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8 LIGHT
Refraction through a prism - dispersion - recombination - uses of
spectroscope - Raman effect.
REVIEW
Let us recall some of the properties of light studied in previous classes.
! Light is a form of energy.
! Light travels in straight lines.
! Refraction of light is due to change in velocity of light.
! Refractive index of a medium is the ratio between velocity of light in vacuum
and that in the medium.
! Composite light splits into its constituent colours, when passed through a
prism.
! Rainbow is a spectrum formed in nature.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
You have learnt in 8th standard about refraction through a prism, dispersion
and recombination of colours. Ancient people knew that sunlight (so called white
light) passing through some transparent colourless crystals produced coloured
light.
Why are colours produced when white light is passed through a glass prism?
Let us consider this question.
8.2 DISPERSION AND SPECTRUM
Newton showed experimentally that sunlight is made up of various colours.
Holding a triangular glass prism in the path of a narrow beam of sunlight
he found that the rays were spread out into a band of colours (Fig.8.1). The
sequence was the same as that seen in
in a rainbow, with red at one end merging
gradually into orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo and violet. The phenomenon of
the separation or splitting up of
composite light into its constituent
colours, is called dispersion (A medium
Fig 8.1
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which brings about dispersion is called a dispersive medium. Vacuum or air is
not a dispersive medium in the sense no dispersion is produced).
The band of colours (wavelengths), obtained by dispersion of a narrow
beam of composite light is called spectrum.
Do it yourself
Take a plastic tumbler and fill half of it with water. Place a strip of a plane mirror inclined to
the water surface in the tumbler. Place the arrangement in sunlight, so that light reflected
by the mirror, is projected on to a wall in a dark room. You will observe a band of seven
colours on the wall. What plays the role of a prism in this case?
Newton tested his supposition by
placing two identical prisms P
1
and P
2
.
P
2
was kept inverted with respect to P
1
(Fig 8.2). He found that colours of the
spectrum produced by the prism P
1
recombined in P
2
. White light emerges
from P
2
.
As a further step, Newton obtained a spectrum of sunlight on a card with a hole
at one point. He placed another prism behind the hole to find whether there was
further splitting of colour (Fig 8.3). But the transmitted light had the same colour
as before. The above experiments established that sunlight consists of different
colours. They are separated but not manufactured by a prism.
Cause of dispersion: The refractive index of a medium is slightly different for
different colours. When passing through a prism, the various colours are
refracted by slightly different amounts. Dispersion is thus caused on account of
different refractive indices of the medium for different colours.
Pure spectrum: In the experiments mentioned earlier, a narrow beam of
sunlight, is obtained by passing sunlight through a small hole in a cardboard.
But the beam coming out of the hole is diverging and the rays of light will be
Fig 8.2
Fig 8.3
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incident on the prism at different angles. Consequently, spectra corresponding to
the rays will be incident on the screen at slightly different positions. This results
in overlapping. Hence the spectrum is impure in the sense that the colours are not
distinct. A pure spectrum is a spectrum in which the constituent colours
occupy their respective positions and are distinct. The simple arrangement
used by Newton for producing a spectrum, can be improved to reduce overlapping
of colours and obtain a pure spectrum. This is described in the next section.
Visible spectrum: Visible light lies in the wavelength range of about 400 nm
to 750 nm (Fig 8.4). The spectrum in this range is called the visible spectrum.
Within it lie the colours from violet to red in the order VIBGYOR.
8.3 SPECTROSCOPE
In its simplest form, spectroscope is an instrument to obtain pure spectrum of
a polychromatic light using a prism. In this arrangement, a narrow slit is used to
admit light to be studied. Lenses are placed before and after the prism to minimise
overlapping of colours.
The light source whose spectrum has to be investigated, is placed in front of
the slit S. Light from the slit
is rendered parallel by the
lens CL. These rays pass
through the prism, get
dispersed and enter the
telescope B. The telescope
hel ps to obser ve a
magnified image of the
spectrum.
Fig 8.4
Fig 8.5
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In a spectrometer, a circular scale is provided to find the position of telescope.
Spectrometer is used to measure angle of prism, refractive index and dispersion.
In a spectrograph, a camera is used in place of the eye-piece to have a, permanent
record.
In a direct vision spectroscope, the spectrum of light from a source is seen in the
direction of the source. It is a pocket sized instrument meant for quick observation of
spectra.
8.4 USES OF SPECTRO SCOPE
A simple spectroscope enables observation of many spectra. In improved
forms, spectra can be studied and analysed to get information about sources of
light.
