they do not need to contain
powerful oil wetting surfactants. To deal with ingress of
water a passive emulsication system can be used. ln the
presence of water such an emulsier is automatically
activated, but only by enough to emulsify the quantity of
water involved. Surplus emulsier remains in a non active
condition and since it is a weak surfactant it leaves the rock in
a water wet condition.
The wettability of this uid system can be demonstrated
by tests involving oil/water contact angles and the Arnott
wettability test procedure. For example, in the case of
oontact angle measurements the tests were done on quartz as
this is the predominant mineral in most reservoirs. Clean
quartz was ooded with 2% sodium chloride solution and a
droplet of ltrate from the uid in quesnon was placed on the
quartz surface. Then the angle at the droplet/quartz interface
was determined. The angle observed is a measure of
wettability. for example:
0 if surface is totally water wet the oily ltrate does not wet
the surface and contact angle is 0.
0 if surface has neutral wettability contact angle is 90
1 if surface is completely oil wet contact angle is >l35
In short. contact angles of less than 90 indicate preferential
water wettability.
The other test procedure (Amott Wettability Test) involves
using penneable core material (e.g. Berea). The method
measures the ability of water to spontaneously displace oil
from art oil saturated core and the ability of oil to
spontaneously displace water from a water ooded core. The
results are represented as water index and an oil index.,
Water indices of l and 0 indicate respectively complete water
wetting and complete oil wetting. Oil indices of l and 0
indicate respectively complete oil wetting and complete water
wetting. Intermediate values indicate varying degrees of
water and oil wettability.
Some examples of behaviour of different all-oil systems
containing passive and active emulsiers are given in Table 3
and the data demonstrate that presence of passive emulsier
in the mud ltrate gave results for contact angle and water
index tests which indicated that the mineral had retained its
water wettability. In the cases in which active emulsier was
used the rock had become much more oil wet.
An alloil mud oers several other advantages:
v being water free it can be used in strata containing shales
without the risks which attend the use of conventional
water based system.
o frictional problems are minimised due to the inherent
lubricity confened by the oil phase
0 low density: all-oil systems have the ability to produce a
uid density of less than l. The minimum achievable
density is set by the density of the base oil; that is, about
0.8 sg. Water based systems all have densities greater
than 1.0 sg.
0 temperature stability of the system is very good. In large
measure the maximum is set by the base oil used but the
temperature maximum is in excess of 250
- cement contamination is not a problem for this uid as it
is water free.
This type of uid can be formulated with any grade of oil
ranging from fairly crude petroleum fractions such as diesel
or kerosene to environment friendly biodegradable synthetic
esters.



B ERIC DAVIDSON, SPE, BAROID LTD, SUSAN STEWART, BAROID CORP SPE/IADC 39284
Limitations of system High densities represent a difculty.
The density of the system cart be increased only by weighting
up the system with solids. Acid soluble carbonate can be used
to produce up to 1.5 sg but for higher densities non acid-
soluble materials such as barite or haematite would be
required. Obviously in the density range for which brine
based uids can be considered tlte all-oil system will
inevitably contain a higher loading of suspended solids.
Depcndiuguponthetypeofoiluseddisposalofthe
cuttings in marine locations might represent a limitation.
However diiculties in this respect could be signicantly
reduced by using biodegradable synthetic ester as the base oil.
Clean up. The preferred technique is to produce the well but
if the sind bridging particles are calcium carbonate it is
possible to carry out remediation with acid treatments. ln
such cases it may be appropriate to treat the ltercake with
mutual solvent/surfactant prior to. or during, the acidisation
stage to ensure better wetting of the carbonate and more
effective attack by the acid.
Cuttings disposal Restrictions on dumping oily cuttings in
marine environments is becoming more difficult throughout
the world. Synthetic biodegradable ester would probably be
acceptable, but if other less biodegradable types of oil were
used then the implications of disposal restrictions have to be
considered. For land operations appropriate containment of
the urttings would be needed.
Example. Typical formulations and properties for all oi]
uids of densities 0.85 and 1.2 sg are giwan in Table 4.
An all oil system has been used in applications in Sharjah
which exemplify extremely well some of the strengths of this
type of uid". The circumstances called for a uid which
had :
low uid density (0.83 - 0.96 sg)
good hole cleaning rheology
good lubricity
minimal damage potential
The uid was optimised in preliminary laboratory work and
the milling operations went extremely well. The objectives of
the operation included drilling a horizontal section of 2000
feet, but due to the excellent hole cleaning and lubricity this
length was actually exceeded by 1600 feet i.e. to a total of
3600 feet. Furthermore the minimally damaging nature of
the uid was oonnned by production data which indicated
zero skin. Thus the original objectives were exceeded in the
eld.
Mixed metal silicate systems
This system exploits the ability of a special mixed metal
silicate (calcium aluminium silicate) (MMS) to form a
complex with predispersed bentonite to yield a uid with
unusual rheologiml properties. The uid is shear tbimting
32
O
providing a at rheological prole with very high carrying
capacity.
In terms of rheological behaviour the MMS uid is similar to
that of mixed metal hydroxide (MMH). As is well known the
MMH system also relies on the interaction of bentonite with
dispersed MMH particles but although the rheological
behaviour of the two systems is similar it is believed that the
nature of the interaction between bentonite and the respective
mixed metal compounds is ditterent for each case. Evidence
on this point comes from a study of clay slun-ies in the
Capillary Suction Test (CST). The effect of increasing MMI-l
and MMS on CST results was studied and the results are
shown in Figure l. As can be seen the eiiect ofMMH at low
concentration was to cause an immediate decrease in the CST
value whereas over the same concentration range MMS
caused an increase in CST. Dierent results imply different
bonding mechanisms.
Both MMS and MIMH interact with bentonite to yield
uids with very at rheological proles. A typical
fonnulation and rheology of a base MMS uid in Table 5
which demonstrates the low plastic viscosity but very high
yield point and high low shear rheology. This rheological
prole gives the uid excellent suspension and cuttings
transport properties.
The MMS uid is tolerant to starch derived uid loss
polymers and to high loading of particles such as sized
carbonate and/or baritc. ln addition the high viscosity
reduces the leak of rate of uid through pore throats and
ssures. The type of uid has been used to drill sections
with difficult uid loss potential and there have been cases in
which uid loss problems have been cured by increasing the
low shear viscosity.
The composition of MMS systems cart be changed
according to the proposed end rise. For example, for simple
milling inside casing a basic MMSlbentonite uid would be
adequate. Whereas for drilling in a permeable formation
polymers and sized particles would be included to meet uid
loss and density requirements.
Limitations of MMS systems Any ingedient which will
interfere with the MMSlbentonite bond or the state of the
bentonite mineral will impair the properties of the uid. For
example powerful anionic thinners such as lignosulphonate or
polyacrylamides cause irreversible loss of rheology. Similarly
contact with brincs of high ionic strength or containing
cations which affect bcntonite (e.g. calcitun, potassium etc.)
has a deleterious eect. The uid cannot tolerate a high
salinity brine. Seawater can be used but signicant density
cannot be contributed by the aqueous phase. This means that
weighting up is only possible by increasing concentration of
suspended solids in the uid. If calcium carbonate is used as
the weighting agent the practical density limitation is
probably about 1.5 sg. For higher densities complete or
partial substitution of carbonate by other minerals such as



SPE/IADC 39284 OPEN HOLE COMPLETIONSI DRlLL|NG FLUID SELECTION 9
iron carbonate or acid insoluble materials e.g. barite or
haematite is necessary.
MMS systems are not compatible with all types of
lithology. The uid performs well in most types of drill
solids but beds of bentonitic shale lead to thickening of the
mud, and evaporite beds would tend to destroy rheology.
Also care is necessary when displacing out previous uids. It
would be nwessary to ensure that any calcium brines or
strongly anionic products had been removed from the well
bore and could not contaminate the MMS mud.
The uid is fairly tolerant to cement contamination but
only if enough sodium carbonate is used to ensure
precipitation of the soluble calcium.
Clean np. As is the case for any drilling uid the clean up
method is greatly inuenced by the type of completion
equipment used. Prepacked screens require care to ensure
that any uid remaining in the annulus can be produced
through the screens without causing blockage. To aid
eicient displacement it might be necessary to cause the
rheologyoftheMMSuidtobereducedandthiscanbedone
by using an anionic thinner. This will help to reduce the
viscosity of the uid adhering to the ltercake and make
removal easier.
Acid can be used to simultaneously dissolve the sized
carbonate and degrade the modied starch but in this case
localised Ink off of acid is possible. Thus, as is the case for
other systems containing carbonate, use of a retarded acid
could be advantageous.
Disposal 0| cuttings. In an otfshore situation discharge of
cuttings into the sea should not be a problem. High pH is the
main characteristic but high concentration of salts is not a
consideration. On land containment of the cuttings and run
off would be required, as the high alkalinity would be
detrimental to plants and animals. However, the uid does
not represent a long term hazard and on exposure to air the
high alkalinity would decrease as hydroxides are converted to
carbonates.