What is seen when radiations from various substances are examined and analysed
by a spectroscope? Sunlight, light from a filament lamp, molten iron or a candle
flame all give rainbow like spectrum. This is called continuous emission spectrum.
The situation is different when gases or vapours are made to emit light. In this
case, the spectrum consists of a number of sharp, bright coloured lines against
a dark background. The lines are the slit images for different colours. This is
called line emission spectrum (Fig 8.6). The pattern of lines is different for
different elements. Therefore once the
patterns are known, the elements
present in any source can be
identified. This process helps to find
the elements present in the sun and
other stars. Further it is possible to
determine the approximate amount
of each substance present, by
measuring the intensities of the lines.
The technique called spectrochemical
analysis, is being used in industries,
medicine crime detection etc.
When composite light passes
through a semi-transparent substance,
some particular colours of the incident
radiation are absorbed. Hence the
transmitted light lacks particular
colours. The corresponding spectrum
Fig 8.6
ABSORPTION SPECTRUM
LINE EMISSION SPECTRUM (MERCURY)
LINE ABSORPTION SPECTRUM (SODIUM)
FRAUNHOFER LINES
A B C D E F G H
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has a number of dark lines or bands, against the background of continuous
spectrum. Such a spectrum is called absorption spectrum (Fig 8.6).
When white light from a carbon arc lamp is passed through sodium vapour,
then the continuous spectrum will have two dark lines in the yellow region. The
solar spectrum has several dark lines in its spectrum (Fig 8.6). These are called
Fraunhofer lines. These are due to the absorption of certain colours by the
elements in the solar atmosphere. The study of the Fraunhofer lines has enabled
us to identifty the elements present in the solar atmosphere.
8.5 RAMAN EFFECT
Introduction: Tyndall and Rayleigh discovered that when a beam of light was
allowed to pass through a homogeneous and transparent medium, a portion of
the incident light got deflected sideways or scattered. They found the wavelength
of the scattered beam to be the same as that of the incident light.
In 1871, Lord Rayleigh had given the correct explanation of the blue colour of
the sky on the basis of scattering of light by molecules in the atmosphere. He
showed that the intensity of scattered light in any a medium is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of its wavelength. This type of scattering, known
as Rayleigh scattering, is also called coherent scattering because there is no
change in wavelength of light.
Do you know the reason?
Sunset as well as sunrise are red and the sky is blue. These phenomena can be
explained on the basis of the scattering of light by the molecules of the atmosphere.
Intensity of scattered light increases rapidly as the wavelength decreases. Hence,
the sky appears blue. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, blue colour
is scattered most. This is why sky appears blue.
At sunset and sunrise, sunlight passes through a maximum length of atmosphere.
Therefore much of the blue is taken away by scattering. The light that reaches the
earths surface lacks in blue colour. That is why sunset and sunrise appear reddish.
Discovery: In 1928, C.V. Raman was studying the scattering of light by liquids
with the intention of reproducing such natural phenomena as the blue colour of the
sea and of the sky.
Raman found that when a beam of monochromatic light was passed through
organic liquids such as benzene, toluene etc, the scattered light was no longer
monochromatic. The scattered light contained higher and lower frequencies in
addition to that of incident light. This phenomenon is called Raman effect. Raman
was awarded Nobel prize in 1930. In order to commemorate Ramans discovery,
February 28th is observed as National Science Day, every year, in our country.
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Note
Raman effect had been predicted on theoretical grounds by Smekal as early as 1923.
Raman was the first to observe it experimentally. Hence the name Raman effect.
Some call it Smekal - Raman effect.
Special spectroscopes are required to observe Raman effect. In Raman effect,
there are additional frequencies apart from that of incident light. For this reason,
Raman scattering is called incoherent scattering. Raman gave satisfactory
explanation of the incoherent scattering on the basis of quantum theory of
radiation. (A mention of this is made in chapter.2)
Raman effect has been observed and studied in a great number of liquids,
vapours, gases and some solids. Raman effect is very useful to understand the
structure of molecules that constitute matter.
EXERCISE
1. What is dispersion? How is it caused?
2. Mention the range of wavelengths of visible spectrum.
3. What is meant by a pure spectrum? Explain.
4. What is a spectroscope?
5. Mention the parts of a spectroscope.
6. List three uses of spectroscope.
7. What is a continuous spectrum?
8. What is a line emission spectrum?
9. What are Fraunhofer lines?
10. Explain Raman effect.
11. What is the important difference between Rayleigh scattering and Raman
scattering?
12. Mention one application of Raman effect.