Examples An example of an uweighted MMS system is
given in Table 5. The Table contains details of the
formulation and rheology. '
The principal objectives in using a uid of this type are to
take advantage of the rheology to obtain optimum hole
cleaning and uid loss control. Horizontal displacements of
4000 - 7500 feet were achieved in Austin chalk and in loose
porous sand in otfshore Qatar developments. In all cases the
operations were accompanied by frmdom from wellbore
problems and excellent hole cleaning iroughout. In
fonnations in Iran where control of losses was normally a
major problem good control was maintained by adjusting
rheology.
On the negative side attempts to drill in bentonitic shales
in Israel had to be abandoned because the uid incorporated
excess clay and became too thick.
Solids tree uid
This approach is possible only for low permmbility reservoirs
as the uid comprises only brine and visoosifying polymers.
The uid contains no bridging solids and no attempt is made
to build a ltercake. The uid is designed for use in
fonnations with permeability of no more than a few
millirlarcies. The viscosifying agents are nonionic polymers
which do not yield shear thinning uids, therefore subsequent
diqalacement of any uid which has invaded the formation is
relatively easy.
The lack of suspension propenies is helpful in cleaning
the circulating uid. Any solids remaining in suspension aer
treatment by the shakers rapidly settle in the pits.
Being solids free the density of the uid is controlled
solely by the base brine used and in practical terms the range
is l - 1.75 sg. The temperature range over which this type of
system can be used is fairly limited. The polymers nomtally
used will disperse in concentrated sodium chloride or
potassium chloride brine, but depending upon the
concentration, will be reprecipitated as temperature is
increased and the tendency to reprecipitation increases with
increasing brine concentration. An identical phenomenon
was reported rwently for similar types of polymer used in
iluid loss uids. Funhermore the preferred polymers are
not compatible with formate brines except at very low
concentration of disolved formate.
For saturated sodium chloride or potassium chloride
brines the effective maximum temperature is around 90 C. In
the case of sodium bromide brine or dense calcium based
brines precipitation is not an issue but polymer degradation is
expected for temperatures above l00 C.
Despite its limitations this type of uid can have
signicant advantages in low permeability conditions such as
limestone and tight consolidated sands. The lack of
suspended solids is beneficial with respect to rheology and
circulating pressure losses and the fact that no signicant
ltercake is fonned makes the clean up stage very simple.
Also since the polymers normally used are nonionic cement
oontarnination is not a signicant problem unless very dense
brines are used. Nonnally, irrespective of the type of
completion used the well is simply cleaned up by producing
it.
Limitations of the system This uid is suitable only for a
fairly restricted set of conditions. Low permeability and
freedom from fractures is necessary and the practical
temperature limit is relatively low at 100C. Also it is very
tmlikely that this system could be used in an unconsolidated
section.
Cuttings disposal. Oshore, similar considerations will



10 ERIC DAVIDSON, SPE, BAROID
LTD, SUSAN STEWART, BAROID CORP SPE/IADC 39284
apply as for those which exist for the brinelpolymer/carbonate
system. That is, in most circumstances there is not a
problem, unless the uid is based on very dense brine for
which discharge restraints apply. For onshore location
containment of the cuttings would be necessary as run off of ,
highly saline solution would not be acceptable.
Examples. An example of a low density uid is given in
Table 6. It is clear that this rheology is different from that of
the other uids in that the low shear viscosity is very low.
This type of uid can only be considered for low permeability
rock but of course such formations are the most susceptible to
damage. Accordingly this uid has only been used alter core
ow studies have demonstrated the likelihood of high return
permeabilities. In opting for this approach the objective is to
keep the uid as free from solids as possible and to keep the
circulating pressure as low as practicable.
In some applications of this uid in the USA the
requirement for a gas reservoir was for a density of 1.45 sg.
In a typical case a horizontal section of I650 feet was drilled
with good hole cleaning, excellent directional control and
highly satisfactory production.
Fluid Selection
It is suggested that the process of selecting a suitable uid
should proceed through the following steps:
- Lay out the proposed design of the operation, including:
details of completion equipment,
reservoir characteristics and downhole conditions.
logistical implications, eg disposal of cuttings.
0 Identify the parameters which are important and consult
the summary in Table 7. This Table summarises the
applicability of the 4 systems over a range of conditions.
o From Table 7 select the types of uid which would be
acceptable for the conditions in question. The others
can be eliminated from consideration.
I For each of the possible candidates formulate uids for
the reservoir conditions eg. density, bridging particles etc
0 For each of the candidate systems carry out laboratory
tests to measure compatibility of the uid ' ( ie whole
uid and ltrate) with:
formation rock
comiate water
produced oil.
- Carry out return penneability tests, as far as possible
following the same clean up procedure as is intended for
use in the eld.
To meet unusual well conditions it may be necessary to
modify one or more of the formulations summarised in Table
7, or indeed to investigate radically dierent designs. In
either case the requirement for laboratory and retum
permeability testing remains